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1
Wang, Bing, und Alan R. Langille. „Response of a Gibberellin-deficient Potato Mutant to Induction and Growth Regulators as a Working Model for Tuber Initiation“. HortScience 42, Nr. 3 (Juni 2007): 540–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.42.3.540.
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To explore further the role endogenous gibberellins play in the formation of the potato tuber, a gibberellin-deficient dwarf of Solanum tuberosum subsp. andigena (PI 281036) and its normal sibling were used in this study. Because gibberellins are known to be elevated and to affect tuber formation negatively when potato plants are grown under long day conditions, test plants were first grown in a growth chamber under conditions that did not favor tuberization (noninducing conditions). The stem apices of dwarfs received weekly applications of a 100-ppm gibberellic acid (GA3) solution to achieve growth similar to that of normal plants. When the requisite height was achieved, five dwarfs and five normal sibs were treated to foliar runoff with a 100-ppm GA3 solution, and a like number of these plants received a control spray of distilled water. These plants were then placed in a growth chamber adjusted to inducing conditions for tuber initiation. An additional five dwarfs and five normal sibs were sprayed with 600 ppm paclobutrazol (PB), a gibberellin inhibitor, and a similar number of plants received a distilled water control spray. This group of plants was returned to the noninducing chamber. After 1 week, plants were removed from their respective growth chambers and divided into two-node apical, medial, and basal leaf-bud cuttings. Basal buds of the cuttings were buried in moist potting mix in a mist chamber with a 16-hour photoperiod. Rhizome and tuberization responses were evaluated after 3 weeks. The experiment was repeated and results combined for statistical treatment. Orthogonal contrasts revealed that apical cuttings from normal donor plants produced rhizomes only under noninducing conditions or when treated with GA3. No rhizomes formed on apical cuttings from normal plants growing under inducing conditions (favoring tuberization) or noninduced plants receiving PB (a gibberellin inhibitor). For apical dwarf tissues, there were no effects of treatments on rhizome production, except for the PB treatment, which resulted in shorter rhizomes. Tuberization was observed in apical tissues of induced and noninduced dwarfs, which lack the ability to synthesize gibberellin, but only in induced cuttings of normal sibs. Noninduced dwarf cuttings tuberized as well as those from normal plants receiving the antigibberellin treatment. Tuber weights from induced apical cuttings of dwarfs and normal sibs were not significantly different. These results support the significant role played by gibberellins in tuber formation.
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Mignolli, Francesco, Graciela Beatriz Rojas und María Laura Vidoz. „Supraoptimal ethylene acts antagonistically with exogenous gibberellins during Solanum lycopersicum (Solanaceae) hypocotyl growth.“ Boletín de la Sociedad Argentina de Botánica 51, Nr. 2 (15.06.2016): 235–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.31055/1851.2372.v51.n2.14836.
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In many plant species, ethylene and gibberellins interact to regulate plant growth and development. In some cases, these hormones can act in a synergistic way whereas in others they can be antagonistic. To date, the control of hypocotyl elongation by ethylene and gibberellins has been poorly explored in tomato. In this paper, we report that, application of exogenous ethylene to tomato seedlings or high endogenous ethylene production, as in the epinastic mutant, strongly prevent the effect of gibberellic acid (GA3) application. Moreover, constitutive activation of gibberellin signal in a DELLA deficient mutant is not able to counteract the inhibitory effect of ethylene on hypocotyl elongation, suggesting that ethylene acts independently from DELLA-mediated gibberellin response. Interestingly, when ethylene perception is blocked, the GA3 promotive effect on hypocotyl length is less effective, indicating that the presence of a basal level of ethylene could synergistically enhance hypocotyl growth. Taken together, these observations may suggest that, in tomato, supraoptimal concentrations of ethylene are able to antagonize gibberellin effect but normal levels seem to promote gibberellin-induced hypocotyl elongation.
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Wiseman, Nadine J., und Colin G. N. Turnbull. „Effects of photoperiod and paclobutrazol on growth dynamics of petioles in strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa)“. Functional Plant Biology 26, Nr. 4 (1999): 353. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pp98001.
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Petiole elongation of strawberry plants (Fragaria × ananassa) is modified by photoperiod, and gibberellins may mediate this response. To test the relationship further, we measured petiole growth dynamics under short and long days, in comparison with responses to paclobutrazol, which reduces gibberellin biosynthesis. Growth rate in short days was lower after 2 days, and at its maximum was 60% of long-day controls. Petiole length at maturity was 75%, and was accounted for primarily by decreased cell length. Subsequent leaves showed similar patterns, but in the third leaf, cell number was also reduced. Petiole growth rate after treatment with paclobutrazol (5 mg plant–1) was maximal at 2 days, 44% of the control maximum at day 7. Mature length was 30% of controls, again due to reduced cell length. Second leaves had even more severely reduced growth rates. Increasing paclobutrazol concentration over the range 0.025–1.0 mg progressively reduced growth, but a gibberellin-independent component accounted for 20% of elongation. Effects of combined paclobutrazol and photoperiod treatments were additive. The normal short-day response therefore occurred in paclobutrazol-treated plants with already slowed growth and reduced capacity for gibberellin synthesis. We conclude that assessment of the function of gibberellins requires direct measurement of gibberellins in petioles during growth.
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Han, Jennifer, Jan E. Murray, Qingyi Yu, Paul H. Moore und Ray Ming. „The Effects of Gibberellic Acid on Sex Expression and Secondary Sexual Characteristics in Papaya“. HortScience 49, Nr. 3 (März 2014): 378–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.49.3.378.
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The vegetative forms of male (XY), female (XX), and hermaphrodite (XYh) papaya (Carica papaya L.) plants are phenotypically identical. However, the flower and inflorescence morphology of each sex type is unique. Gynodioecious varieties SunUp, SunUp Diminutive mutant, and dioecious AU9 were used to test the response of papaya to gibberellic acid (GA3). Exogenous applications of GA3 on female and hermaphrodite flowers of papaya did not yield any sex reversal phenotype but caused a significant increase in peduncle elongation and inflorescence branch number in all treated plants. An increase in flower number was seen in females but not hermaphrodites or males. There was an increase in plant height for all treated plants except SunUp Diminutive mutant, suggesting that the mechanism causing the dwarf phenotype is independent of gibberellins. Gibberellin metabolism genes were identified in the papaya genome, none of which mapped to the sex-determining region of either the male- or hermaphrodite-specific region of papaya Y or Yh chromosome. We hypothesize that a transacting regulatory element that enhances gibberellin biosynthesis plays a role in the extreme length of the male papaya peduncle.
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Sabovljevic, Aneta, Marko Sabovljevic und D. Grubisic. „Gibberellin influence on the morphogenesis of the moss Bryum argenteum Hedw. in in vitro conditions“. Archives of Biological Sciences 62, Nr. 2 (2010): 373–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/abs1002373s.
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The moss Bryum argenteum Hedw. was treated with gibberellins as well as some inhibitors of gibberellin biosynthesis in order to investigate their influence on B. argenteum morphogenesis. Generally, gibberellins have not been chemically identified in bryophytes, while other groups of classical phytohormones (auxins, cytokinins, abscisic acid and ethylene) have been chemically identified in these plants. The in vitro culture of the moss Bryum argenteum was established from sterilized spores. The apical shoots of untreated gametophytes grown in vitro were used to investigate the influence of different substances on secondary protonema and on the growth and multiplication of the gametophytes. B. argenteum reacts differently to the growth regulators applied. Both gibberellins applied in vitro (GA3 and GA7) have a positive effect on B. argenteum morphogenesis. Shoot multiplication was negatively affected by three tested growth retardants (ancymidol, BX-112 and chlorocholine chloride), while these substances did not have such strong effects on the moss protonema development.
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Jaques, Lanes B. A., Ivan R. Carvalho, Vinícius J. Szareski, João R. Pimentel, Cristian Troyjack, Simone M. Dellagostin, Mayara T. Mendonça et al. „Gibberellic Acid Utilization in Seeds and Plants of Beans: Effect on Growth and Seeds Physiological Quality“. Journal of Agricultural Science 11, Nr. 2 (15.01.2019): 541. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jas.v11n2p541.
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The growth regulators from gibberellins, when applied on plants, might improve physic and physiological features, stimulate cell division and elongation, this study aimed at evaluating the influence of gibberellic acid doses applied exogenously on bean crop through seed treatment, and analyzing its effects on morphological attributes of seedlings and physiological quality of the seeds produced. The experimental design was completely randomized design, with treatments corresponding to the doses: zero (distilled water only), 50, 100 and 200 mg L-1, arranged in four replicates. The use of gibberellic acid in bean seeds did not result in changes on the number of leaves, leaf area, dry mass of leaves and stem. Applications of foliar gibberellic acid potentiated stem height and root dry mass of seedlings.
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Zhang, L., S. Rajapakse, R. E. Ballard und N. C. Rajapakse. „Light Quality Regulation of Gene Expression in Chrysanthemum“. HortScience 33, Nr. 3 (Juni 1998): 446c—446. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.33.3.446c.
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A major part of Clemson light quality research program focuses on understanding the mechanisms of plant growth alteration under spectral filters. We have extended this research to understand the molecular basis for plant height control by spectral filters. From the whole plant research we have found that gibberellins (GA) play a key role in height control under spectral filters. However, it is not clear whether an alteration of endogenous gibberellin levels or a change in sensitivity to gibberellins is causing the observed effects. Since gibberellins are a key hormone in cell expansion and flower development, an understanding of gibberellin regulation and metabolism under spectral filters is critical for the control of height and flowering of plants grown under these filters. For the molecular study, we have selected the gene that code for enzyme GA 20-oxidase, one of the key enzymes involved in producing functional GAs in the mevalonic acid pathway. GA 20-oxidase is thought to be a site of regulation of GA synthesis by the environment. We are currently studying the regulation of the expression of this gene by light quality using Northern analysis. Results from temporal and tissue specific regulation of chrysanthemum plants grown under CuSO4 filters will be presented.
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Miceli, Alessandro, Alessandra Moncada, Leo Sabatino und Filippo Vetrano. „Effect of Gibberellic Acid on Growth, Yield, and Quality of Leaf Lettuce and Rocket Grown in a Floating System“. Agronomy 9, Nr. 7 (16.07.2019): 382. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9070382.
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Gibberellins (GAs) are growth hormones strongly involved in a wide variety of physiological activities. Currently, gibberellins are commercially used to enhance phenotypic characteristics, earliness, and productivity of many vegetable and ornamental crops. In this work, the efficacy of supplementation of low levels of gibberellic acid (0, 10−8, 10−6, and 10−4 M GA3) through the mineral nutrient solution of a floating system on yield and quality of leaf lettuce and rocket plants was tested. The marketability of plants was lost when 10−4 M GA3 was added to the mineral nutrient solution. This study demonstrated that the addition of 10−4 M GA3 exceeded the acceptable threshold for use in hydroponics production systems. Below the concentration of 10−4 M, the presence of GA3 in the mineral nutrient solutions (MNS), especially at 10−6 M GA3, stimulated plant growth and enhanced the yield. Various morphological and physiological traits were enhanced by GA3 treatments (biomass accumulation, leaf expansion, stomatal conductance, water use efficiency (WUE), Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), etc.), with superimposable trends in both lettuce and rocket. The addition of 10−6 M GA3 to the nutrient solution of a hydroponic floating system can promote growth and quality of lettuce and rocket plants.
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Harkess, Richard L., und Robert E. Lyons. „Gibberellin- and Cytokinin-induced Growth and Flowering Responses in Rudbeckia hirta L.“ HortScience 29, Nr. 3 (März 1994): 141–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.29.3.141.
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BA and GA4+7, were applied to vegetative, mature Rudbeckia hirta plants at the beginning of long days (LD). There were no synergistic effects, but BA inconsistently affected branching and had no effect on flowering. Floral initiation of the terminal inflorescence was promoted by GA4+7, although axillary inflorescences were not. Increasing GA4+7 levels decreased the time to terminal inflorescence anthesis. However, the interval between the terminal and second axillary inflorescence anthesis was increased. The net result was no significant effect on the time to second axillary inflorescence anthesis. Gibberellins may enhance the LD effect on the apical meristem of Rudbeckia, but axillary meristems, which initiate later, remained unaffected. Chemical names used: benzyladenine (BA), gibberellin4+7, (GA4+7).
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da Silva, Gustavo Cabral, Ivan de-la-Cruz-Chacón, Ana Beatriz Marques Honório, Bruna Cavinatti Martin, Marília Caixeta Sousa, Felipe Girotto Campos, Carmen Sílvia Fernandes Boaro und Gisela Ferreira. „Temperature and GA3 as Modulating Factors in the Biosynthesis of Alkaloids during Imbibition and Early Development of Annona x atemoya Mabb. cv. ‘Gefner’ Seedlings“. Horticulturae 8, Nr. 9 (26.08.2022): 766. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8090766.
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Alkaloids are products of the specialized metabolism of plants and temperature is a factor capable of modulating their biosynthesis. Species of the Annonaceae family biosynthesize alkaloids and present dormancy in their seeds, which can be overcome with the use of gibberellins. Therefore, the aim of this work was to evaluate whether temperature variations and the use of gibberellin in seeds affect the production of alkaloids during germination and early development of Annona x atemoya Mabb. cv. ‘Gefner’ seedlings. Results showed that the temperature of 30 °C associated with imbibition in water caused an increase in the production of total alkaloids and liriodenine and that the use of gibberellin decreased production. In addition, it was possible to identify the presence of nine other alkaloids with organ-specific distribution. The presence of none of them was induced by the effect of temperature or gibberellic acid. Therefore, it could be concluded that temperature variation and the use of GA3 alter the biosynthesis of alkaloids, with high temperature causing increased concentration, but the use of GA3 reducing production.
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Farida, Farida, und Nani Rohaeni. „PENGARUH KONSENTRASI HORMON GIBERELIN TERHADAP PERTUMBUHAN DAN HASIL TANAMAN OKRA“. ZIRAA'AH MAJALAH ILMIAH PERTANIAN 44, Nr. 1 (12.02.2019): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.31602/zmip.v44i1.1601.
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The effect of gibberellins hormone concentration on the growth and yield of okra. The aims of research are (1) to determinate the effects of growth and yield of okra plant with gibberellins hormon treatment, (2) to determine the best concentration of gibberellns hormone on the growth and yield of okra plants. This research obtained for three mounth on January to Aprl 2018. The research was conducted in Diponegoro Street, Village Sangatta Sub-distrct East Kutai. This research uses is Completely Randomized Design (CRD) of non factorial experiments each of four treatments and six replcates, are : g0 = without fertilizer, g1 = 150 ppm, g2 = 200 ppm, g3 = 250 ppm. The obtained data was analyzed by F test 1% and 5% and be continued with LSD at 5% if the treatment had significant effect. The results of the best growth research plant height 7 MST (75,141 cm) and growth of the leaves number 7 MST, best flowering age at 32,167 day and the best yield production result is 971,333 gram solid treatment.
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Kurnia Sari, Fransisca Mareta, Maria Marina Herawati, Endang Pudjihartati und Martinus Andree Wijaya Setiawan. „THE EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION AND FREQUENCY OF GIBERELLINS ON THE GROWTH OF ARTEMISIA ANNUA Linn“. Agric 34, Nr. 1 (18.08.2022): 15–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.24246/agric.2022.v34.i1.p15-22.
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Artemisia is one of the plants that can be used as an alternative medicine for malaria. The Artemisia plant contains secondary metabolites in the form of artemisinin compounds that function as antimalarials. One of the efforts that can be done to increase the growth of Artemisia annua. plants is by using a growth regulator of gibberellins (GA3). Using a Randomized Block Factorial Designs (RBFD) with the first factor being the concentration of 50 mg.L-1 (K1), mg.L-1(K2), 150 mg.L-1 (K3), 200 mg.L-1 (K4). The second factor has 3 frequencies, 1 time giving 7HSPT (F1), 2 times giving 7HSPT and 14HSPT (F2), and 3 times giving 7HSPT, 14HSPT and 30HSPT (F3). In addition, there were plants that were not given GA3 control (without treatment). Parameters observed were plant height, leaf area, glandular trichome density, and plant dry weight. The results showed that the administration of gibberellins (GA3) with different concentrations and frequencies on plant height, leaf area, glandular trichome density, and dry weight of A. annua plants had no significant effect. Plants have not been able to grow properly because the provision of gibberellins that have not been active stimulates all plant tissues and directly seeps through the roots, stems and leaves.
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Nowak, Tomasz J. „Effect of gibberellin, auxin and kinetin treatments combined with foliar applied NPK on the yield of Capsicum annuum L. fruits and their capsaicin content“. Acta Agrobotanica 33, Nr. 1 (2013): 81–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.5586/aa.1980.007.
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The Wrocław version of hydroponic culture was applied. Under optimal conditions of root fertilization the plants were sprayed with growth regulators sueh as gibberellins, auxins and kinetins, and .their mixtures. Each growth regulator treatment was applied with or without NPK added. The influence of these treatments on the fresh and dry weight of the fruit, percentage of ripe fruits and content and yield of capsaicin was studied. The highest yield of fruits and capsaicin. was obtained from plants sprayed with gibberellic acid and kinetin (in concentrations of 10 and 5 mg/l, respectively) together with NPK foliar application. No influence of ,growth regulators and foliar-applied NPK was noted on capsaicin content and dry weight of fruits.
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Strack, Z., R. Karwowska und E. Kraszewska. „The effect of several stress conditions and growth regulators on photosynthesis and translocation of assimilates in the bean plant“. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 44, Nr. 4 (2015): 567–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.5586/asbp.1975.052.
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Studies were performed on young bean plants, grown in water culture. The effect of salt stress, X-flays and flooding on growth, photosynthesis and translocation of assimilates was investigated. Salt stress (NaCl and Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>), especially at - 4.5 atm. of water potential, depressed all the mentioned processes, but most dramatically - photosynthesis. Export of photosynthetes from the blades decreased. Salt stress not only reduced the rate of translocation, but also influenced the pattern of <sup>14</sup>C-distoibution, especially inhibited transport to apical part, with growth seriously retarded. Gibberellin (GA<sub>3</sub>, 100 ppm sprayed on leaves) counteracted the negative effects caused by salinization, but did not affected either photosynthesis, or translocation in plants from normal nutrient solution. The conclusion may be advanced, that salt stress disturbed the balance of plant hormones especially gibberellins, which probably participate in. regulation of assimilate translocation.
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Evans, Michael R., Harold F. Wilkins und Wesley P. Hackett. „Gibberellins and Temperature Influence Long-day Floral Initiation in Poinsettia“. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 117, Nr. 6 (November 1992): 966–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/jashs.117.6.966.
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Exogenous foliar spray applications of gibberellic acid (GA3) applied at 7- or 14-day intervals providing 50 or 125 μg per plant inhibited long-day (LD) floral initiation in poinsettia [Euphorbia pulcherrima (Willd. ex. Klotzsch)]. Periodic application of GA3 resulted in an additional number of nodes being produced by the plant before floral initiation equivalent to the number of nodes over which GA3 was applied. Further, GA, application eliminated the nodal position dependence of the long-day node number (LDNN) of axillary meristems observed in control plants. It was concluded that GA3 application inhibited the inclusion of nodes into the LDNN count and thus inhibited ontogenetic aging of the meristem. Exogenous application of GA, also inhibited LD floral initiation, while application of GA4 had no effect. Application of GA7 delayed LD floral initiation, but plants did initiate cyathia by the termination of the experiment. All gibberellins increased the average internode lengths similarly. The gibberllin-biosynthesis inhibitors chlormequat and paclobutrazol had no effect on LD floral initiation when applied as single or multiple foliar sprays or as soil drenches, although heights and internode lengths were reduced by application of the inhibitors. The LDNN of plants grown at 31C was significantly higher than of plants grown at 16, 21, or 26C. All plants eventually initiated cyathia regardless of temperature. When plants were grown under a range of day/night temperatures, an increase in the LDNN occurred only when plants were grown at 31C during the day. Chemical names used: 2-chloroethyl-trimethyl-ammonium chloride (chlormequat); (+/-)-(R*,R*)-β -(4-chlorophenyl)methyl-α -(1,1-dimethylethyl)-1-H-1,2,4-triazole-1-ethanol (paclobutrazol).
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Shan, Fuxin, Rui Zhang, Jin Zhang, Chang Wang, Xiaochen Lyu, Tianyu Xin, Chao Yan, Shoukun Dong, Chunmei Ma und Zhenping Gong. „Study on the Regulatory Effects of GA3 on Soybean Internode Elongation“. Plants 10, Nr. 8 (23.08.2021): 1737. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants10081737.
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Excessive plant height is an important factor that can lead to lodging, which is closely related to soybean yield. Gibberellins are widely used as plant growth regulators in agricultural production. Gibberellic acid (GA3), one of the most effective active gibberellins, has been used to regulate plant height and increase yields. The mechanism through which GA3 regulates internode elongation has been extensively investigated. In 2019 and 2020, we applied GA3 to the stems, leaves, and roots of two soybean cultivars, Heinong 48 (a high-stalk cultivar) and Henong 60 (a dwarf cultivar), and GA3 was also applied to plants whose apical meristem was removed or to girded plants to compare the internode length and stem GA3 content of soybean plants under different treatments. These results suggested that the application of GA3 to the stems, leaves, and roots of soybean increased the internode length and GA3 content in the stems. Application of GA3 decreased the proportion of the pith in the soybean stems and primary xylem while increasing the proportion of secondary xylem. The apical meristem is an important site of GA3 synthesis in soybean stems and is involved in the regulation of stem elongation. GA3 was shown to be transported acropetally through the xylem and laterally between the xylem and phloem in soybean stems. We conclude that the GA3 level in stems is an important factor affecting internode elongation.
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Gosai, Sanjeevan, Subash Adhikari, Saugat Khanal und Padam Bahadur Poudel. „Effects of plant growth regulators on growth, flowering, fruiting and fruit yield of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.): A review“. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 5, Nr. 3 (25.09.2020): 268–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.050306.
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This review provides a comprehensive overview of the basic and applied aspects of different plant growth regulators in the regulation of growth and development of cucumber plants. The study is completely based on the use of secondary sources of data; related journals, government institutes, and relevant reports. Foliar application of PGRs has been shown to change the physiological and developmental processes, including plant vegetative growth, sex expression, yield, and yield components in cucumber. There are basically two types of growth regulators; plant growth promoters such as auxin, gibberellins, cytokinins, maleic hydrazide, ethephon, etc. and plant growth inhibitors such as ethylene, abscisic acids, dormins, etc. The combined use of auxins and gibberellins result in increased secondary growth. Maleic hydrazide (MH) along with Ethephon at 100 ppm each increases the number of nodes and primary branches. Ethrel at 300-400 ppm retards the secondary development and increase femaleness, and at 200-300 ppm make fruit surface smooth. Silver nitrate (AgNO3) at 400 ppm enhances the maleness in cucumber. Application of Ethephon at 300 ppm reduces the harvesting time of the fruit. Salicylic acid (at 2 doses of 0.07 mm/l + 0.18 mm/l) increases chlorophyll content and its exogenous application increases the fruit yield. Maleic Hydrazide (MH) alone at 100 ppm increases the femaleness, inhibits apical growth at 50-100 ppm, and increases fruit size at 200 ppm. Therefore, various auxin [indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), NAA], auxin transport inhibitor (TIBA), cytokinins (KIN), gibberellin [gibberellic acid (GA3)], ABA, ethylene [(2-chloroethylphosphonic acid (ethrel; ethephon; CEPA)] and growth retardant (MH) have been applied to control the vegetative growth and to maximize yield of cucumber. Numerous obstacles have hindered the quality cucumber production in Nepal; like environmental stresses, biotic and abiotic constraints, pest and disease outbreaks, and many others. The use of exogenous plant growth regulators has been crucial to Nepali cucumber producers as plant growth regulators has hasty effect on vegetative as well as the quality yield of plants. This study aims to reveal the suitable concentrations for the applications of growth regulators so that the use of such regulators is environmentally and toxicologically safe for both plants and the consumers.
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Jazuli, MI, SN Aini und NS Khodijah. „PEMANFAATAN GIBERELIN UNTUK MEMACU PERTUMBUHAN DAN PRODUKSI MELON MENGGUNAKAN HIDROPONIK SISTEM SUMBU“. Jurnal Bioindustri 4, Nr. 1 (30.11.2021): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.31326/jbio.v4i1.1220.
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Melon production has decrease due to decreasing agriculture land area. An effort to increases melon production can be done by cultivating melons using a hydroponic system. Gibberellins can be used to increase melon production in Bangka Belitung. This research aims to determine the effect and gibberellin doses that has increase melon growth and production which cultivated using hydroponic wick system. This research was conducted from January to April 2020 at the Research and Experimental Station, Faculty of Agriculture, Fisheries and Biology, Universitas Bangka Belitung. The experimental design used in this study was a single completely randomized design (CRD) with various gibberellin concentrations (0 ppm, 20 ppm, 40 ppm, 60 ppm, 80 ppm, 100 ppm). Gibberellin was applied by giving it at the soaking seeds period and by spraying it onto the leaves of the plants. The results of study showed that the application of gibberellin (GA3) had a significant effect on stem diameter, leaf area, fruit weight, fruit diameter, pulp thickness and total plant dissolved solids. The application of gibberellin with 100 ppm concentration is the best treatment to increasing growth and 80 ppm concentration is the best treatment to increasing yield of melon with wick hydroponic cultivation system.
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Gökbayrak, Zeliha, Hakan Engin, Arda Akçal und Hatice Kiraz. „Pollen of Arbutus unedo: Effects of plant growth regulators“. Botanica Serbica 44, Nr. 1 (2020): 55–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/botserb2001055g.
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Arbutus unedo is a species mainly used for landscaping purposes and lately for honey production. Its antioxidant characteristics have also been a subject of of research interest. The germination of pollen grains freshly collected from flowers was tested in vitro, and 30% sucrose gave the highest pollen germination. Subsequently, three growth regulators belonging to the categories of gibberellins and brassinosteroids [24-epibrassinolide (Ebl) and 22S,23S-homobrassinolide (Hbl)] were added to the growth medium singly or in double combinations (gibberellin + brassinosteroid), and the petri dishes were kept for 24 hours at 26?1?C. The results showed that the highest germination rates were obtained from treatments with 0.01 ppm Hbl (45.47%) and 0.001 ppm Hbl (26.74%). They were followed by treatments with 0.001 ppm Ebl, 25 ppm GA3 and 0.1 ppm Ebl. As the concentration of GA3 increased, the germination rate declined considerably. Statistical analysis of the combined treatments showed that combinations of growth regulators lowered the germination rates compared to their individual application. Moreover, action of the lowest GA3 concentration (25 ppm) best matched the effects of brassinosteroids, and increasing the GA3 concentration in combined treatments did not improve germination. The highest germination was obtained with 0.1 ppm Hbl, followed by all Ebl treatments. Brassinosteroids might be an inducer of pollen germination in plants depending on their type and concentrations. When individually included in the growth medium, the extent of this induction was greater with the homobrassinolide than with the epibrassinolide. Their interactions with gibberellins are shown to be mostly dependent on the concentration of gibberellic acid used. The tested epibrassinolide was more consistent than the homobrassinolide in maintaining higher germination levels. The findings of this study indicate that gathering more information from studies involving other plant species is needed to clarify the role of brassinosteroids in in vitro and in vivo germination.
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Basnizki, Jehuda, und Eliezer E. Goldschmidt. „FURTHER EXAMINATION OF GIBBERELLIN A, EFFECTS ON FLOWERING OF GLOBE ARTICHOKES (CYNARA SCOLYMUS L.) UNDER CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT AND FIELD CONDITIONS“. Israel Journal of Plant Sciences 42, Nr. 2 (13.05.1994): 159–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07929978.1994.10676567.
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The effect of gibberellin A3 (GA3) treatments on flowering of seed-grown globe artichoke (Cynara scolymus) was investigated under controlled environment and field conditions. GA3 induced flower initiation in lines ‘060’ and ‘Talpiot’ under strictly noninductive, short-day-high-temperature conditions. In ‘Talpiot’, GA3 induced microscopically detectable flower initiation but no stem elongation, suggesting involvement of gibberellins in the flower formation process. Under field conditions, GA3 replaced the cold requirements of line ‘HU 271’, thereby enabling the start of flowering during autumn. The vegetative clone Bianca d'Espana flowered during autumn without GA3 treatment, probably due to its minimum cold requirements. Definition of the response type and the role of gibberellins in the flowering of globe artichoke are discussed.
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Kosakivska, I. V. „GIBBERELLINS IN REGULATION OF PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT UNDER ABIOTIC STRESSES“. Biotechnologia Acta 14, Nr. 2 (Februar 2021): 5–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/biotech14.02.005.
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Background. Gibberellins (GAs), a class of diterpenoid phytohormones, play an important role in regulation of plant growth and development. Among more than 130 different gibberellin molecules, only a few are bioactive. GA1, GA3, GA4, and GA7 regulate plant growth through promotion the degradation of the DELLA proteins, a family of nuclear growth repressors – negative regulator of GAs signaling. Recent studies on GAs biosynthesis, metabolism, transport, and signaling, as well as crosstalk with other phytohormones and environment have achieved great progress thanks to molecular genetics and functional genomics. Aim. In this review, we focused on the role of GAs in regulation of plant gtowth in abiotic stress conditions. Results. We represented a key information on GAs biosynthesis, signaling and functional activity; summarized current understanding of the crosstalk between GAs and auxin, cytokinin, abscisic acid and other hormones and what is the role of GAs in regulation of adaptation to drought, salinization, high and low temperature conditions, and heavy metal pollution. We emphasize that the effects of GAs depend primarily on the strength and duration of stress and the phase of ontogenesis and tolerance of the plant. By changing the intensity of biosynthesis, the pattern of the distribution and signaling of GAs, plants are able to regulate resistance to abiotic stress, increase viability and even avoid stress. The issues of using retardants – inhibitors of GAs biosynthesis to study the functional activity of hormones under abiotic stresses were discussed. Special attention was focused on the use of exogenous GAs for pre-sowing priming of seeds and foliar treatment of plants. Conclusion. Further study of the role of gibberellins in the acquisition of stress resistance would contribute to the development of biotechnology of exogenous use of the hormone to improve growth and increase plant yields under adverse environmental conditions.
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Lisitskaya, Tatiana, und Tatiana Trosheva. „EFFECT OF BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE SUBSTANCES FORMED BY BACCILUS COAGULANS TI ON THE GROWTH OF CROPS“. Acta Universitatis Cibiniensis. Series E: Food Technology 17, Nr. 2 (01.12.2013): 53–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/aucft-2013-0012.
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Abstract The influence of cultural liquid of bacteria, Bacillus coagulans TI on the growth of several crops are studded. It was established that during the submerged cultivation on glucose-peptone medium these bacteria form gibberellins and amino acids. Pre-sowing treatment of seeds with diluted cultural liquid causes the stimulation of plants growth and improves the quality of plant biomass.
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Sá, Francisco V. da S., Marcos E. B. Brito, Luderlândio de A. Silva, Rômulo C. L. Moreira, Emanoela P. de Paiva und Lauter S. Souto. „Exogenous application of phytohormones mitigates the effect of salt stress on Carica papaya plants“. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental 24, Nr. 3 (März 2020): 170–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1807-1929/agriambi.v24n3p170-175.
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ABSTRACT The salinity has complex effects on the physiological, nutritional and hormonal interactions of plants. This study aimed to evaluate the mitigating action of exogenous application of different types and concentrations of phytohormones on Carica papaya under salt stress. The experiment was conducted in greenhouse, using a randomized block design with treatments formed from a 2 x 3 x 5 factorial scheme, relative to two concentrations of salts in the irrigation water (0.6 and 2.4 dS m-1), three types of phytohormones [Auxin = indole-3-acetic acid; Cytokinin = CPPU (N-(2-chloro-pyridyl)-N-phenylurea) and Gibberellin = gibberellic acid(AG3)], and five concentrations of the phytohormone (0, 12.5, 25.0, 37.5 and 50.0 µM L-1), with three repetitions, totaling 90 plots, and the experimental unit consisted of six plants. C. papaya cv. ‘Sunrise Solo’ was grown on polyethylene trays of 162 cells, with capacity for 50 mL. The plants were evaluated for survival percentage and phytomass accumulation until 25 days after sowing. Increase in irrigation water salinity has deleterious effects on C. papaya plants regardless of the application of phytohormones. Exogenous application of gibberellin has a positive effect in mitigating salt stress on C. papaya plants, greater than the effects of auxins and cytokinins. Exogenous application of gibberellin and auxin at concentration of 37.5 µM L-1 mitigates the effects of salinity on C. papaya plants. Exogenous application of cytokinin at concentrations of 12.5 to 50.0 µM L-1 is not viable for C. papaya plants.
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Lal, Manmohan, Yachna Sood, Harvinder Singh, Amit Kumar, Ab Waheed Wani und Sanjay Kumar. „Influence of prohexadione-calcium on temperate fruit crops – A Review“. Ecology, Environment and Conservation 28 (2022): 164–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.53550/eec.2022.v28i07s.028.
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Plant growth retardants have great potential to maintain a balance between vegetative and reproductive growth of the plants. Prohexadione-calcium is reported as a novel plant growth retardant that inhibits late stages of gibberellins (GAs) biosynthesis in plants. It is emerged as one of an important management tool that an orchardist has available to control vegetative growth in plants and can enhance flowering and fruit quality. Currently, prohexadione-calcium is considered as a reduced risk compound, since it exhibits negligible toxicological effects and has been reported to degrade in higher plants with a halflife of a few weeks and in soil with a halflife of less than a week. The available literature on the effect of prohexadionecalcium on vegetative growth, fruit set, fruit yield, fruit quality and return bloom have been reviewed in this paper.
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Cohen, Ana C., Claudia N. Travaglia, Rubén Bottini und Patricia N. Piccoli. „Participation of abscisic acid and gibberellins produced by endophytic Azospirillum in the alleviation of drought effects in maize“. Botany 87, Nr. 5 (Mai 2009): 455–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b09-023.
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Azospirillum spp. are plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) that enhance growth by several mechanisms, including the production of phytohormones such as abscisic acid (ABA), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and gibberellins (GAs). Their presence may also alleviate plant water stress. In the present paper, the effects of Azospirillum lipoferum in maize ( Zea mays L.) plants treated with inhibitors of ABA and GA synthesis, fluridone (F) and prohexadione-Ca (P), respectively, and either submitted to drought stress or provided sufficient water, were analysed. Fluridone diminished the growth of plants that had been well watered, in a manner similar to drought, but inoculation with Azospirillum completely reversed this effect. The relative water content of the F-treated and drought-stressed plants was significantly lower (even though drought-stressed plants had been allowed to recover for one week), and this effect was completely neutralized by Azospirillum. These results were correlated with ABA levels assessed by GC-EIMS. Growth was diminished in drought-submitted plants treated with P, alone or combined with F, even though ABA levels were enhanced, suggesting that GAs produced by the bacterium are also important in stress alleviation. The results suggest that both ABA and GAs contribute to water-stress alleviation of plants by Azospirillum.
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Ryan, George F. „Effect of Growth Regulator and Nitrogen on Height and Branching of Skimmia reevesiana“. Journal of Environmental Horticulture 3, Nr. 2 (01.06.1985): 71–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.24266/0738-2898-3.2.71.
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Application of gibberellins A4 + 7 (GA4 + 7) or 6-benzylamino purine (BA) stimulated a second growth flush on plants of Skimmia reevesiana Fort. that had completed normal spring growth. Plants treated with GA4 + 7 were up to 130% taller than untreated plants at the end of the first season, and up to 50% taller after a growth flush the following spring without re-treatment. The number of shoots was increased more than 100% by BA at 4000 ppm, without affecting height. Promalin (BA + GA4 + 7) at 2000 ppm of each active ingredient increased height 50% the year of treatment, and the number of shoots more than 160%. There was not a significant difference in height after the next spring flush. Increasing the amount of nitrogen (N) supplied to the plants increased the number of shoots the second season and decreased plant height. Application of GA4 + 7 tended to counteract these effects of N.
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Langille, Alan R., und P. R. Hepler. „EFFECT OF ANTI-GIBBERELLIN GROWTH RETARDANTS ON TUBERIZATION OF `KATAHDIN' POTATO LEAF BUD CUTTINGS.“ HortScience 27, Nr. 11 (November 1992): 1162a—1162. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.27.11.1162a.
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Non-induced Katahdin potato plants were treated with three anti-gibberellins: CCC, BAS-106 and BAS-111. Other plants were sprayed with GA3 and placed in an inducing chamber. All treatments were repeated the following week. After final treatment, apical, sub-apical, medial and basal leaf bud-cuttings were taken from each plant and placed 1n a mist chamber. After two weeks, cuttings were examined for tuberization. BAS-111 and CCC were associated with 3.5 and 2 fold increase, respectively, in tuberization of cuttings over the non-induced control. Although induced control cuttings exhibited 100% tuberization, application of GA to plants grown under identical conditions, reduced tuberization 20 fold. In non-induced control cuttings and those treated with CCC, basal cuttings tuberized significantly better than those taken from higher on the stem. This pattern was reversed for plants treated with BAS-111. These results will be discussed in light of current understanding of the tuberization phenomenon.
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Ferrante, Antonio, Anna Mensuali-Sodi und Giovanni Serra. „Effect of thidiazuron and gibberellic acid on leaf yellowing of cut stock flowers“. Open Life Sciences 4, Nr. 4 (01.12.2009): 461–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/s11535-009-0039-8.
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AbstractPlant hormones such as cytokinins and gibberellins are able to inhibit leaf yellowing in different species of cut flowers and potted plants. These hormones can be used alone or in combination among them for preserving chlorophyll in floriculture items. In the present study thidiazuron was tested alone or combined with GA3 for delaying leaf yellowing of cut stock flowers during vase life. Cut flowers were placed in a controlled environment and treated for 24 hours with the following solutions: distilled water (control) or solutions containing 5, 10 µM thidiazuron (TDZ), 0.5 mM gibberellic acid (GA3), or a combination of 0.5 mM GA3 with 5 µM TDZ. The effect of treatments was evaluated by measuring chlorophyll content, ethylene production, leaf gas exchanges and chlorophyll a fluorescence. Results showed that TDZ was able to delay leaf yellowing in light during whole experimental period (30 days). The effect of TDZ on dark stored flowers was less effective, and also delayed chlorophyll losses for 10–12 days. TDZ and GA3 combination did not show any synergistic nor beneficial effect. Gas exchange values such as net photosynthesis, vapour pressure deficit, stomatal conductance and water use efficiency were higher in the TDZ only treatment.
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Ranwala, N. K. Damayanthi, und Dennis R. Decoteau. „Involvement of Gibberellins in Phytochrome-regulated Stem and Petiole Elongation in Watermelon Plants“. HortScience 33, Nr. 3 (Juni 1998): 493f—494. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.33.3.493f.
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Phytochrome-regulated stem and petiole elongation is of great horticultural importance due to their effects on height and compactness of plants. Although it is believed that phytochrome action during cell elongation is controlled via gibberellin (GA) biosynthesis, conclusive evidence has not been presented. In this study, watermelon plants pre-treated with GAs or GA biosynthesis inhibitors were briefly exposed to red (R) or far-red (FR) at the end of photoperiod to investigate the involvement of GAs in phytochrome-regulated stem and petiole elongation. Two-week-old watermelon plants were applied with either GAs, GA3 (25 ppm) or GA4+7 (25 ppm), or GA biosynthesis inhibitors, paclobutrazol (early stage inhibitor, 2 ppm) or prohexadione-Ca (late stage inhibitor, 200 ppm). Following chemical application, plants were treated with low-intensity R or FR light for 15 min at the end of photoperiod for 8 days. The increased petiole length and increased dry mass partitioned to petioles caused by FR were further increased when plants were pre-treated with GA3 and GA4+7, but reduced when plants were pre-treated with paclobutrazol or prohexadione-Ca. Pre-treatment with paclobutrazol or prohexadione-Ca further reduced the petiole length and dry mass partitioned to petioles caused by R alone, but effects of R were reversed when plants were pre-treated with GA3 and GA4+7. Petiole growth changes were significant after 2 to 3 days of treatments and there was no light or growth regulator effects on stem growth. Low leaf chlorophyll content and higher photosynthesis resulted in FR-treated plants were not observed when plants were pre-treated with paclobutrazol or prohexadione-Ca. Prohexadione-Ca was more effective in reversing FR induced petiole elongation than paclobutrazol, while GA4+7 was more effective than GA3 in promoting the effects of FR and reversing the effects of R. These results provide further evidence that phytochrome regulated growth changes in watermelon are due to the changes in GA biosynthesis. It is also suggestive that phytochrome has differential regulation of GA biosynthesis.
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Regmi, Sudeep, und Kiran Acharya. „Effect of Plant Growth Regulators in African Marigold: A Review“. Nepalese Horticulture 16, Nr. 1 (15.12.2022): 7–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/nh.v16i1.45005.
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African marigold, being tall enough and producing large flowers suitable for preparing garlands, is the most cultivated cultivar of marigold in Nepal. Besides, pinching and other improved cultural techniques, a number of chemicals, hormones and phyto-hormones are being tested and found to impart a varying response in African marigold. This review has its importance for standardizing the type and concentration of plant growth regulators in African marigold. Online journals, scientific papers, proceedings, books, thesis and lecture notes are the key reference site for this review. Gibberellins or gibberellic acids (GA3), ethrel, paclobutrazol, salicylic acid, Indole 3 Acetic Acid, Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA), Chlormequat Chloride and sea weed extract are the most widely used and proven biochemical with pronounced effect on growth, development and differentiation in marigold. Among these, 300 ppm, 350 ppm and 450 ppm of GA3 results higher plant height, minimum days for flower initiation and higher basal diameter respectively. Similarly, 450 ppm for higher number of branches and leaves per plant and 400 ppm of GA3 or 600 ppm of CCC has been found to impart higher number and weight of flowers per plants. Besides, 1000 ppm of CCC has been found more effective to impart higher productivity (yield/ ha) in African marigold. Hence, plant growth regulators have been a valuable agent for optimizing yield and yield potential in African marigold.
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Patil, Grete Grindal, Vibeke Alm, Roar Moe und Olavi Junttila. „Interaction between Phytochrome B and Gibberellins in Thermoperiodic Responses of Cucumber“. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 128, Nr. 5 (September 2003): 642–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/jashs.128.5.0642.
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The role of phytochrome in control of stem elongation by daily temperature alternations is unclear. The aim of this work was to study the involvement of phytochrome B in thermoperiodism in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), and the interaction with gibberellin (GA). The wild type and the phytochrome B deficient, long-hypocotyl (lh) cucumber mutant were grown under alternating day (DT) and night temperature (NT) and either with or without an exposure to end-of-day far-red light (EOD-FR). Without EOD-FR, hypocotyl and internodes of the wild type plants were shorter under a low DT (19 °C)/high NT (25 °C) (negative DIF) compared with a high DT/low NT regime (positive DIF), while the number of leaves was reduced by 12%. EOD-FR enhanced elongation of hypocotyl and internodes. However, EOD-FR reduced the effect of alternating temperature on hypocotyl elongation. The lh cucumber mutant did not respond to EOD-FR treatments, but internode length was slightly increased by positive compared with negative DIF. The results suggest that phytochrome B is required for a maximum effect of daily temperature alternations on stem elongation in cucumber. Additional GA4 reduced the difference between positive and negative DIF, but it had a minor effect only on the difference between EOD-FR and EOD red light (EOD-R) in the wild type. Plants depleted for endogenous GA by the GA biosynthesis inhibitor paclobutrazol, did not respond at all to DIF or EOD treatments. When seedlings were treated with prohexadione-calcium, which blocks both biosynthesis and inactivation of GA4, response to applied GA4 was enhanced by EOD-FR. The present results suggest that, in cucumber, EOD-FR, and probably also positive DIF, enhances tissue sensitivity to GA4. In addition, catabolism of GA4 can be enhanced by negative DIF.
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Pizarro, Alberto, und Carmen Díaz-Sala. „Effect of polar auxin transport and gibberellins on xylem formation in pine cuttings under adventitious rooting conditions“. Israel Journal of Plant Sciences 67, Nr. 1-2 (25.02.2020): 27–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22238980-20191120.
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Maturation-related decline of adventitious root formation is one of the major factors affecting adventitious rooting in forest tree species. We demonstrate that inhibition of polar auxin transport promoted cambium and xylem differentiation in rooting-competent hypocotyl cuttings from Pinus radiata under conditions of adventitious root formation. Treatments with bioactive gibberellins inhibited rooting while at the same time inducing both the differentiation of a continuous ring of cambium and xylem formation. Treatments with inhibitors of gibberellin biosynthesis did not affect the rooting response. The results demonstrate that xylem parenchyma and procambial cells at the xylem poles of rooting-competent hypocotyl cuttings after excision and under conditions of adventitious root induction become adventitious root meristems or xylem, depending on the directional auxin flow. Gibberellin may interact with this pathway, inducing xylem differentiation and inhibiting rooting. We conclude that modifications of auxin flow at the rooting sites, and the priming of cambial cells to differentiate into xylem during tree ageing, may be associated with the maturation-related decline of adventitious root formation.
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Cato, Stella C., Willian R. Macedo, Lázaro Eustáquio P. Peres und Paulo Roberto de C. e. Castro. „Sinergism among auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins in tomato cv. Micro-Tom“. Horticultura Brasileira 31, Nr. 4 (Dezember 2013): 549–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0102-05362013000400007.
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The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of isolated and combined applications of gibberellic acid (gibberellin), indolbutyric acid (auxin) and kinetin (cytokinin) on vegetative and reproductive development of tomato test plants (Solanum lycopersicum cv. Micro-Tom), to better elucidate the interactions among these hormonal classes. The following treatments were accomplished through foliar application: GA3 (5 mg L-1); IBA (5 mg L-1); KIN (9 mg L-1); GA3 + IBA (5 mg L-1 + 5 mg L-1); GA3 + KIN (5 mg L-1 + 9 mg L-1); IBA + KIN (5 mg L-1 + 9 mg L-1); GA3 + IBA + KIN (5 mg L-1 + 5 mg L-1 + 9 mg L-1) and Stimulate® (100 mL L-1). Plants from the control were sprayed with water. Stimulate®, is a commercial liquid formulation containing KIN (90 mg L-1), GA3 (50 mg L-1) and IBA (50 mg L-1). We analyzed the shoot dry matter (g), root dry matter (g); fruit fresh matter (g); fruit dry matter (g) and fruit size (cm). The experimental design was completely randomized with nine treatments and fifteen replications. The treatment means were compared by Tukey's test. Some combined applications of GA3, IBA and KIN or Stimulate® promoted significant increases in the dry matter accumulation of roots and fresh and dry matter of fruit compared to the control. Besides the perspective to extend such results for commercial tomato production, the relevance of known hormonal interactions for the results obtained is discussed.
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Winarti, Sih, Basuki Basuki, Sri Endang Agustina Rahayuningsih, Panjaitan A. R und Sinarmata T. J. „SIFAT KIMIA TANAH, PERTUMBUHAN DAN HASIL TANAMAN MELON (Cucumis melo L.) YANG DIBERI KASCING DAN ZAT PENGATUR TUMBUH PADA SPODOSOL“. AgriPeat 23, Nr. 2 (05.10.2022): 111–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.36873/agp.v23i2.5971.
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This study aims to determine the effect of vermicompost fertilizer on changes in the chemical properties of spodosol as a growing medium for melons and to determine the growth and yield of melons treated with gibberellins as growth regulators. The study used a Factorial Completely Randomized Design. The first factor is the dose of vermicompost 0, 60, 90, 120 and 150 g vermicompost per polybag equivalent to 0, 10, 15, 20 and 25 t. vermicompost ha-1. The second factor is the provision of plant growth regulators Agrogibb 40 SL given in the generative phase consisting of 2 two levels, namely: 0 and 0.5 mL L-1 with 4 replications. The results showed that the application of vermicompost fertilizer on spodosols was able to increase soil pH and available P, but organic C and total soil N tended to decrease, plants were able to grow significantly better. There was no interaction between the application of vermicompost fertilizer and plant growth regulators giberelin on the yield of melons. Kascing fertilizer with a dose of 90 g plant-1, the fruit flesh was thicker and the highest tight weight was obtained at a dose of 120 g plant-1. The application of gibberellin growth regulator with a concentration of 0.5 mL L-1 was able to significantly increase fruit weight, fruit diameter, fruit thickness, wet and dry weight of melon plants
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Daoudi, EL-Hassania, und Marc Bonnet-Masimbert. „Polyamines conjuguées et différenciation florale chez le sapin de Douglas (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco)“. Canadian Journal of Botany 76, Nr. 5 (01.05.1998): 782–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b98-044.
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To characterize as early as possible the status of flowering differentiation in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco), the variation of bound or conjugated polyamines is studied in the shoots of young plants (6 years old) during the period covering flowering initiation (between 30 and 75 days after bud burst). These compounds are also quantified in sexual and vegetative buds. The quantitative effects of treatments susceptible to stimulate the flowering (application of gibberellins and (or) calcium nitrate) on the level of conjugated polyamines are investigated in the shoots. The combination of gibberellins to calcium nitrate application strongly increases the flowering. Conjugated polyamines are particularly abundant in sexual buds and in the shoots of flowering plants. Sexual buds are also characterized by a ratio of conjugated putrescine to conjugated spermidine about four to six times higher than in vegetative buds. The accumulation of conjugated polyamines in the shoots accompanies bud sexualization, which suggests that conjugated polyamines may constitute potential markers of floral initiation in Douglas-fir.Key words: floral induction, flowering marker, conjugated polyamines, Douglas-fir.
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Evans, L. T. „Gibberellins and flowering in long day plants, with special reference to Lolium temulentum“. Functional Plant Biology 26, Nr. 1 (1999): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pp98092.
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The relation between gibberellins (GAs) and flowering in some long day (LD) plants is reviewed, with particular emphasis on Lolium temulentum. Lang’s early experiments with rosette plants established the effectiveness of several GAs in replacing the need for LD. Subsequent work with mutants, especially of Arabidopsis, has clarified genetic and environmental control points in GA synthesis, various feedback effects and some of the factors affecting responsiveness to, as well as synthesis of, GAs in the flowering process. Further complexities are revealed in the experiments with Lolium temulentum, which have clearly shown that the structural requirements for effectiveness of GAs in the flowering process are quite different from those for elongation growth. The precise role of GAs in the long day induction of flowering remains unclear.
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Çayan, Selin, Gölge Sarıkamış, Canan Yüksel Özmen, Umut Kibar, Eren Özden und Ali Ergül. „The influence of exogenous gibberellic acid (GA3) and 24-epibrassinolide (24-EpiBL) on seed germination and the expression of genes involved in GA and BR synthesis/signalling in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.)“. Acta Scientiarum Polonorum Hortorum Cultus 20, Nr. 5 (29.10.2021): 15–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.24326/asphc.2021.5.2.
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Gibberellins (GAs) and brassinosteroids (BRs) are the plant hormones involved in various physiological processes including seed germination. In this study, the effects of exogenous gibberellic acid (GA3) and 24-epibrassinolide (24-EpiBL) treatments on the expression of key genes involved in GA and BR syntheis/signalling during seed germination were investigated in pepper (Capsicum annuum L).
The expressions of BES1 and BRI1 involved in BR synthesis/signalling pathway as well as GA3OX1 and GA20OX1 associated with gibberellic acid biosynthesis in plants were determined. Exogenous GA3 treatments increased BES1 expression and the highest increase was determined with 10⁻⁸ M BR + 100 µM GA3 (P<0.05). On the contrary, the expression of BRI1 gene was significantly decreased by 10-8 M BR + 100 µM GA3 (P<0.05). The expression of GA3OX1 gene was induced with BR and GA3 treatments (P<0.05). GA20OX1 gene expression was generally higher compared to the expression of GA3OX1 and significantly increased by the GA3 treatments. Our findings are expected to bring an insight to the influence of BRs during seed germination together with the expression of associated genes.
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Roman-García, Francisco, María Patricia Yahuaca-Mendoza, Javier Farias-Larios, J. Gerardo López-Aguirre*, Sergio Aguilar-Espinosa und María del Rocío Flores-Bello. „Hormonal Concentration and Growth in Chili Plants Inoculated with Several Mycorrhizal Fungus, Evaluated in Different Steps“. HortScience 39, Nr. 4 (Juli 2004): 832D—833. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.39.4.832d.
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The contribution of arbuscular endomycorrhizal fungus (AMF) on hormonal levels increase in chili plants, at different steps is currently unknown. In this experiment was evaluated the effect of Glomus sp. Zac-19, G. etunicatum and G. intraradices, inoculation mirasol and ancho cultivars, under greenhouse conditions. Plants were growing in pots containing 1 kg of substrate (3 sand: 1 soil ratio). The effect was measured on fresh fruit production and indolacetic acid, giberellin GA3 and 6-aminopurine concentration. Also plant parameters measured were: plant height, foliar area, stem diameter, root length, aerial fresh weight, total fresh weight, fruit weight and mycorrhizal colonization. All treatments were imposed using 16 replications in a full random design. Results shown that mycorrhizal colonization average of the three fungus was 44% in mirasol cultivar y 42% in ancho cultivar. Mycorrhizal colonization had an effect on growth and development in both cultivars, expressed in a greater height, leaf number, foliar area, total fresh weigh and fruit mass. Was registered an increase of 80% in the yield in inoculated plants respecting to control. Indolacetic acid and gibberellins concentration in shoots, were bigger in plants colonized by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) than in control. The 6-aminopurine levels in roots of colonized plants by AMF shown higher values. These results suggest that AM fungi modify the hormonal concentration and some growth factors in chili plants.
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Hubick, K. T., J. S. Taylor und D. M. Reid. „The effect of drought on levels of abscisic acid, cytokinins, gibberellins and ethylene in aeroponically-grown sunflower plants“. Plant Growth Regulation 4, Nr. 2 (1986): 139–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00025195.
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Turnbull, Matthew H., Richard P. Pharis, Leonid V. Kurepin, Michal Sarfati, Lewis N. Mander und Dave Kelly. „Flowering in snow tussock (Chionochloa spp.) is influenced by temperature and hormonal cues“. Functional Plant Biology 39, Nr. 1 (2012): 38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/fp11116.
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Snow tussocks (Chionochloa spp.) in New Zealand exhibit extreme mast (episodic) seeding which has important implications for plant ecology and plant–insect interactions. Heavy flowering appears to be triggered by very warm/dry summers in the preceding year. In order to investigate the physiological basis for mast flowering, mature snow tussock plants in the field and younger plants in a glasshouse and shadehouse were subjected to a range of manipulative treatments. Field treatments included combinations of warming, root pruning and applications of two native gibberellins (GAs) GA3, which is known to be highly floral inductive and GA4, which is associated with continued floral apex development in another long-day grass. Warming, GA3 alone and especially warming + GA3, significantly promoted flowering, as did applications of GA4 alone and GA4 + CCC (2-chloroethyltrimethylammonium chloride, which is a known synergist of GA3-induced flowering in the annual grass, Lolium temulentum L.). Our results provide support for the concept that mast flowering events in tussock species are causally related to high temperature-induced increases in endogenous gibberellin levels. It is likely that GAs (endogenous or applied) promote the continued development of a previously long-day induced floral apex. In addition to the promotion of flowering, applied GA3 also disturbed the plant’s innate resource threshold requirements, as shown by the death, over winter, of many non-flowering tillers. Applied GA4 did not show this effect, likely due to its rapid catabolic metabolism to an inactive form. High temperature-induced flowering mediated by elevated levels of endogenous floral-promotive GAs could have important implications for regulating the evolutionary interaction between these masting plants and their seed predators.
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Saini, Hargurdeep S., Pawan K. Bassi, J. Stephen Goudey und Mary S. Spencer. „Breakage of Seed Dormancy of Field Pennycress (Thlaspi arvense) by Growth Regulators, Nitrate, and Environmental Factors“. Weed Science 35, Nr. 6 (November 1987): 802–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0043174500079376.
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Effects of ethylene, gibberellins, kinetin, nitrate, light, and temperature, each alone or combined with other factors, were studied on the germination of dormant seed of field pennycress (Thlaspi arvenseL. # THLAR). Treated seed were incubated at a range of constant temperatures, at temperatures alternating daily between 12 and 22 C (12 h each), or at 12 C followed by transfer to 22 C. No germination ocurrred in water under any conditions. When applied in the dark KNO3had no effect on germination under any of the temperature regimes. A combination of KNO3, light, and a shift in temperature from 12 to 22 C induced 100% germination. Four days of incubation at 12 C induced maximal seed sensitivity towards KNO3+ light, and the sensitivity remained unchanged if the incubation at 12 C was extended to 15 days. Upon transfer to 22 C, the effect of low-temperature incubation was lost within 3 days. Of the two seed lots studied, one had a relatively lower chilling requirement, but both had similar requirements for light and KNO3. Gibberellic acids4+7(GA4+7) induced 100% germination in the dark or light at all temperature regimes. Gibberellic acid3(GA3) was promotive under isothermal conditions, but its effectiveness was enhanced by a shift in temperature from 12 to 22 C. Kinetin or ethephon, each applied alone, had little effect on germination. Ethephon and GA3together induced 100% germination.
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Huarte, Héctor R., María del R. Pereyra Zorraquín, Eric M. Bursztyn und María L. Zapiola. „Effects of Environmental Factors on Seed Germination and Seedling Emergence of Common Teasel (Dipsacus fullonum)“. Weed Science 64, Nr. 3 (September 2016): 421–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/ws-d-15-00136.1.
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Common teasel is an invasive and widespread weed in Argentina. Germination experiments were carried out from 2011 to 2014 to determine the effect of various environmental factors on germination and emergence. Germination of recently dispersed seeds was 12% in darkness at constant temperature. In contrast, seed exposure to light and alternating temperatures enhanced germination to 95%. The requirement of light and alternating temperatures suggest that common teasel has physiological dormancy. Several experiments were carried out to determine whether (1) seed responses to light and alternating temperatures have a hormonal basis, (2) seed coats can suppress germination, and (3) time and thermal conditions during seed storage reduce light and alternating temperature requirements. Germination was reduced (≤ 13%) by a gibberellin synthesis inhibitor. In contrast, the presence of gibberellins and an abscisic acid synthesis inhibitor increased germination to 95 and 38%, respectively. Results suggest that a higher ratio among gibberellins and abscisic acid (GA/ABA) leads to a break in dormancy. Germination was 100% when embryos were excised, suggesting that seed coats may suppress germination by mechanical restriction. Likewise, germination was enhanced by hydrogen peroxide (70%). This compound is known to increase GA/ABA ratio in agreement with a hormonal control of dormancy proposed for common teasel. An increment of storage time reduces light and alternating temperature requirements, allowing seeds to germinate in darkness. Taking these results together confirms that common teasel has physiological dormancy. Seedling emergence was progressively reduced from 70 to 8% by increased burial depth from 0 to 3 cm. Information from these experiments may facilitate development of effective management for common teasel.
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María I, Dinolfo, Castañares Eliana und Stenglein Sebastián A. „Fusarium–plant interaction: state of the art – a review“. Plant Protection Science 53, No. 2 (10.02.2017): 61–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/182/2015-pps.
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One of the most important genera able to develop diseases in cereals is Fusarium which not only produces losses by the fungal presence but also mycotoxin production harmful to human and animal consumers. In the environment, plants are continuously threatened by abiotic and biotic stresses. Among the latter, pathogens gained importance mainly due to their ability to affect the plant fitness. To protect against potential attacks, plants have developed strategies in which phytohormones have an essential role. In plant–pathogen interactions, salicylic acid, ethylene, and jasmonates are the most important, but there are also auxins, gibberellins, abscisic acid, cytokinins, brassinosteroids, and peptide hormones involved in plant defence. The interaction between Fusarium species and plants used as models has been developed to allow understanding the plant behaviour against this kind of pathogen with the aim to develop several strategies to decrease the Fusarium disease effects.
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Ahmad, Ali, Eloy Navarro-León, María José Izquierdo-Ramos, Juan José Rios, Begoña Blasco, Iván Navarro-Morillo und Juan Manuel Ruiz. „Analysis of RAZORMIN® as a Biostimulant and Its Effect on the Phytotoxicity Mitigation Caused by Fungicide Azoxystrobin in Pepper“. Agronomy 12, Nr. 6 (13.06.2022): 1418. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12061418.
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Use of biostimulants for stimulating plant growth and mitigating the negative impacts of biotic and abiotic stresses is a promising strategy to achieve higher crop yields. Fungicides such as azoxystrobin are used to control several pests and fungal diseases in plants but at the cost of altering various physiological processes; thereby, leading to reduced crop yields. The efficiency of the compound RAZORMIN® as a biostimulant product while taking into account its role in plant growth stimulation and fungicide azoxystrobin stress mitigation was evaluated in this study. The efficacy of RAZORMIN® was assessed considering its impact on the stimulation of growth-related physiological processes and stress mitigation mechanism, e.g., reactive oxygen species (ROS) detoxification. Application of RAZORMIN® significantly increased plant growth by improving fresh weight, photosynthetic efficiency, net photosynthesis rate, gas exchange, nitrogen (N) metabolism (with increases in soluble amino acids, foliar N concentration, and N use efficiency), growth hormone concentrations (mainly gibberellins and cytokinins), nutritional status of plants (producing a greater accumulation of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, zinc, molybdenum, iron, and boron), and sugars concentration. Furthermore, the application of RAZORMIN® on plants under fungicide azoxystrobin stress demonstrated its anti-stress and protective role by stimulating the antioxidant defense system and improving photosynthetic efficiency.
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Kopcewicz, J., G. Centkowska, K. Kriesel und Y. Yatorska. „The effect of inductive photoperiod on flower formation and phytohormones level in a long day plant Hyoscyamus niger L.“ Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 48, Nr. 2 (2015): 255–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.5586/asbp.1979.021.
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The anatomical and hormonal investigations on a long day plant <i>Hyoscyamus niger</i> L. during the time of the generative photoinduction have been conducted. The plants were grown during 75 days on a short photoperiod and then they were transferred to long day conditions. The earliest anatomical symptoms of flower initiation were noticed after four long photoperiods. The inductive photoperiod causes also a general increase in the amounts of phytohormones. During the flower evocation the intensive accumulation of cytokinins and gibberellins in leaves takes place. The post-inductive period, in which the development of flower elements happens, is characterized by changing amount of phytohormones. The content of hormonal substances is subjected to the rhytmical changes related to the periods of light and darknees in the twenty four hours' cycle.
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Foschi, María Laura, Mariano Juan, Bernardo Pascual und Nuria Pascual-Seva. „Influence of Seed-Covering Layers on Caper Seed Germination“. Plants 12, Nr. 3 (18.01.2023): 439. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants12030439.
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Caper is a perennial shrub that is widespread in the Mediterranean Basin. Although the fruits contain many seeds, they germinate slowly and with very low percentages, due to their nondeep physiological dormancy. The influence of the testa and endosperm, as well as the effect of applying gibberellic acid (GA3) solutions on seed germination to release its dormancy, are reported in this study. The mechanical resistance exerted by the testa and endosperm against radicle protrusion in mature caper seeds was measured. The best germination results were obtained with seeds devoid of testa wetted with water and with intact seeds wetted with a 500 mg L−1 GA3 solution, without statistical differences between them. The GA3 addition triggers an increase in both the content of endogenous gibberellins (GA) and the GA/abscisic acid ratio, increasing germination. Its germination consists of two temporally separated events: testa cracking and endosperm piercing. Testa cracking begins in the hilum-micropillar area; it involves a signal from the embryo, which GA can replace, possibly by increasing the growth potential of the embryo. After testa cracking, the radicle emerges through a hole in the micropylar endosperm. The puncture force necessary to pierce the micropylar endosperm decreased drastically during the first day of imbibition, remaining practically constant until testa cracking, decreasing afterwards, regardless of the addition or not of gibberellins.
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Kriesel, Krystyna, und Sławomir Ciesielska. „The effect of the photoperiod on the level of endogenous growth regulators in pine (Pinus silvestris L.) seedlings“. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 51, Nr. 1 (2014): 59–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.5586/asbp.1982.006.
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The investigations were performed on pine seedlings growing under 12, 16 and 20 hour photoperiods. In 4 succesive stages of seedling development i.e. after 2, 12, 18 and 30 weeks of culture morphological characters of the seedlings were measured and the levels of auxins-, gibberellins-, cytokininsand abscisic acid-like inhibitor were determined. The intensity of growth and development of juvenile leaves, needles and of the shoot was the lowest in plants growing under 12 hour photoperiod conditions. As the length of the photoperiod increased so did the intensity of these processes. Under the 12 hour photoperiod the development of scale leaves, axillary buds and the formation of the terminal bud started earliest. This process reached completion under the 12 hour photoperiod and the bud remained in a state of dormancy. Seedlings growing under the 12 hour photoperiod were characterized by a low level of stimulators, and at the same time by a high level of inhibitors. On the other hand in seedlings grown at 16 and 20 hour photoperiods the content of stimulators was higher and that of inhibitors lower. A high intensity of growth and development processes was correlated with a high level of stimulators while a high level of inhibitors was correlated with a low intensity of these processes.The obtained results suggest the participation of gibberellins and cytokinins in the processes of regulation of the initiation of scale leaves and axillary buds, and the participation of these hormones and of abscisic acid in the regulation of needle elongation.
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Soares, José C., Hugo Osório, Manuela Pintado und Marta W. Vasconcelos. „Effect of the Interaction between Elevated Carbon Dioxide and Iron Limitation on Proteomic Profiling of Soybean“. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, Nr. 21 (07.11.2022): 13632. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms232113632.
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Elevated atmospheric CO2 (eCO2) and iron (Fe) availability are important factors affecting plant growth that may impact the proteomic profile of crop plants. In this study, soybean plants treated under Fe-limited (0.5 mM) and Fe-sufficient (20 mM) conditions were grown at ambient (400 μmol mol−1) and eCO2 (800 μmol mol−1) in hydroponic solutions. Elevated CO2 increased biomass from 2.14 to 3.14 g plant−1 and from 1.18 to 2.91 g plant−1 under Fe-sufficient and Fe-limited conditions, respectively, but did not affect leaf photosynthesis. Sugar concentration increased from 10.92 to 26.17 μmol g FW−1 in roots of Fe-sufficient plants and from 8.75 to 19.89 μmol g FW−1 of Fe-limited plants after exposure to eCO2. In leaves, sugar concentration increased from 33.62 to 52.22 μmol g FW−1 and from 34.80 to 46.70 μmol g FW−1 in Fe-sufficient and Fe-limited conditions, respectively, under eCO2. However, Fe-limitation decreases photosynthesis and biomass. Pathway enrichment analysis showed that cell wall organization, glutathione metabolism, photosynthesis, stress-related proteins, and biosynthesis of secondary compounds changed in root tissues to cope with Fe-stress. Moreover, under eCO2, at sufficient or limited Fe supply, it was shown an increase in the abundance of proteins involved in glycolysis, starch and sucrose metabolism, biosynthesis of plant hormones gibberellins, and decreased levels of protein biosynthesis. Our results revealed that proteins and metabolic pathways related to Fe-limitation changed the effects of eCO2 and negatively impacted soybean production.
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Riko, NFN, Sitti Nurul Aini und Euis Asriani. „Aplikasi Berbagai Konsentrasi Giberelin (GA3) Terhadap Pertumbuhan Tanaman Kailan (Brassica oleracea L.) pada Sistem Budidaya Hidroponik“. Jurnal Hortikultura 29, Nr. 2 (20.06.2020): 181. http://dx.doi.org/10.21082/jhort.v29n2.2019.p181-188.
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<p><strong>[<em>Application of Various Concentrations of Gibberellin</em> (<em>GA3</em>) <em>on Kailan </em></strong><br /><strong>(<em>Brassica oleracea</em> L.) <em>Growth with Hydroponic Cultivation System</em>]</strong></p><p>Giberelin adalah zat pengatur tumbuh yang banyak digunakan untuk merangsang pertumbuhan dan perkembangan pada tanaman, termasuk pada tanaman kailan yang banyak dikonsumsi. Penelitian ini bertujuan mengetahui pengaruh zat pengatur tumbuh giberelin dan konsentrasinya yang optimal terhadap pertumbuhan tanaman kailan. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan pada bulan Maret - Mei 2019 di Kebun Percobaan Fakultas Pertanian, Perikanan dan Biologi, Universitas Bangka Belitung. Rancangan percobaan yang digunakan adalah Rancangan Acak Lengkap (RAL) dengan perlakuan giberelin konsentrasi (0 ppm, 20 ppm, 40 ppm, 60 ppm, 80 ppm, dan 100 ppm) diulang empat kali. Pemberian giberelin dilakukan dengan cara perendaman benih sebelum tanam dan dilakukan penyemprotan pada tanaman kailan yang dilakukan dua kali dalam seminggu, dimulai 7 hari setelah tanam. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa penambahan giberelin dengan konsentrasi 100 ppm memberikan hasil yang tinggi pada tinggi tanaman, diameter batang, luas daun, bobot segar tajuk, dan bobot kering tajuk, dengan persentase kenaikan produksi sebesar 50% dibandingkan kontrol.</p><p><strong>Keywords</strong></p><p>Kailan; Giberelin; Hidroponik</p><p><strong>Abstract</strong></p><p>Gibberellin are plant growth regulators that are widely used to stimulate plants growth and development, including widely consumed Brassica oleracea L. plants. The aims of study to determine the effect of gibberellin and its concentration on growth. The research was conducted in March until May 2019 at experimental garden of the Faculty of Agriculture, Fisheries and Biology, Bangka Belitung University. The experimental design used was a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with the treatment were concentrations of gibberellin (0 ppm, 20 ppm, 40 ppm, 60 ppm, 80 ppm, and 100 ppm) with four replication. Gibberelin applied by soaking the seeds before planting and spraying the plants twice a week starting 7 days after planting. The results showed that the application of 100 ppm gibberellins gives the best results on plant height, stem diameter, leaf area, canopy fresh weight, and canopy dry weight, with a percentage increase in production by 50% compared to control.</p>
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Costa, Anne P., Wagner Vendrame, Sílvia Nietsche, Jonathan Crane, Kimberly Moore und Bruce Schaffer. „Branching, flowering and fruiting of Jatropha curcas treated with ethephon or benzyladenine and gibberellins“. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências 88, Nr. 2 (31.05.2016): 989–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0001-3765201620140635.
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Jatropha curcas L. has been identified for biofuel production but it presents limited commercial yields due to limited branching and a lack of yield uniformity. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of single application of ethephon or a combination of 6-benzyladenine (BA) with gibberellic acid isomers A4 and A7 (GA4+7) on branch induction, flowering and fruit production in jatropha plants with and without leaves. Plants with and without leaves showed differences for growth and reproductive variables. For all variables except inflorescence set, there were no significant statistical interactions between the presence of leaves and plant growth regulators concentration. The total number of flowers per inflorescence was reduced as ethephon concentration was increased. As BA + GA4 +7 concentration increased, seed dry weight increased. Thus, ethephon and BA + GA4 +7 applications appeared to affect flowering and seed production to a greater extent than branching. The inability to discern significant treatment effects for most variables might have been due to the large variability within plant populations studied and thus resulting in an insufficient sample size. Therefore, data collected from this study were used for statistical estimations of sample sizes to provide a reference for future studies.