Dissertationen zum Thema „Phytophthora cinnamomi diseases Western Australia“

The south-west of Western Australia has a Mediterranean climate and flora endemic to this area, including the keystone species, jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata), have adapted to the droughted summer conditions. The introduction of an exotic soil borne pathogen, Phytophthora cinnamomi, has challenged the survival of this and many other species. The expectation might be that plants stressed by drought are more susceptible to disease and this study examined the development of disease caused by P. cinnamomi in E. marginata and the significance of water status to that development. Seedlings of E. marginata, clonal plants resistant to P. cinnamomi and clonal plants susceptible to P. cinnamomi, were subjected to different watering regimes in a number of field and glasshouse experiments. To determine the level of drought stress that could be imposed on container-grown E. marginata seedlings without killing them, a preliminary experiment progressively lowered the moisture levels of the substrate in their containers, until the plants reached wilting point, at which time moisture was restored to a predetermined droughted level and the process repeated. With each subsequent droughting the wilting point was lower until it was found that the seedlings could survive when only 5% of the moisture lost from container capacity to wilting point was restored. No deaths had occurred after seedlings had been maintained at this low level for 14 days (Chapter 2). Based on these findings, the level of droughting maintained in all experiments conducted under controlled glasshouse conditions was 10% restoration. After testing the appropriateness of underbark inoculation, and a zoospore inoculation method for which no wounding was necessary, a new, non-invasive stem inoculation technique was developed. Stems were moistened in a pre-treatment, then agar plugs colonized with P. cinnamomi mycelium were held against the stem with wads of wet cotton wool and bound in place with tape. This technique resulted in a high proportion of infection in E. marginata (Chapter 4) without the need for underbark inoculation or the use of zoospores (Chapter 3). It was successfully used in a large field trial in a rehabilitated bauxite mine site with 2-year-old E. marginata clonal plants, resistant to P. cinnamomi (Chapter 5). Inoculation was in late spring after the winter and spring rainfall. This timing was to allow comparison of disease development in stressed plants under normal droughted summer conditions compared with itsdevelopment in non-stressed, irrigated plants. However, two months after inoculation, the area was deluged with unseasonal and abnormally heavy summer rainfall, negating any difference in the treatments and causing an outbreak of P. cinnamomi in the soil from an adjacent infested site. This resulted in the infection and death of some noninoculated control clones. Monitoring of the site continued for twelve months and the advance of P. cinnamomi at the site was mapped. To test the effect of drought on the expression of P. cinnamomi under more controlled conditions, a series of glasshouse experiments was set up that simulated two possible summer conditions; drought or drought followed by abnormally high summer rainfall. These experiments utilised E. marginata seedlings and clonal plants, some resistant and some susceptible to P. cinnamomi. Plants were inoculated with P. cinnamomi prior to or after droughting. Results were compared to those of control plants that had not experienced water deficit. In both seedlings and clonal plants, the greatest extent of colonization was found in plants which had experienced no water deficit. These results indicated that drought stress played a role in inhibiting the in planta development of P. cinnamomi in all genotypes (Chapter 8). This finding was consistent for both clones, susceptible and resistant to P. cinnamomi. Most recoveries were made from non-stressed clonal plants, resistant to P. cinnamomi (Chapter 6) and more colonization was found in non-stressed clonal plants, susceptible to P. cinnamomi (Chapter 7), than was recorded for droughted plants. The results of the field trial showed that P. cinnamomi was not recovered from some inoculated stems, which had obvious lesions, when segments were plated onto selective agar. This led to an intensive in vitro investigation into improved methods of recovery. Dark brown exudates from some segments of inoculated stems stained the surrounding agar onto which they were plated, suggesting the presence of phenolic compounds. Recovery of the pathogen from stems increased by about 10% when segments were first soaked in distilled water to leach out the phenolic compounds, then replated onto agar. Other recovery methods were also tested, including (1) baiting with Pimelea ferruginea leaves floated on the surface of water or soil filtrate, in which the infected stem segments were immersed and (2) the application of different light and temperature regimes. It was clearly shown that exudates from infected stems of field grown E. marginata inhibited the outgrowth of P. cinnamomi onto the agar. To counter the possible toxic effect that oxidized phenolics had on the growth of the P. cinnamomi, an antioxidant was added to the agar. P. cinnamomi was grown on media whichincorporated exudates from infected stems and different concentrations of ascorbic acid, with and without adjusted pH levels. There was a pronounced pH effect, with less growth on media with lower pH and no significant increase in growth of the mycelium with increased ascorbic acid concentration on pH adjusted agar (Chapter 9). The inhibitory effect of the exudates from the stem segments led to an investigation of the possibility that, if seedlings to be planted in the rehabilitation process could be pre-treated with phenolic compounds to render them more resistant, they may have an advantage when establishing in areas where there was a potential threat of P. cinnamomi. E. marginata seeds were germinated and the seedlings grown hydroponically in a constant temperature growth room. Different concentrations of synthetic catechol, a phenolic compound naturally occurring in E. marginata, were added to the nutrient solution. Roots remained immersed in the catechol solutions for three days, before being inoculated at the root tip with zoospores of P. cinnamomi. Roots in higher concentrations of catechol were less colonized than those in lower concentrations, indicating an increased resistance to the pathogen (Chapter 10). Further work is required to determine if seedlings treated before being planted in areas threatened by an outbreak of P. cinnamomi have a greater capacity for survival, and for how long the protection persists. The improved recovery of P. cinnamomi from infected plants is important for accurate assessment of the spread of the disease in an area and for the subsequent implementation of management strategies of containment and control. An outbreak of P. cinnamomi can impact on the revegetation of rehabilitated mine sites and the aetiology of the pathogen in mine sites needs to be more fully understood. The interaction of plant defences with the invasive pathogen has been examined in a range of environments in the field, the glasshouse, in a hydroponics system and in vitro. The results indicate that summer droughting increases the resistance of E. marginata to P. cinnamomi. However, more work is required to understand the mechanisms involved. The study also indicates that clones of E. marginata, selected as resistant to P. cinnamomi, are not resistant under all conditions and that environmental interactions should be further investigated. Lastly, for effective management strategies to be implemented it is critical that the pathogen can be confidently isolated from plants. It was shown that exudates from infected hosts inhibit the recovery of P. cinnamomi. Recovery methods that can overcome these inhibitory compounds are required. The findings invite further research into the complexity of host-pathogen relationships.

In a survey of rehabilitated bauxite mines m south-west Western Australia, Phytophthora cinnamomi was isolated from the collar, but not from the root system of dead and dying Eucalyptus marginata Garrah) seedlings. Surface water ponding occurs in rehabilitated mines from autumn through to spring, and infected collars were commonly associated with ponding. This suggested that P. cinnamomi infects seedlings directly through periderm at the collar. The objective of this project was to ascertain whether infection by P. cinnamomi through periderm was possible, to study the disease in seedlings infected in this manner, and the methods by which P. cinnamomi circumvented the periderm to infect the seedlings. An inoculum receptacle was designed to simulate water ponding around the main stem of jarrah seedlings, and into which zoospores could be introduced. Under controlled glasshouse conditions in December (early summer) it was demonstrated that zoospores can infect through the stems of non-wounded and wounded jarrah seedlings. This was confirmed in a rehabilitated bauxite mine in May/June (late autumn/early winter), when ponding is most prevalent and sustained. In the field trial, P. cinnamomi was isolated from stems of non-wounded and wounded seedlings 3 weeks after inoculation. However, lesions did not develop in the non-wounded seedlings, or in most of the wounded seedlings. Another field trial examined the long-term prognosis for jarrah seedlings infected by zoospores at the collar. Within 3-6 months of either winter or spring inoculations, 7% ofthe seedlings died. In a further 6% of seedlings, the inoculated shoot died but the seedling survived through coppice growth from the lignotuber. As time from inoculation increased the reisolation of the pathogen from surviving seedlings decreased. Seedlings were severely water stressed during the summer with pre-dawn xylem pressure potentials as low as -1.5 MPa. In two post-summer harvests an intensive baiting and wetting regime was required to reisolate the pathogen from inoculated seedlings. Histological studies were undertaken to investigate: the origin and nature of jarrah periderm; the effects of pending on jarrah tissue; and the methods by which P. cinnamomi invades jarrah through periderm. The production of periderm was described from its origin in the peri cycle of the roots in 4-week old jarrah seedlings, through to rhytidome production in lignotuberous seedlings and 3- to 4-year old saplings. The first periderm in jarrah stems occurred internal to the primary phloem tissue, but it eventually migrated to a more superficial position in the stem. The first periderm consisted of phellogen, phelloderm, and a single type of phellem which was thin-walled and suberised. Between sequent periderms a second type of phellem formed, the cells of which were thick-walled and lignified. The formation of spongy rhytidome occurred when secondary phloem tissue underwent gross expansion after isolation between layers of periderm. Jarrah stems took up water in the region of inundation, and there was an increase in the frequency, but not size, of intercellular spaces after 5 weeks of localised ponding. There was also an increase in size of non-tanniferous parenchyma cells, but no overall increase in stem diameter. There was a measurable quantity of soluble carbohydrates in the pond liquid after 1 week, which had significantly increased after 5 weeks. Zoospores of P. cinnamomi were attracted primarily to sites of axillary shoot emergence in jarrah stems. Rapid and extensive infection and colonisation occurred through the new tissue of the emerging axilla1y shoots. Zoospores also bound randomly to other parts of the stem and were occasionally observed to attempt intercellular penetration of thin-walled suberised phellem, but extensive infection and colonisation was not observed as a result of such interactions. Zoospores were not preferentially attracted to either stem or leaf stomata, although penetration was occasionally observed through stem stomata. Zoospores were not attracted to lenticels and there was no evidence of infection through lenticels. The results of the project are discussed in the light of a 'disease tetrahedron', where mining and rehabilitation have resulted in a highly altered environment in which the host and pathogen operate. Conditions peculiar to rehabilitated sites are discussed in terms of their ability to exacerbate or reduce disease severity.

Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands is a common and devastating pathogen of cultivated proteas worldwide. Webb (1997) described a Sudden Death plant disease of proteas in Western Australia (WA) protea plantations. Proteas that suffer the syndrome display symptoms such as stunted growth, wilting, chlorosis and often death. In the current study, a number of protea plantations in the southwest of WA were visited to quantify the extent that P. cinnamomi was attributing to deaths of cultivated proteas. The survey indicated that P. cinnamomi is the major cause of Sudden Death in proteas. A range of other fungi (Fusarium, Botryosphaeria, Pestalotiopsis, Alternaria) and pests (nematodes, mealy bug, scale insects) were also identified to be contributing to protea death and decline in WA plantations. In many cases the factors contributing to protea disease appeared complex, with a range of physical factors or nutritional imbalances commonly associated with these pathogens and pests. As P. cinnamomi was the major cause of death of cultivated proteas the remainder of the experiments described in this dissertation investigated its control in horticultural plantings. Biofumigation has the potential to become an important technique in an overall integrated management approach to P. cinnamomi. In this thesis, biofumigation refers to the suppression of pathogens and pests by the incorporation of Brassica plants into the soil. Two biofumigants (Brassica juncea (L.) Czern., B. napus L.) were screened for their effect on the in vitro growth of five common Phytophthora species (P. cinnamomi, P. cactorum (Lebert & Colin) Schroeter., P. citricola Sawada, P. cryptogea Pethyb. & Laff. and P. megasperma Drechsler). Growth was determined by the measuring dry weight and radial growth of vegetative hyphae. B. juncea was found to be superior in its suppressive effect compared to B. napus. There was also significant variation in the sensitivity of the Phytophthora species to the suppressive effects of the biofumigants. P. cinnamomi was the most sensitive of the five species investigated. Where the rates of the biofumigant were sufficient to suppress growth of Phytophthora, the suppressive effect was mostly fungicidal. To determine how B. juncea and B. napus affect the infective ability and survival of P. cinnamomi, their effects on sporangia and chlamydospores production in soil was investigated in vitro. P. cinnamomi colonised Miracloth discs were added to soil amended with the two Brassica species, before being removed every two days over an eight day period for the determination of sporangia production, chlamydospore production and infective ability. Only the soils amended with B. juncea significantly reduced sporangia production in P. cinnamomi. Both Brassica species increased the percentage of aborted or immature sporangia and reduced the infective ability of the pathogen. Neither Brassica species had any effect on zoospore release or chlamydospore production in P. cinnamomi. Soil cores and soil leachate were collected from biofumigant-amended field soils to determine the inoculum potential and infective ability of the pathogen under glasshouse conditions. Amending the soil with both Brassica species had an immediate suppressive effect on the inoculum potential and infective ability of the P. cinnamomi. However, after this initial suppression there was a gradual increase in the recovery of the pathogen over the monitoring period of four weeks. To determine if the suppression would result in decreased disease incidence in a susceptible host, Lupinus angustifolius L. seeds were planted in the biofumigant amended soil. B. juncea amended soils reduced the disease incidence of P. cinnamomi by 25%. B. napus had no effect on disease incidence in L. angustifolius. Although the current study had demonstrated that biofumigants could suppress the growth, sporulation and infection of P. cinnamomi, it was unclear if this would equate to a reduction in disease incidence when applied in the field. A field trial was conducted on a protea plantation in the southwest of Western Australia that compared biofumigation with B. juncea to chemical fumigation (metham sodium) and soil solarisation. The three soil treatments were used in an integrated management approach to control P. cinnamomi that included the use of a hardwood compost, mulch and water sterilisation. All treatments were monitored during their application to ensure the treatments were conducted successfully. The three soil treatments significantly reduced the recovery of the pathogen and the infective ability of the pathogen to a soil depth of 20 cm. Metham sodium was the most suppressive soil treatment and soil solarisation was the least suppressive treatment. Only the metham sodium treatment resulted in a significant reduction in the incidence of root rot in Leucadendron salignum P.J. Bergius x laureolum (Lam.) Fourc (c.v. Safari Sunset) over the monitoring period of three years. Another field trial was conducted on the same protea plantation to compare the effectiveness of B. juncea and B. napus, without the use of other control strategies, to reduce the incidence of P. cinnamomi infection of Leucadendron Safari Sunset. The concentration of isothiocyanates was monitored for seven days after the incorporation of the biofumigants. Although both Brassica species reduced the recovery and infective ability of the pathogen, neither biofumigant reduced the incidence of root rot in Leucadendron Safari Sunset. In conclusion, P. cinnamomi is the most common and devastating pathogen in WA protea plantations. The current study demonstrated that P. cinnamomi is sensitive to the suppressive nature of biofumigants. Biofumigants can suppress the in vitro growth, sporulation, infective ability of P. cinnamomi and reduce the incidence of the disease caused by the pathogen in the glasshouse. Of the two Brassica species investigated, B. juncea was superior in its ability to control P. cinnamomi compared to B. napus. When applied in the field, biofumigation using B. juncea was found to be more suppressive that soil solarisation, but not as effective as metham sodium.

Phytophthora cinnamomi is an introduced soilborne phytopathogen to Western Australia (WA) and impacts on 2000 of the approximately 9000 plant species indigenous in the southwest of WA. Amongst these is Eucalyptus marginata (jarrah), the dominant and economically important hardwood timber species of the jarrah forest. This thesis aimed to investigate the morphological, pathogenic and genotypic variation in two local WA populations of P. cinnamomi isolates. The populations were selected from areas where jarrah clonal lines selected for resistance to P. cinnamomi may be used in the rehabilitation of infested jarrah forest and rehabilitated bauxite minesites in the southwest of WA. Resistance against a range of isolates using different inoculation methods. Seventy-three isolates of P. cinnamomi were collected from diseased jarrah and Corymbia calophylla (marri) trees from two populations located 70 km apart and these were examined for phenotypic and genotypic variation. Microsatellite DNA analysis showed that all isolates were of the same clonal lineage. In P. cinnamomi for the first time I show that there is a broad and continuous variation in the morphology and pathology between two populations of one clonal lineage, and that all phenotypes varied independently from one another. No relationship was found between morphological and pathogenic characters. The ability of isolates in both populations to cause deaths ranged from killing all plants within 59 days to plants being symptomless 182 days after inoculation. Single and multiple paragynous antheridia formed along with amphigynous ones in mating studies with all WA isolates and a sample of worldwide isolates. Developmental studies and cytological examination showed fertilisation tubes developed asynchronously or synchronously from both antheridial types and indicated that either antheridial type contributed a nucleus for fertilisation of the oosphere. This is the first report of paragynous antheridial associations in P. cinnamomi. Antheridial variation is a characteristic that needs to be adjusted in the taxonomic Phytophthora identification keys. In underbark and zoospore stem inoculations of three 1.5-year-old jarrah clonal lines (two ranked as resistant (RR) and one as susceptible (SS) to P. cinnamomi in the original selection trials) at 15, 20, 25 and 30°C, it was found that the method of inoculation did not produce comparable results, particularly at 25 and 30°C. At these temperatures, all three clonal lines had 100% mortality when inoculated underbark, but when inoculated with zoospores, one RR line had 60% survival and the SS and remaining RR line had 100% mortality. Generally, the level of resistance of all clonal lines declined with increasing temperature. Lesion development was measured at 20, 25 and 30°C for 4 days in detached branches of an RR and SS clonal line inoculated underbark with four different P. cinnamomi isolates. Detached branches were found to be a potential screen for jarrah resistance to P. cinnamomi and to allow the identification of susceptible and resistant clonal lines at 30°C. Lesion and colonisation development of P. cinnamomi isolates were assessed in situ (late autumn) of seed-grown and clonal lines of 3.5 to 4.5 year-old jarrah trees growing in a rehabilitated minesite jarrah forest in underbark inoculation of lateral branches (1995) or simultaneously in lateral branches and lateral roots (1996). Trees were underbark inoculated in lateral branches and lateral roots. Colonisation was more consistent as a measure of resistance than lesion length over the two trials because it accounted for the recovery of P. cinnamomi from macroscopically symptomless tissue beyond lesions, which on some occasions, was up to 6 cm. In the two trials, one RR clonal line consistently had small lesion and colonisation lengths in branches and roots. In contrast, the remaining two RR clonal lines had similar lesion and colonisation lengths to the SS clonal line and may, therefore, not be suitable for use in the rehabilitation of P. cinnamomi infested areas. The relative rankings of the jarrah clonal lines by colonisation lengths were similar between branch and root inoculations. Branch inoculations are a valid option for testing resistance and susceptibility of young jarrah trees to P. cinnamomi. The pathogen was recovered on Phytophthora selective agar 3–6 months after inoculation from 50% of samples with lesions and 30% of symptomless samples in a series of growth cabinet, glasshouse and field experiments. However, up to 11% of samples with and without lesions and from which P. cinnamomi was not initially isolated contained viable pathogen after leaching the plant material in water over 9 days. This indicates that the pathogen could be present as dormant structures, such as chlamydospores, where dormancy needs to be broken for germination to occur, or fungistatic compounds in the tissue need to be removed to allow the pathogen to grow, or both. These results have important implications for disease diagnosis and management, disease-free certification and quarantine clearance. No clonal line of jarrah was found to be 100% resistant using different inoculation methods, environmental conditions and when challenged by individuals from a large range of P. cinnamomi isolates. Even the most promising RR line had individual replicates that were unable to contain lesions or died with time. This suggests that further screening work may be required using more isolates varying in their capacity to cause disease and a broader range of environmental conditions. Jarrah clonal lines that survive such rigorous screening could then be expected to survive planting out in a range of environments in the jarrah forest and rehabilitated bauxite minesites.

Diseases in natural ecosystems are often assumed to be less severe than those observed in domestic cropping systems due to the extensive biodiversity exhibited in wild vegetation communities. In Australia, it is this natural biodiversity that is now under threat from Phytophthora cinnamomi. The soilborne Oomycete causes severe decline of native vegetation communities in south-western Victoria, Australia, disrupting the ecological balance of native forest and heathland communities. While the effect of disease caused by P. cinnamomi on native vegetation communities in Victoria has been extensively investigated, little work has focused on the Anglesea healthlands in south-western Victoria. Nothing is known about the population structure of P. cinnamomi at Anglesea. This project was divided into two main components to investigate fundamental issues affecting the management of P. cinnamomi in the Anglesea heathlands. The first component examined the phenotypic characteristics of P. cinnamomi isolates sampled from the population at Anglesea, and compared these with isolates from other regions in Victoria, and also from Western Australia. The second component of the project investigated the effect of the fungicide phosphonate on the host response following infection by P. cinnamomi. Following soil sampling in the Anglesea heathlands, a collection of P, cinnamomi isolates was established. Morphological and physiological traits of each isolate were examined. All isolates were found to be of the A2 mating type. Variation was demonstrated among isolates in the following characteristics: radial growth rate on various nutrient media, sporangial production, and sporangial dimensions. Oogonial dimensions did not differ significantly between isolates. Morphological and physiological variation was rarely dependant on isolate origin. To examine the genetic diversity among isolates and to determine whether phenotypic variation observed was genetically based, Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analyses were conducted. No significant variation was observed among isolates based on an analysis of molecular variance (AMQVA). The results are discussed in relation to population biology, and the effect of genetic variation on population structure and population dynamics. X australis, an arborescent monocotyledon indigenous to Australia, is highly susceptible to infection by P. cinnamomi. It forms an important component of the heathland vegetation community, providing habitat for native flora and fauna, A cell suspension culture system was developed to investigate the effect of the fungicide phosphonate on the host-pathogen interaction between X. australis and P. cinnamomi. This allowed the interaction between the host and the pathogen to be examined at a cellular level. Subsequently, histological studies using X. australis seedlings were undertaken to support the cellular study. Observations in the cell culture system correlated well with those in the plant. The anatomical structure of X australis roots was examined to assist in the interpretation of results of histopathological studies. The infection of single cells and roots of X. australis, and the effect of phosphonate on the interaction are described. Phosphonate application prior to inoculation with P. cinnamomi reduced the infection of cells in culture and of cells in planta. In particular, phosphonate was found to stimulate the production of phenolic material in roots of X australis seedlings and in cells in suspension cultures. In phosphonate-treated roots of X australis seedlings, the deposition of electron dense material, possibly lignin or cellulose, was observed following infection with P. cinnamomi. It is proposed that this is a significant consequence of the stimulation of plant defence pathways by the fungicide. Results of the study are discussed in terms of the implications of the findings on management of the Anglesea heathlands in Victoria, taking into account variation in pathogen morphology, pathogenicity and genotype. The mode of action of phosphonate in the plant is discussed in relation to plant physiology and biochemistry.

Phytophthora cinnamomi is a soil-borne plant pathogen that causes dieback, a disease that devastates many native vegetation ecosystems in Australia, particularly in south-west Western Australia. Feral pigs have long been implicated as vectors in the spread of this introduced plant pathogen due to their contact with infested soil and foraging habits. This study aimed to investigate the potential for feral pigs to disseminate P. cinnamomi and to determine their role in the spread of dieback. Feral pigs trapped in three sampling areas within the northern jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest of south-west Western Australia were sampled for the presence of P. cinnamomi. Faecal (n=208) and soil samples (n= 140) were collected from trapped pigs. In addition, 374 faecal and 36 soil samples were also collected from sites frequented by feral pigs. Phytophthora cinnamomi was not recovered from any of the faecal or soil samples. However saprophytic pathogens such as Mucor and Fusarium spp. were detected in the faeces and Pythium spp. was also detected in the soil samples, suggesting that feral pigs can act as vectors for the spread of soil-borne pathogens. Stomach contents from 100 feral pigs trapped across the three sampling areas were analysed to investigate the proportion of P. cinnamomi susceptible plant matter present in the feral pig diet. A high frequency of plant material (85%) was found in the pig stomachs, of which 25.8% consisted of subterranean plant structures such as roots and tubers. Underground fruiting bodies of ectomycorrhizal fungi belonging to the genus Rhizopogon were also a significant food item. There was no statistically significant preference detected for food items by pigs between the three sampling areas, regardless of sex and/or month of capture. However, older and larger pigs consumed significantly more bark (p= 0.0002). To further investigate the potential for P. cinnamomi to survive passage through the pig digestive tract a feeding trial was undertaken. Phytophthora cinnamomi inoculated millet (Panicum miliaceum) seeds, pine (Pinus radiata) plugs, and Banksia leptophylla roots were fed to pigs and subsequently recovered after passage. The viability of P. cinnamomi inoculated plant materials post digestion ranged from 25.5% to 98.3%. Detection for P. cinnamomi presence in the materials via qPCR confirmed a decrease in P. cinnamomi DNA with increasing time to passage. These investigations demonstrated that plant material infected with P. cinnamomi can remain viable following passage through the pig digestive tract suggesting that the plant material may provide protection for P. cinnamomi against the adverse conditions of the pig digestive tract. Subsequently, plant infection trials using infected pine plugs passaged through the pig digestive tract highlighted that material passaged 7 days after initial consumption was capable of infecting healthy susceptible plants. This provides evidence that feral pigs have the ability to act as a vector for P. cinnamomi through the ingestion of infected plant materials. A species-specific fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) assay was developed to enable the examination of P. cinnamomi within plant tissues. The probe was found to be specific for P. cinnamomi when tested against other Phytophthora, Pythium and enteric bacteria species. Using the FISH assay, the location of P. cinnamomi structures were detected within a variety of plant materials such as millet seeds, pine sections and root samples. Phytophthora cinnamomi structures such as hyphae and chlamydospores were found in the epidermal layer of millet seeds and within the axial rays of pine that were recovered after passage from the feeding trial. This aided understanding of how viable P. cinnamomi were able to survive passage within these plant materials. In addition, the FISH assay was also successfully applied to both laboratory-cultured and naturally infected plant roots enabling detection of the pathogen in the intracellular and intercellular spaces of roots. The assay has proven to be a useful tool in the detection of P. cinnamomi structures within plant tissues. In conclusion, this study provides evidence that, whilst the potential consequences of pig-vectored dispersal of P. cinnamomi are high, the likelihood of feral pigs dispersing the pathogen through transport of infested soil is low. Investigations of their diet composition and the passage of viable P. cinnamomi has established the additional threat that feral pigs could spread ingested P. cinnamomi within organic substrates. This study has also highlighted the fact that there is still much to be learned about the interaction between the feral pig and the plant pathogen. Further research is therefore required to ensure that appropriate management decisions for both species can be made.

This study investigated how the presence of the plant pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi in vegetation assemblages impacts on habitat utilisation by the honey possum (Tarsipes rostratus). The study took place in coastal heathlands at Cape Riche, Western Australia, between January 2007 and November 2007. Honey possums were radio tracked through an area affected with P. cinnamomi as well as healthy areas to determine the extent to which habitat utilisation is impacted on. This will then allow for a more robust prediction of how further spread of P. cinnamomi is likely to impact on honey possums in the future. The presence of P. cinnamomi was confirmed by plating samples of dying plants. The areas of P. cinnamomi at the study site are extensive but patchy with ‘islands’ of healthy vegetation assemblages still remaining. A comparison of microclimate at the study site showed that unaffected areas had a larger range of temperatures than affected areas which may be due to differences in wind which is restricted (having a buffering effect) due to dense vegetation in unaffected sites. In affected areas, a greater proportion of the time was recorded where temperature was below 5C compared with unaffected areas. This could potentially impact on honey possums, which go into torpor during cool weather, and at temperatures below 5C, have a higher metabolic rate to maintain their body temperature. This means they need to forage for more nectar and pollen during cooler weather in affected areas where foodplants are less abundant. The number of honey possums captured was correlated to season (2=13.1, p<0.0005) with the largest number of honey possums captured during the summer field trip when more plants were flowering. Honey possum preferred foodplants were identified from pollen collected from captured honey possums. A total of 20 different pollen species were identified from samples, nine of which were identified as important honey possum preferred foodplants as they were found in more significant amounts. Based on pollen, Banksia plumosa subsp. plumosa was identified as the preferred foodplant at the Cape Riche study site followed by Adenanthos cuneatus. Both are common throughout the study area and flower all year. Banksia plumosa subsp. plumosa is susceptible to P. cinnamomi and was only found in unaffected areas whereas Adenanthos cuneatus was found to less susceptible and was prevalent throughout P. cinnamomi affected areas. Honey possums fed on a diverse range of plant species (determined by pollen) during all seasons, except autumn when B. plumosa subsp. plumosa was the most prevalent pollen species collected from honey possums. A total of 18 honey possums (body mass 5.9 – 16g) were radio tracked for up to 9 days using radio transmitters weighing 0.36g and 0.9g (Holohil Systems Ltd, Canada). Radio tracked honey possums demonstrated a particular preference for Banksia plumosa subsp. plumosa which they utilised for food, shelter and as a daytime refuge. Comparison of vegetation structure indicated that sites selected by radio tracked honey possums had significantly denser vegetation between 40-140 cm in height compared with randomly selected sites. Significant differences were identified between Phytophthora cinnamomi affected and unaffected locations with vegetation at affected locations being sparser and shorter than that at unaffected sites. This study clearly showed that honey possums are influenced by the presence of P. cinnamomi affected vegetation at Cape Riche. The presence of P. cinnamomi at the study area results in large areas which are generally lacking in susceptible Proteaceous species such as Banksia and food resources tend to be sparse through these areas. Honey possums are capable of moving relatively large distances with estimated distances ranging from 4m to 1400m over a period of 30 minutes to 9 days. In areas affected with P. cinnamomi some honey possums fed on less susceptible plant species. Other honey possums moved long distances to healthy unaffected areas with higher densities of preferred foodplants. Further spread of P. cinnamomi is likely to have a serious impact on honey possums as healthy areas become affected and food resources become too limited to sustain honey possum populations.

Many Australian mammal species have experienced a severe decline in range and abundance over the last 200 years. Conservation of threatened mammals involves conservation of habitat and food resources. Mycorrhizal fungi produce spore-laden sporocarps, which are consumed by many ground dwelling mammals. This interaction is called mycophagy. Clearly, fungal resources are of fundamental importance to the conservation of many mammal species in Australia. The plant pathogen Phytopthora cinnamomi has catastrophic effects on ecosystems in the Jarrah forest of Western Australia. The effects of the pathogen on flora have been extensively studied, but it's effects on mammal communities in these ecosystems has not been measured. This study investigates differences in mycophagy between P. cinnamomi affected and healthy Jarrah forest ecosystems. This was achieved by investigating relationships between measured environmental variables, fungal productivity and mycophagous tendencies at three site types in the Darling Range, near Dwellingup. A trend was apparent between biomass and diversity of hypogeous fungi between sites. Sites of low impact had the highest number of hypogeous fungi species, plus the greatest biomass of sporocarps. Sites exhibiting high P. cinnamomi impact had significantly reduced hypogeous fungal biomass and diversity. Significant differences were evident in mycophagy between Phytophthora affected ecosystems. However, this study was unable to draw definitive conclusions due to the complex nature of interactions, and differences among sites. For example, environmental variables such as litter biomass had large standard deviations, suggesting sampling effort required was very high. Clearly, longer term surveys are required to provide definitive conclusions. Trends in mycophagy were evident as a function of season. This study identified fungal utilisation by previously undocumented mycophagous mammals. Sites with medium P. cinnamomi impact had the greatest degree of mycophagy. High and Low impact sites showed similarities in the number of spores in scats. Dasyurus geoffroii consumed the greatest diversity of fungal taxa, and had the greatest number of spores in the scats. Rattus rattus consumed the second greatest number of spores, and Sminthopsis gilberti, Mus musculus and Antechinus flavipes consumed similar, low numbers of spores. The number of spore types however, was high in A. flavipes, S. gilberti and M. musculus. R. rattus exhibited very low diversity of spores in scats, however, these spore types were in high occurrence.

The introduced soil-borne plant pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands causes the death ofjarrah (Eucalyptus marginata Donn ex Sm.) and associated understorey species throughout the jarrah forest of south-west Western Australia. In comparison to other infested forests in Australia, it has been difficult to isolate this pathogen from upland sites. Two aspects of survival of￡. cinnamomi on upland sites in the northern j arrah forest were examined, firstly, the survival of chlamydospores in surface soils, and secondly, the survival of E. cinnamomi in a common susceptible understorey species, Banksia grandis Willd. Chlamydospores of B. cinnamomi were recovered from a lowland water gaining site, but not from an adjacent upland freely draining site at Deer Road, although there was dying vegetation on both sites. Soil moisture contents were significantly higher on the lowland site than on the upland site (P<0.001), and remained high over summer in the former but not in the latter. Axenically produced chlamydospores did not survive in field plots when soil moisture contents decreased below 6.25% or -101 kPa on an uninfested upland site at North-east Road (P<0.001). When soil moisture contents were higher, that is, during winter and early spring, chlamydospores could be recovered for up to 24 weeks. A similar pattern of survival was observed when axenically produced chlamydospores were placed into soil from the North-east Road site and maintained at four different matric potentials in the laboratory. Germination of chlamydospores and the number of chlamydospores with intact cytoplasm were significantly affected by soil moisture (P<0.001). These results confirmed that chlamydospores did not survive on upland jarrah forest sites when soils became dry over summer. Stems and large roots from eight B. grandis trees on an upland site were excavated from an active front of dying vegetation at the end of summer. E. cinnamomi was recovered from the large roots and stems from four of the dead trees, but not from two healthy trees, two decayed trees or from soil. When two other trees from different upland sites were intensively sampled, B. cinnamomi was recovered to 40 cm below ground level in the tap and large roots and to 20 cm above ground level in the stems. When inoculated B. grandis root sections were buried (6 cm depth) in field plots on the uninfested upland pure jarrah stand site, recovery of R. cinnamomi decreased after 16 weeks with the onset of summer. During summer, recovery of the pathogen was very low to nil, but increased again in autumn as rainfall increased. Recovery of R. cinnamomi from the root sections was significantly affected by soil moisture, soil temperature and rainfall (PO.OOl). In glasshouse trials, R. cinnamomi was recovered within seven days from previously uninfested upland soil which had been placed around naturally infected R. grandis stem bases. These results confirmed that infected R. grandis acts as both a reservoir, and a source of inoculum for R. cinnamomi. The management and ecological implications for the northern jarrah forest and the control of R. cinnamomi are briefly discussed.

Phytophthora cinnamomi is an introduced soilborne phytopathogen to Western Australia (WA) and impacts on 2000 of the approximately 9000 plant species indigenous in the southwest of WA. Amongst these is Eucalyptus marginata (jarrah), the dominant and economically important hardwood timber species of the jarrah forest. This thesis aimed to investigate the morphological, pathogenic and genotypic variation in two local WA populations of P. cinnamomi isolates. The populations were selected from areas where jarrah clonal lines selected for resistance to P. cinnamomi may be used in the rehabilitation of infested jarrah forest and rehabilitated bauxite minesites in the southwest of WA. Resistance against a range of isolates using different inoculation methods. Seventy-three isolates of P. cinnamomi were collected from diseased jarrah and Corymbia calophylla (marri) trees from two populations located 70 km apart and these were examined for phenotypic and genotypic variation. Microsatellite DNA analysis showed that all isolates were of the same clonal lineage. In P. cinnamomi for the first time I show that there is a broad and continuous variation in the morphology and pathology between two populations of one clonal lineage, and that all phenotypes varied independently from one another. No relationship was found between morphological and pathogenic characters. The ability of isolates in both populations to cause deaths ranged from killing all plants within 59 days to plants being symptomless 182 days after inoculation. Single and multiple paragynous antheridia formed along with amphigynous ones in mating studies with all WA isolates and a sample of worldwide isolates. Developmental studies and cytological examination showed fertilisation tubes developed asynchronously or synchronously from both antheridial types and indicated that either antheridial type contributed a nucleus for fertilisation of the oosphere. This is the first report of paragynous antheridial associations in P. cinnamomi. Antheridial variation is a characteristic that needs to be adjusted in the taxonomic Phytophthora identification keys. In underbark and zoospore stem inoculations of three 1.5-year-old jarrah clonal lines (two ranked as resistant (RR) and one as susceptible (SS) to P. cinnamomi in the original selection trials) at 15, 20, 25 and 30 degrees C, it was found that the method of inoculation did not produce comparable results, particularly at 25 and 30 degrees C. At these temperatures, all three clonal lines had 100% mortality when inoculated underbark, but when inoculated with zoospores, one RR line had 60% survival and the SS and remaining RR line had 100% mortality. Generally, the level of resistance of all clonal lines declined with increasing temperature. Lesion development was measured at 20, 25 and 30 degrees C for 4 days in detached branches of an RR and SS clonal line inoculated underbark with four different P. cinnamomi isolates. Detached branches were found to be a potential screen for jarrah resistance to P. cinnamomi and to allow the identification of susceptible and resistant clonal lines at 30 degrees C. Lesion and colonisation development of P. cinnamomi isolates were assessed in situ (late autumn) of seed-grown and clonal lines of 3.5 to 4.5 year-old jarrah trees growing in a rehabilitated minesite jarrah forest in underbark inoculation of lateral branches (1995) or simultaneously in lateral branches and lateral roots (1996). Trees were underbark inoculated in lateral branches and lateral roots. Colonisation was more consistent as a measure of resistance than lesion length over the two trials because it accounted for the recovery of P. cinnamomi from macroscopically symptomless tissue beyond lesions, which on some occasions, was up to 6 cm. In the two trials, one RR clonal line consistently had small lesion and colonisation lengths in branches and roots. In contrast, the remaining two RR clonal lines had similar lesion and colonisation lengths to the SS clonal line and may, therefore, not be suitable for use in the rehabilitation of P. cinnamomi infested areas. The relative rankings of the jarrah clonal lines by colonisation lengths were similar between branch and root inoculations. Branch inoculations are a valid option for testing resistance and susceptibility of young jarrah trees to P. cinnamomi. The pathogen was recovered on Phytophthora selective agar 3-6 months after inoculation from 50% of samples with lesions and 30% of symptomless samples in a series of growth cabinet, glasshouse and field experiments. However, up to 11% of samples with and without lesions and from which P. cinnamomi was not initially isolated contained viable pathogen after leaching the plant material in water over 9 days. This indicates that the pathogen could be present as dormant structures, such as chlamydospores, where dormancy needs to be broken for germination to occur, or fungistatic compounds in the tissue need to be removed to allow the pathogen to grow, or both. These results have important implications for disease diagnosis and management, disease-free certification and quarantine clearance. No clonal line of jarrah was found to be 100% resistant using different inoculation methods, environmental conditions and when challenged by individuals from a large range of P. cinnamomi isolates. Even the most promising RR line had individual replicates that were unable to contain lesions or died with time. This suggests that further screening work may be required using more isolates varying in their capacity to cause disease and a broader range of environmental conditions. Jarrah clonal lines that survive such rigorous screening could then be expected to survive planting out in a range of environments in the jarrah forest and rehabilitated bauxite minesites.

Phytophthora cinnamomi is an introduced soilborne phytopathogen to Western Australia (WA) and impacts on 2000 of the approximately 9000 plant species indigenous in the southwest of WA. Amongst these is Eucalyptus marginata (jarrah), the dominant and economically important hardwood timber species of the jarrah forest. This thesis aimed to investigate the morphological, pathogenic and genotypic variation in two local WA populations of P. cinnamomi isolates. The populations were selected from areas where jarrah clonal lines selected for resistance to P. cinnamomi may be used in the rehabilitation of infested jarrah forest and rehabilitated bauxite minesites in the southwest of WA. Resistance against a range of isolates using different inoculation methods. Seventy-three isolates of P. cinnamomi were collected from diseased jarrah and Corymbia calophylla (marri) trees from two populations located 70 km apart and these were examined for phenotypic and genotypic variation. Microsatellite DNA analysis showed that all isolates were of the same clonal lineage. In P. cinnamomi for the first time I show that there is a broad and continuous variation in the morphology and pathology between two populations of one clonal lineage, and that all phenotypes varied independently from one another. No relationship was found between morphological and pathogenic characters. The ability of isolates in both populations to cause deaths ranged from killing all plants within 59 days to plants being symptomless 182 days after inoculation. Single and multiple paragynous antheridia formed along with amphigynous ones in mating studies with all WA isolates and a sample of worldwide isolates. Developmental studies and cytological examination showed fertilisation tubes developed asynchronously or synchronously from both antheridial types and indicated that either antheridial type contributed a nucleus for fertilisation of the oosphere. This is the first report of paragynous antheridial associations in P. cinnamomi. Antheridial variation is a characteristic that needs to be adjusted in the taxonomic Phytophthora identification keys. In underbark and zoospore stem inoculations of three 1.5-year-old jarrah clonal lines (two ranked as resistant (RR) and one as susceptible (SS) to P. cinnamomi in the original selection trials) at 15, 20, 25 and 30 degrees C, it was found that the method of inoculation did not produce comparable results, particularly at 25 and 30 degrees C. At these temperatures, all three clonal lines had 100% mortality when inoculated underbark, but when inoculated with zoospores, one RR line had 60% survival and the SS and remaining RR line had 100% mortality. Generally, the level of resistance of all clonal lines declined with increasing temperature. Lesion development was measured at 20, 25 and 30 degrees C for 4 days in detached branches of an RR and SS clonal line inoculated underbark with four different P. cinnamomi isolates. Detached branches were found to be a potential screen for jarrah resistance to P. cinnamomi and to allow the identification of susceptible and resistant clonal lines at 30 degrees C. Lesion and colonisation development of P. cinnamomi isolates were assessed in situ (late autumn) of seed-grown and clonal lines of 3.5 to 4.5 year-old jarrah trees growing in a rehabilitated minesite jarrah forest in underbark inoculation of lateral branches (1995) or simultaneously in lateral branches and lateral roots (1996). Trees were underbark inoculated in lateral branches and lateral roots. Colonisation was more consistent as a measure of resistance than lesion length over the two trials because it accounted for the recovery of P. cinnamomi from macroscopically symptomless tissue beyond lesions, which on some occasions, was up to 6 cm. In the two trials, one RR clonal line consistently had small lesion and colonisation lengths in branches and roots. In contrast, the remaining two RR clonal lines had similar lesion and colonisation lengths to the SS clonal line and may, therefore, not be suitable for use in the rehabilitation of P. cinnamomi infested areas. The relative rankings of the jarrah clonal lines by colonisation lengths were similar between branch and root inoculations. Branch inoculations are a valid option for testing resistance and susceptibility of young jarrah trees to P. cinnamomi. The pathogen was recovered on Phytophthora selective agar 3-6 months after inoculation from 50% of samples with lesions and 30% of symptomless samples in a series of growth cabinet, glasshouse and field experiments. However, up to 11% of samples with and without lesions and from which P. cinnamomi was not initially isolated contained viable pathogen after leaching the plant material in water over 9 days. This indicates that the pathogen could be present as dormant structures, such as chlamydospores, where dormancy needs to be broken for germination to occur, or fungistatic compounds in the tissue need to be removed to allow the pathogen to grow, or both. These results have important implications for disease diagnosis and management, disease-free certification and quarantine clearance. No clonal line of jarrah was found to be 100% resistant using different inoculation methods, environmental conditions and when challenged by individuals from a large range of P. cinnamomi isolates. Even the most promising RR line had individual replicates that were unable to contain lesions or died with time. This suggests that further screening work may be required using more isolates varying in their capacity to cause disease and a broader range of environmental conditions. Jarrah clonal lines that survive such rigorous screening could then be expected to survive planting out in a range of environments in the jarrah forest and rehabilitated bauxite minesites.

The objectives of the project were to develop an understanding of the disease dynamics caused by Phytophthora citricola in native plant communities in the south of Western Australia. Prior to 1983, the pathogen had only been reported twice from Australian forests. Since then, P. citricola has been extensively recorded from plant communities north and south of Perth, and is currently the second most frequently recovered Phytophthora species from the northern jarrah forest and the northern sandplains. The objectives were addressed by examining the biology, ecology and taxonomy of isolates of P. citricola local to the southwest. Examination of the intraspecific variation of P. citricola by isozyme analysis resolved three major electrophoretic subgroups (SG), and these were aligned with morphological and cultural variation within the species. One electrophoretic SG was confined to forested areas. This SG differed from other SGs in sporangial dimensions, growth rate on two media and in vitro sensitivity to phosphonate. A redescription of the species may be warranted. P. citricola was positively associated with two roads in the northern jarrah forest. Road surfaces were sampled, then soil overburden was removed and the surface of the concreted lateritic layer beneath was sampled. Isolation of P. citricola declined away from the road into the adjacent forest and was more frequently recovered from the caprock (up to 1 metre below soil surface) than from the soil surface. The most probable source of introduction was from infested soil on vehicles using the roads. Oospores were shown to be produced in two soils, a lateritic gravelly loam and sand, and in plants. In soil, the electrophoretic SG confined to the forest (loamy soil) produced only limited numbers of oospores in the sandy soil of the northern sandplain. The restriction of this SG to the forested areas is probably physiological, rather than limited dispersal, with the SG currently occupying the full extent of its range. Estimation of the relative persistence of oospores, zoospores and plant material colonised by P. citricola established that only oospores (either free in soil or in colonised plant material) were important in long tern survival in soil. Oospores were still viable after six months at two field sites, and after 18 months in soil in the laboratory. Phosphonate is currently the most promising method of control of Phytophthora induced disease in native plant cornmunites of the southwest. The efficacy of phosphonate against P. citricola was examined in vivo and in vitro against two SGs. Phosphonate successfully inhibited lesion growth of both SGs in vivo, but of only one electrophoretic subgroup in vitro. The ecological implications of infestation of native plant communities in the southwest of Australia are discussed.

The objectives of the project were to develop an understanding of the disease dynamics caused by Phytophthora citricola in native plant communities in the south of Western Australia. Prior to 1983, the pathogen had only been reported twice from Australian forests. Since then, P. citricola has been extensively recorded from plant communities north and south of Perth, and is currently the second most frequently recovered Phytophthora species from the northern jarrah forest and the northern sandplains. The objectives were addressed by examining the biology, ecology and taxonomy of isolates of P. citricola local to the southwest. Examination of the intraspecific variation of P. citricola by isozyme analysis resolved three major electrophoretic subgroups (SG), and these were aligned with morphological and cultural variation within the species. One electrophoretic SG was confined to forested areas. This SG differed from other SGs in sporangial dimensions, growth rate on two media and in vitro sensitivity to phosphonate. A redescription of the species may be warranted. P. citricola was positively associated with two roads in the northern jarrah forest. Road surfaces were sampled, then soil overburden was removed and the surface of the concreted lateritic layer beneath was sampled. Isolation of P. citricola declined away from the road into the adjacent forest and was more frequently recovered from the caprock (up to 1 metre below soil surface) than from the soil surface. The most probable source of introduction was from infested soil on vehicles using the roads. Oospores were shown to be produced in two soils, a lateritic gravelly loam and sand, and in plants. In soil, the electrophoretic SG confined to the forest (loamy soil) produced only limited numbers of oospores in the sandy soil of the northern sandplain. The restriction of this SG to the forested areas is probably physiological, rather than limited dispersal, with the SG currently occupying the full extent of its range. Estimation of the relative persistence of oospores, zoospores and plant material colonised by P. citricola established that only oospores (either free in soil or in colonised plant material) were important in long tern survival in soil. Oospores were still viable after six months at two field sites, and after 18 months in soil in the laboratory. Phosphonate is currently the most promising method of control of Phytophthora induced disease in native plant cornmunites of the southwest. The efficacy of phosphonate against P. citricola was examined in vivo and in vitro against two SGs. Phosphonate successfully inhibited lesion growth of both SGs in vivo, but of only one electrophoretic subgroup in vitro. The ecological implications of infestation of native plant communities in the southwest of Australia are discussed.

Dieback, largely attributed to the fungal plant pathogen Phytophthora cimiamomi, is characterized in the northern jarrah forest by multiple deaths of many plant species, including the dominant, Eucalyptus ruarginata (jarrah), a species of great commercial importance. The wide host range of the pathogen has major implications for the biodiversity of the ecosystem. The first records of dieback in the jarrah forest were made in the 1920s. Despite the magnitude and long history of the impact in the jarrah forest, little is known about the vegetation changes that result from dieback. In this dissertation, I develop a model of vegetation change related to dieback by examining the vegetation of a range of dieback sites and relating the patterns identified to the current distribution of P. cinnamomi. The study is the first explicit investigation of floristic and structural patterns on dieback sites in the jarrah forest. Substantial floristic differences were found between dieback and unaffected vegetation. The patterns are strongly correlated with the age of the original dieback event. There was little difference, however, in the mean number of species/quadrat between dieback and unaffected vegetation. The time since the inception of dieback was estimated using aerial photography. The oldest dieback sites located had been affected prior to 1951. Of the species found less frequently on these old dieback sites, 64% had not previously been associated with P. cinnamomi infection. Some of these were assessed for their susceptibility in glasshouse pathogenicity tests. New records of susceptibility were made at the species, genus and family levels. Several species regarded as being highly susceptible to infection by P. cinnamomi were found as frequently on old dieback sites as in unaffected vegetation. Many of the species found more frequently on dieback sites were probably present at the time of the initial dieback event. Others, mostly annuals, may have been introduced from nearby vegetation types with open canopies, such as granite outcrops. If plant invasions have occurred following dieback, the small differences in species richness between dieback and unaffected vegetation may hide a great reduction in species richness due to dieback. Structural changes following dieback may have a profound effect on some species regardless of their susceptibility to infection. A spatial association with trees on dieback sites was demonstrated for a range of species. The apparent reliance of some understorey species on tree cover is discussed in relation to current theories of patch dynamics. Two methods were used to isolate P. cinnamomi from dieback sites. In situ Banksia grandis baits were more effective at detecting P. cinnamomi than ex situ baited soils, especially when P. cinnamomi was apparently rare. P. cinnamomi was frequently isolated from creek edges with a long history of dieback and from active dieback fronts but was rarely found on sloping dieback sites affected prior to 1980. It is not clear if the P. cinnamomi present on pre-1951 dieback sites has persisted there since the initial dieback event or been re-introduced from active dieback fronts upslope. Very few highly susceptible species appear to be totally eliminated by the pathogen at the time of the initial dieback event. The mass deaths at that time are followed by a period of recolonization of susceptible species with highly germinable seed. The survival of the new cohort of these species is a function of the time taken to produce another crop of seed. Susceptible species may persist on the pre-1951 dieback sites because of highly germinable seed, young reproductive age, copious seed production and animal dispersal. The rarity of P. cinnamomi on these sites must greatly contribute to their persistence. Pathogenicity testing in excised stems indicated that resistance to the movement of P. cinnamomi in plant tissue develops in jarrah populations on many dieback sites, although it is unlikely to be integral to regeneration. Evidence of resistance in other species investigated could not be found. The key elements in the model of vegetation change developed in the thesis are (i) the on-going occurrence of P. cimiamomi on dieback sites, (ii) the susceptibility of plant species to infection by P. cimiamomi, (iii) the sensitivity of plant species to structural changes, (iv) the proportion of a plant population killed, (v) the capacity of plant species for rapid recruitment after dieback, (vi) the time taken for plant species from germination to reproduction, and (vii) the capacity of plant species to invade. Stochastic factors such as fire, logging, climatic perturbations, and diseases caused by other pathogens, cannot be quantified and easily incorporated into the model. Predictions are made about the future vegetation of dieback sites, contingent on intervention by forest managers. An epidemic - recovery cycle, involving concomitant fluctuations in pathogen and host populations, has been hypothesized by some authors for sites affected by P. cimiamomi. There is evidence of such a cycle on a small scale. On a larger scale, epidemics on dieback sites in the jarrah forest may be isolated in space and time. The importance of long-term ecological studies of jarrah forest vegetation to our understanding of natural forest processes and the effects of dieback is stressed.