Dissertationen zum Thema „Pedestrian safety“

This study establishes pedestrian safety focused environment around elementary schools. In order to reach this objective 3 consecutive goals are fulfilled
firstly
proposing, a newly designed black spot analysis, &ldquo
Behavioral Black Spot Analysis&rdquo
, secondly
documenting pedestrian behavior around black spots, and finally stimulating effective interventions around elementary schools. This study proposes a newly designed methodology
&ldquo
Behavioral Black Spot Analysis&rdquo
which is namely based upon pedestrians&rsquo
route choice and risk perception statements. Additionally it is observed that students choose the shortest route on their way. &ldquo
Behavioral Black Spot Analysis&rdquo
reveals that traffic flows, pedestrian visibility, vehicle visibility, waiting time, road width are most important parameters of pedestrians&rsquo
perception of traffic safety. Results of unobtrusive observations indicate that interventions have significant effect on vehicle speed, number of conflicts, yielding behavior of drivers, total number of cars forming a queue, number of pedestrians stopping on the curb, head movements, crossing angles, crossing tempos, and crossing distances of pedestrians. Behind this interventions affects pedestrians&rsquo
waiting time in negative manner. Recommendations for pedestrian safety interventions are suggested.

Radar plays a major role in safety-critical applications mainly in the automotive industry due to its weather and lighting independence. The progress made in radar hardware technology has made it possible to detect objects more efficiently. Autonomous vehicles need to address a lot of problems encountered in their pathways which need proper detection and identification of obstacles for navigation purposes. Detection and identification of obstacles during navigation help in defining the trajectories for a vehicle so that collision can be avoided. A 77GHz radar system is used in many automotive industrial vehicles for automotive safety. At any given time, there is a possibility of multiple objects being in the vicinity of a vehicle that is not highly reflective which is based on its materialistic properties, such as prams or bicycles as compared to other road vehicles. In the work described in this thesis, we aim at designing, detecting, and identifying simple radar reflectors using copper sheets, which can be placed on such low reflective objects which helps in increasing pedestrian safety aspects. The software aspect of the radar module being used is achieved by using a demo application provided by the radar module manufacturer. This acts as the base structure for the python script which is used for detection and identification of the radar reflectors.

With the number of vehicles increasing in the system every day, many statewide policies across the United States aim to increase the use of non- motorized transportation modes. This could have safety implications because the interaction between motorists and non-motorists could increase and potentially increasing pedestrian-vehicle crashes. Few models that predict the number of pedestrian crashes are not sensitive to site-specific conditions or intersection designs that may influence pedestrian crashes. Moreover, traditional statistical modeling techniques rely extensively on the sparsely available pedestrian crash database. This study focused on overcoming these limitations by developing models that quantify potential interactions between pedestrians and vehicles at various intersection designs using as surrogate safety measure the time to conflict. Several variables that capture volumes, intersection geometry, and operational performance were evaluated for developing pedestrian-vehicle conflict models for different intersection designs. Linear regression models were found to be best fit and potential conflict models were developed for signalized, unsignalized and roundabout intersections. Volume transformations were applied to signalized and unsignalized conditions to develop statistical models for unconventional intersections. The pedestrian-vehicle conflicting volumes, the number of lanes that pedestrians are exposed to vehicles, the percentage of turning vehicles, and the intersection conflict location (major or minor approach) were found to be significant predictors for estimating pedestrian safety at signalized and unsignalized intersections. For roundabouts, the pedestrian-vehicle conflicting volumes, the number of lanes that pedestrians have to cross, and the intersection conflict location (major or minor approach) were found to be significant predictors. Signalized intersection models were used for bowtie and median U-turn intersections using appropriate volume transformations. The combination of signalized intersection models for the intersection area and two-way unsignalized intersection models for the ramp area of the jughandle intersections were utilized with appropriate volume transformations. These models can be used to compare alternative intersection designs and provide designers and planners with a surrogate measure of pedestrian safety level for each intersection design examined.

Active pedestrian safety systems can help to significantly increase pedestrian road safety, but must be tested very carefully before used in series application. Since there is usually a very small amount of time to prevent the collision, the activation of an emergency brake is always a critical decision. On the other hand, of course, false triggerings must be prevented. Aiming to increase pedestrian and vehicle safety, this thesis presents a novel approach for the test of active pedestrian safety systems. From the question "What is needed to test and compare future active pedestrian safety systems?" are resulting the following questions: 1. What are the significant characteristics of real pedestrians? 2. How can this features be mapped to a test system? This thesis presents characteristic features of pedestrians from the perspective of automotive surround sensors and introduces a novel test system approach including a realistic pedestrian dummy which is able to replicate those characteristics. Furthermore it introduces a novel active pedestrian safety test methodology, based on the variation of target characteristics, environmental conditions and driver behaviour. The proposed pedestrian dummy was set up in real size and tested on the test track in vehicle tests. A video of the described test and the novel pedestrian dummy can be seen here: https://youtu.be/eF5IkqsknBE

Since 2005, pedestrian deaths nationwide had decreased by more than 16 percent, averaging about 200 fewer deaths per year. However, preliminary data collected from the first six months of 2010 show that the decrease had apparently slowed or stopped--seven more pedestrians died in the first six months of 2010 than for the same period in 2009 (Fogel, 2011). Car - pedestrian collisions at crosswalks were serious matters that required continuous research on increasing pedestrian safety at crosswalks. In this paper, although (e.g., Cox, et al., 2010; Houten & Retting, 2001; Huybers, Van Houten, & Malenfant, 2004; Reagan, Sifrit, Compton, Tenebaum, & Van Houten, 2010) have all contributed to the behavior interventions in pedestrian safety, we followed the procedure of earlier research conducted by Crowley-Koch et al. (2011) on the effects of pedestrian prompts on motorist yielding at crosswalks. In addition, this current study extended the previous study by examining the effects of a pedestrian prompt through a wearing of a Bell® Spider flasher over left arm at resting position, on motorist yielding at a controlled crosswalk. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Pedestrian training is one method of road safety education used to improve roadside behaviour and crossing skills in order to improve road safety. ‘Kerbcraft’ is a comprehensive pedestrian training scheme, recommended by the United Kingdom government, which has been demonstrated to be effective in improving pedestrian skills at the roadside. Very few Local Authorities have adopted Kerbcraft in its entirety due to cost and time constraints, with just five out of 57 local authorities surveyed operating a full Kerbcraft scheme. With a lack of comprehensive evaluation, the effectiveness of these adapted schemes is unknown. Many local authorities supplement on-street training with in-class activities that are generally designed to target knowledge acquisition, rather than behavioural improvements. Interactive Video has been shown to have potential to improve ‘hard’ procedural skills such as those used when walking at the roadside. An interactive video has been developed, designed to improve skills when children cross between parked cars. The interactive video is shown to be a usable and engaging educational resource with primary school children and shows that it can positively influence on-street behaviour overall. The video was most successful in a junior school with a high level of engagement observed and least successful in a primary school where the level of observed engagement in the video was lower.

Every year approximately 400 000 pedestrians are killed worldwide in road related injuries where children and elderly are the most exposed age groups. The design of the front-end of a vehicle and the structural stiffness have a significant influence on the kinematics and injury risks of the pedestrian body. To create a clearance between the rigid hood structure and the hood, the hood is lifted. A lifted hood does however not provide protection over the cowl, windscreen and A-pillar areas. This study is performed at Autoliv Sverige AB and the purpose is to examine how fast the hood can be lifted 100 mm using a pedestrian protection airbag. The airbag give an extended protection while covering the cowl, windscreen and A-pillar areas. A concept generation session was performed where modifications of the current pedestrian protection airbag, for a faster hood lift, were proposed. The generated concepts proceeded to a concept screening session where the Autoliv evaluation matrix was used. The selected concepts went further to static testing where the performance of each concept was tested. The performance include the lift time of 100 mm for the most rearward section of the hood, positioning of the cushion and pressure distribution. The tests were carried out in a room temperature environment. To conclude the thesis work, one winning concept could not be obtained. Two concepts excelled themselves from all the concepts and a difference in the performances between these two concepts could not be found. In this thesis no calculations on costs such as material costs and manufacturing costs has been made. This can be the major aspect on choosing one winning concept but due to the fact that there is no time for a cost analysis in this thesis, the PPA development team will take over.

The Child Pedestrian Injury Prevention Project (CPIPP) is a rigorous school- and community-based intervention trial delivered to 2,500 children in their second, third and fourth year of schooling in three communities in Perth, Western Australia, from 1995 to 1997. The CPIPP was designed to improve children's pedestrian safety knowledge, their road related behaviors - crossing and playing, and to reduce their risk in, and exposure to, traffic. This thesis addresses the process evaluation of the CPIPP school-based intervention. The Curtin University Human Research Ethics Committee provided ethics approval for this project.Evaluation of previous school-based pedestrian safety programs has focused mainly on assessing outcomes with little or no process evaluation. An absence of process evaluation increases the likelihood of Type III error, that is, incorrectly attributing null or weak outcomes to a program that has not been adequately implemented.In each of the three study years, following a teacher training, teachers were asked to implement the school-based intervention. Each year this comprised nine 40-minute pedestrian safety lessons and home activities. Lessons included road crossing practise on real and simulated roads.Data were collected from the student cohort (n=1049) and their Grade 2, 3 and 4 teachers. Four process evaluation instruments were developed and administered in each of the three study years. These included one student instrument (work samples) and three teacher instruments (lesson log, teacher post-implementation questionnaire and classroom observation). Student outcome data including their pedestrian-related knowledge and road crossing and playing behaviours were assessed using a pre- and post-test self report questionnaire.The majority of teachers (70-97%) and students (72-84%) responded positively to questions about their satisfaction with the CPIPP Grades 2, 3 and 4 curricular. Evidence in student work samples demonstrated that teachers taught 76% (seven of nine lessons) of the Grades 2 and 3 curricular, and 68% (six of the nine lessons) of the Grade 4 curricular. Teacher self-reported implementation rates using a 'lesson log' were 88%, 81% and 60% respectively for the three curricular. Teachers reported practising road crossing on a real road in 21% (one lesson) of six designated crossing practise lessons in 1996 and 36% (two lessons) in 1997.Multivariate analyses revealed students pedestrian safety knowledge was significantly associated with teacher implementation of the classroom curriculum. This relationship was one of dose-response. It demonstrated students who, each year, received at least 7 lessons (81% or more) of the three CPIPP curricular showed a greater improvement in pedestrian safety knowledge than those students who received a lower dose of the curriculum. Significant effects on pedestrian safety knowledge were also observed for students who, each year, practised crossing a real road in at least one lesson (17%) of the curriculum. The relationship between implementation and student road crossing and road playing behaviours was not one of dose-response.Student work samples, teacher lesson logs and to a lesser extent teacher self-report questionnaires, were found to be valid measures of curriculum implementation. This study also found that implementation of the CPIPP curriculum achieved a modest improvement in student pedestrian safety knowledge and possibly arrested the decline of safe road crossing behaviour. It also demonstrated that classroom pedestrian safety education alone, while necessary, is not sufficient to positively modify children's road crossing behaviours.The findings of this study demonstrate the importance of measuring teacher implementation. A process evaluation is essential to determine if an intervention has been implemented and to help explain the impact this level of implementation had on program outcomes. However, more research needs to explore the link between other factors in the process of curriculum delivery and program effects. Further research also needs to determine how to develop and measure an intervention that includes the key procedures and content that theoretically promote the desired behaviour, but also allows teachers to make adjustments to the program to suit their teaching style and the needs of their students.Child pedestrian injury is a complex problem that requires a multifaceted intervention, of which a classroom curriculum can form part.

The purpose of this thesis was to determine which perceptual cues drivers use to identify pedestrians that may constitute a risk in traffic. Methods chosen were recordings of pedestrian behaviour in Linköping by means of a stationary video camera as well as video camera mounted in a car. Interviews on the recordings from the mobile camera were conducted with taxi drivers and driving instructors.

Results include that drivers not only react to pedestrians they believe will behave in a dangerous way, but also react to pedestrians that probably not will behave in such a way, but where the possibility still exists. The study concluded that it was not possible to determine how risky a pedestrian is considered to be by only using behavioural factors such as trajectory or position on the sidewalk, and distance. It is necessary also to include environmental factors, mainly where the pedestrian and car are positioned in relation to the side of the road, so that the behaviour of the pedestrian can be interpreted.

People with vision impairment have various challenges in wayfinding, navigation, and crossing signalized intersections. They often face physical and information barriers that impede their mobility and undermine their safety along a trip. Visually impaired people usually use a white cane as their primary aid when crossing urban traffic intersections. In order to improve their mobility, safety and accessibility, it is important to provide an assistive system to help them in intersection navigation and to provide information regarding the surrounding environment. While assistive systems have been developed to help visually impaired pedestrians to navigate and find their way, using these systems may be inconvenient. Furthermore, none of the currently available systems provide communication between the users and traffic signal controller that can help them request pedestrian crossing signal timing. Emerging connected vehicle technologies can provide a solution to assist visually impaired people and address their challenges. Conflicts between vehicles and vulnerable road users (VRUs) often result in injuries and fatalities. A situational awareness system could be based on wireless communications between vehicles and VRUs for the exchange of situational awareness information. Compared to the radar-based and vision-based systems, the wireless-based system. can improve VRUs’ safety, especially in non-line-of-sight (NLOS) situations. In particular, it can be very helpful when drivers are making a right or left turn where there is a pedestrian in a crosswalk and visibility conditions are poor. The Smart Walk Assistant (SWA) system was designed, developed, and tested during the research of this dissertation. It includes two wireless communication pathways; pedestrian-to-infrastructure (P2I) and pedestrian-to-vehicle (P2V). The first communication pathway enables users to send a pedestrian signal request to the traffic signal controller and receive traffic signal status. The second communication pathway enables pedestrians and vehicles to exchange information, including location, speed, and heading, that can be used to detect possible conflict between pedestrian and vehicles and provide conflict alerts. The SWA system may be especially beneficial to pedestrians with disability (e.g., blind or visually impaired pedestrians) who would benefit from active support to safely cross streets at signalized intersections. Developing a reliable situational awareness system for pedestrians is much more challenging than for vehicles because a vehicle’s movement is more predictable and usually remains in the lane in the road. In order to provide better location-based services for pedestrians, a position accuracy is needed of, at most, the width of a crosswalk or sidewalk. The SWA system includes a method to estimate a pedestrian’s position. The algorithm is based on integrating Map-Matching and an Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) in a connected vehicle environment to provide precise location information. The system architecture for the SWA application was developed to be applicable for both a simulation environment and a real world traffic system. Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation environment is developed and calibrated to mimic the real world. Comprehensive testing and assessment of the system and algorithms are conducted in simulation as well as field test networks.

Pedestrians are the most vulnerable road users in terms of traffic safety. Public transit users mostly have a pedestrian trip before and/or after the transit one. Thus, pedestrian activity is produced at transit stops naturally. The main focus of this study is pedestrian safety problems around transit stops, more specifically bus stops. The proposed methodology first includes Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analyses of the pedestrian safety along the study corridors and around bus stops on them
this enables determination of accident-prone corridor segments and bus stops, respectively. Later, two analyses are studied to understand their correlation. Finally, linear regression analyses are performed to find the significant factors affecting pedestrian safety. These analyses use parameters created in the GIS analyses in the first part, as well as others (i.e. built environment, traffic network, etc.) that have potential impact on pedestrian movement or safety. In corridor safety models, the number of pedestrian accidents or accident density (or some transformation of them) is used as the dependent variable
while it is selected as the total number of accidents within a selected buffer zone in the bus stop safety models. The case study corridors are selected based on the high density of pedestrian accidents in Ankara, including the Central Business District (CBD) and four main arterials serve from CBD to different regions. The bus stops on corridors with high motorized and pedestrian flows are found to be more critical than others.

An Intelligent Pedestrian Device (IPD) is a new concept in pedestrian safety. It is defined as a microprocessor based information device which detects the approach of oncoming vehicles and informs the pedestrian whether or not it is safe to cross. IPDs could be portable or fixed to a roadside station. They could help reduce pedestrian accidents, which cost £2681 million in the UK in 1994. This study aims to assess whether the concept is socially acceptable and what the design criteria might be. A study of social acceptance involved group interviews of 5-10 participants with 84 pedestrians in five categories: adults aged 18-60, elderly aged 65+, visually restricted, parents of children aged 5-9 and children aged 10-14. The results suggest that vulnerable pedestrians are more positive about the device than the more able-bodied. Theories that may help explain this are discussed and it is concluded that, with education and marketing, the IPD could gain a degree of social acceptance. Observation of more than 900 pedestrian crossing movements at four different sites showed a range of behaviours, and that people often take risks in order to reduce delay. IPDs will require pedestrians to change some of their behaviours, especially those that are risky. Legal acceptance will demand high levels of costly product research and development, and a portable device will not be technologically feasible until well into the next century. However, the wider social benefits of IPDs may be worth the costs. An outline of design criteria for basic and sophisticated portable IPDs is given, and alternative functions are suggested. It is recommended that further work concentrate on developing software and hardware for fixed modes of IPD. It is concluded that, ultimately, acceptance will probably depend on whether Government decides that the IPD has a place in the road environment of the future.

This report represents a concentrated effort that determines the feasibility of audible pedestrian signals. These signals are devices which give auditory cues to help the visually impaired cross safely at difficult intersections. Surveys were sent out to over 100 organizations, audible signal manufacturers, and cities who have knowledge of the devices, and responses were analyzed. The devices were found to be feasible but only at certain complex and confusing intersections. Twelve criteria for the installation of the devices were developed as were twelve criteria for the operation of the devices. Buzzers, constant tones, bird calls, and voice signals were examined by obtaining information from traffic engineers who had experience with each sound. It was determined that intermittent tones were the most effective for human localization. For the most widely used devices, cost data were developed for the products, installation, and maintenance. A partial listing of the U.S. and foreign cities which have the devices was compiled along with a partial listing of audible signal manufacturers. The problems the visually impaired face as well as their suggested solutions are listed. Topics for further study include the use of hand-held devices which activate sound signals at intersections and the development of tone schemes for 4-leg and multi-leg intersections which are not north south and east-west. An additional topic for future study is the development of tone schemes for traffic circles.
Master of Science

Le contexte général de cette recherche concerne la sécurité active des piétons. De nombreux systèmes embarqués dans les véhicules sont actuellement développés afin de détecter un piéton sur la chaussée et d’éviter une collision soit par une manœuvre de freinage d’urgence soit par une manœuvre de déport. La plupart de ces systèmes d’aide à la conduite sont basés sur des systèmes de détection (caméras, radars, etc). Ils analysent la scène en temps réel, puis effectuent un traitement d’images dans le but d’identifier un potentiel danger. Or il apparaît difficile de déterminer la pertinence de ces systèmes en termes de sécurité routière. L’'objectif général de ce travail est ainsi d’estimer cette pertinence en confrontant les systèmes à de multiples configurations d’accidents réels. La méthodologie consiste à tester les systèmes de détection des piétons dans les configurations d’accidents reconstruits en les associant à la cinématique des véhicules. Le test de performance de ces systèmes a été alors réalisé en vérifiant leurs compatibilités au regard de la chronologie des accidents; i.e. vérifier la possibilité d’'évitement des accidents. À partir de ces reconstructions d’accidents réels, une analyse a été réalisée afin de dégager les enjeux au niveau spatio-temporelle qui influencent la sécurité primaire du piéton
The scope of this research concerns pedestrian active safety. Several primary safety systems have been developed for vehicles in order to detect a pedestrian and to avoid an impact. These systems analyse the forward path of the vehicle through the processing of images from sensors. If a pedestrian is identified on the vehicle trajectory, these systems employ emergency braking and some systems may potentially employ emergency steering. Methods for assessing the effectiveness of these systems have been developed. But, it appears difficult to determine the relevance of these systems in terms of pedestrian protection. The general objective of this research was to test the response of these systems in many accident configurations.The methodology consisted of coupling the vehicle dynamic behaviour with a primary safety system in order to confront these systems to real accident configurations. The relevance of these systems is studied by verifying the feasibility of deploying an autonomous emergency manoeuvre during the timeline of the accident and according to the vehicle dynamic capabilities: i.e. verifying the possibilities in terms of crash avoidance. From these accident reconstructions and simulation, factors relevant to the primary safety of pedestrians were deduced

The main objective of this research is to examine the effect of city-level urban characteristic, such as urban form and trip generation factors, on traffic safety in general and pedestrian safety in particular. For this purpose, the information for 100 major Urban Areas (UAs) in the United States in 2010 is studied. Factor analysis is applied to construct latent variables from multiple observed variables to measure and describe urban form, macro-level trip generation, citywide transportation network features and traffic safety. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) is then used to investigate how city-level urban form and trip generation affect traffic safety directly and indirectly (through mediators of transportation network features).

Based on the statistical analysis, it is found that encouraging the use of non-driving transportation modes and controlling traffic congestion, as significant mediators, are effective policies to increase overall traffic safety and pedestrian safety, respectively. In this regard, urban areas with a more even spatial distribution of job-housing balance (more polycentricity), more uniform spatial distribution of different social classes, higher urban density (less sprawl), and more connectivity in their transportation network (more accessibility) have the safest urban form designs.

Moreover, mixed land-use designs with provided local access to services and amenities, food and beverage centers, and religious organizations, followed by strict pedestrian safety standards for neighborhoods are the safest type of land use designs in urban areas. In addition, regulating the off-peak hours allowed time for heavy vehicles and changing the work schedule of workers who do not reside in the urban area can also help city planners to increase traffic safety.

The Child Pedestrian Injury Prevention Project (CPIPP) is a rigorous school- and community-based intervention trial delivered to 2,500 children in their second, third and fourth year of schooling in three communities in Perth, Western Australia, from 1995 to 1997. The CPIPP was designed to improve children's pedestrian safety knowledge, their road related behaviors - crossing and playing, and to reduce their risk in, and exposure to, traffic. This thesis addresses the process evaluation of the CPIPP school-based intervention. The Curtin University Human Research Ethics Committee provided ethics approval for this project.Evaluation of previous school-based pedestrian safety programs has focused mainly on assessing outcomes with little or no process evaluation. An absence of process evaluation increases the likelihood of Type III error, that is, incorrectly attributing null or weak outcomes to a program that has not been adequately implemented.In each of the three study years, following a teacher training, teachers were asked to implement the school-based intervention. Each year this comprised nine 40-minute pedestrian safety lessons and home activities. Lessons included road crossing practise on real and simulated roads.Data were collected from the student cohort (n=1049) and their Grade 2, 3 and 4 teachers. Four process evaluation instruments were developed and administered in each of the three study years. These included one student instrument (work samples) and three teacher instruments (lesson log, teacher post-implementation questionnaire and classroom observation). Student outcome data including their pedestrian-related knowledge and road crossing and playing behaviours were assessed using a pre- and post-test self report questionnaire.The majority of teachers (70-97%) and students (72-84%) responded positively to questions about their satisfaction with the ++
CPIPP Grades 2, 3 and 4 curricular. Evidence in student work samples demonstrated that teachers taught 76% (seven of nine lessons) of the Grades 2 and 3 curricular, and 68% (six of the nine lessons) of the Grade 4 curricular. Teacher self-reported implementation rates using a 'lesson log' were 88%, 81% and 60% respectively for the three curricular. Teachers reported practising road crossing on a real road in 21% (one lesson) of six designated crossing practise lessons in 1996 and 36% (two lessons) in 1997.Multivariate analyses revealed students pedestrian safety knowledge was significantly associated with teacher implementation of the classroom curriculum. This relationship was one of dose-response. It demonstrated students who, each year, received at least 7 lessons (81% or more) of the three CPIPP curricular showed a greater improvement in pedestrian safety knowledge than those students who received a lower dose of the curriculum. Significant effects on pedestrian safety knowledge were also observed for students who, each year, practised crossing a real road in at least one lesson (17%) of the curriculum. The relationship between implementation and student road crossing and road playing behaviours was not one of dose-response.Student work samples, teacher lesson logs and to a lesser extent teacher self-report questionnaires, were found to be valid measures of curriculum implementation. This study also found that implementation of the CPIPP curriculum achieved a modest improvement in student pedestrian safety knowledge and possibly arrested the decline of safe road crossing behaviour. It also demonstrated that classroom pedestrian safety education alone, while necessary, is not sufficient to positively modify children's road crossing behaviours.The findings of this study demonstrate the importance of measuring teacher implementation. A process evaluation is ++
essential to determine if an intervention has been implemented and to help explain the impact this level of implementation had on program outcomes. However, more research needs to explore the link between other factors in the process of curriculum delivery and program effects. Further research also needs to determine how to develop and measure an intervention that includes the key procedures and content that theoretically promote the desired behaviour, but also allows teachers to make adjustments to the program to suit their teaching style and the needs of their students.Child pedestrian injury is a complex problem that requires a multifaceted intervention, of which a classroom curriculum can form part.

This thesis takes a critical look at the present state of bicycle safety research, highlighting data needs and some conclusions researchers have already drawn using the data available to them. In particular, this thesis examines safety literature relating to 22 bicycle treatments, synthesizing findings, study methodologies, and data sources used in the studies. The current body of bicycle safety literature points toward some defensible conclusions regarding the safety of certain bicycle treatments such as bike lanes and removal of on-street parking; however, many treatments are still in need of rigorous research. Also, there are fundamental questions about data that need to be answered, and data availability issues need to be addressed. Among them are what constitutes appropriate exposure measures for bicycles, how to obtain accurate crash and exposure data for bicycles, and what impact safety treatments have on injury severity.

Master of Regional and Community Planning
Department of Landscape Architecture/Regional and Community Planning
Hyung Jin Kim
In the past 20 years, the promotion of bicycle-friendly environments in the United States has become a major topic for city planners, engineers, landscape architects, and concerned citizens. The City of Manhattan, Kansas, and Kansas State University (KSU) are following the trend by creating more bicycle infrastructure. As an example, the Campus Planning and Facilities Management Department at KSU recently installed new signs on the pavement that support existing bicycle rules around campus. The rules require cyclists to dismount and walk their bicycles on the main campus sidewalk and yield to pedestrians when crossing Bosco Plaza. While signs are important, these markers should be part of a bigger plan that includes infrastructure, education and enforcement working together to create a safe, active transportation system. This project explores bicycling culture at KSU campus and uses three key concepts of infrastructure, education, and enforcement to discover what improvements are needed and what improvements can be made. The video-based observation method consists of recording the activity of cyclists entering the campus core and analyzing the behavior of cyclists and pedestrians. The survey was conducted via social media in order to understand safety perceptions and behaviors of bicyclists and pedestrian as daily commuters to campus. The results from both methods show a lack of involvement with infrastructure, education, and enforcement for cycling at Kansas State which creates areas that are not safe for pedestrians. Bicycling (15.4%) and walking (46.7%) represent 62.1% of commuters to campus; therefore, a safer approach to campus infrastructure needs to be addressed for these users. Results indicate that the dismount signs are ignored 82.9% of the time, and collisions between cyclists and pedestrians do happen on campus. An absence of enforcement is shown in the data, which is compounded by a non-existing bicycling education program, making for a less than optimal active transportation system on campus.

This licentiate thesis deals with traffic safety of pedestrians and cyclists, especially children, in urban areas. The aim is to develop a method based on video recordings to describe road safety and mobility for pedestrians and cyclists, especially children, at intersections in urban areas. It is tested using empirical data from intersections in Borås, Sweden. The amount of incidents and conflicts between vehicles and pedestrians and cyclists are lower for all age groups after reconstruction. Before reconstructions the share of car drivers giving way were low independent of the pedestrians age. The design of an intersection influences the different road users’ behaviour. At intersections where more pedestrians walk on the marked zebra crossing the children are benefited the most.

Godkänd; 2001; 20061101 (ysko)

Pedestrian lighting design is a very important part of urban lighting design. Appropriately designed pedestrian lighting can provide people with sense of safety and improve their quality of life. However, the exploration of people's needs and perceptions of pedestrian lighting is neglected. Most of the existing design guidelines are generated from designer centered perspectives. This study aims at creating new perspectives in pedestrian lighting study. In this study, lighting quality is investigated through a behavioral science approach by examining the relationship between the lighting attributes and people's perceived safety. Primary research objectives include identifying important attributes of the lighting environment, examining their influence on people's perceived safety, and exploring the impacts of pedestrian's individual characteristics in this perceptual process. In order to fulfill the research objectives, this thesis comprises an online survey that aims to discover the environmental perceptions of the people from Virginia Tech towards the nighttime pedestrian footpath scenes of the campus. The findings from the online survey indicate that important lighting attributes influencing people's perceived safety are identified as: uniformity, facial recognition, concealment and perceived brightness. The findings further indicate that some environmental context attributes, environmental perception attributes, and socio-demographic attributes also significantly influence people's perceived safety. Several design guidelines are provided for future lighting design practice.
Master of Landscape Architecture

South Africa's pedestrian accident rate is one of the highest in the world. The percentage of pedestrian accidents to total road accidents is approximately 33% (RTMC, 2011) far greater than the world average of 22% (World Health Organisation, 2013). The problem is more acute in rural areas where 1 in 3 pedestrian accidents results in pedestrian fatalities. The ratio on urban roads is 1 in 10. The sobering pedestrian safety statistics describing South Africa's rural roads have prompted the need to research functional and effective traffic engineering solutions that can improve pedestrian safety on rural high order roads located near human settlements. This investigation is conducted using the R71 Polokwane -a road with a history of pedestrian safety problems- as a case study. Pedestrian safety risk factors and an assessment methodology for pedestrian risk on rural high order roads are derived from a review of local and international literature. The pedestrian risk assessment methodology is applied to the R71 study area. This process highlights the shortcomings of the current accident data collection process. Critical information such as accident cause and location; driver and pedestrian characteristics such as age and gender; important information such as vehicle type and age, injuries, fatalities, etc. are not recorded. The limited data minimises the depth of the analysis however a reasonable high level understanding of the pedestrian safety risk factors and the risk in the study area is attained. The R71 study area is characterised by villages, farms and an urban settlement. The prevalence of pedestrian accidents is higher in villages and lowest in the urban settlements. This is attributed to the infrastructure provision in the urban settlement. The causes of pedestrian risk on the R71 are concluded as: ● Lack of integrated land use and transport planning; ● Lack of pedestrian infrastructure. ● Poor design of speed transition zones between rural areas and villages and urban areas. A literature review of effective pedestrian safety measures that are being implemented locally and abroad is compiled. Some of the solutions are impractical for the rural South African context particularly because they are dependent on consistent energy sources and may require routine maintenance. A solution framework based on the pedestrian safety risk identified on the R71 is designed to guide countermeasure selection and design in rural contexts. In the end, solutions deemed suitable for the rural context are: effective high to low speed transition zones; the provision of fenced-off service roads and strategic crossing points; and the removal and enforcement of land use in the road reserve of high order roads. These solutions must be complemented with community training and consistent law enforcement.

Pedestrian countdown signals (PCSs) are viable traffic control devices that assist pedestrians in crossing intersections safely. Despite the fact that PCSs are meant for pedestrians, they also have an impact on drivers’ behavior at intersections. This study focuses on the evaluation of the safety effectiveness of PCSs to drivers in the cities of Jacksonville and Gainesville, Florida. The study employs two Bayesian approaches, before-and-after empirical Bayes (EB) and full Bayes (FB) with a comparison group, to quantify the safety impacts of PCSs to drivers. Specifically, crash modification factors (CMFs), which are estimated using the aforementioned two methods, were used to evaluate the safety effects of PCSs to drivers. Apart from establishing CMFs, crash modification functions (CMFunctions) were also developed to observe the relationship between CMFs and traffic volume. The CMFs were established for distinctive categories of crashes based on crash type (rear-end and angle collisions) and severity level (total, fatal and injury (FI), and property damage only (PDO) collisions). The CMFs findings, using the EB approach indicated that installing PCSs result in a significant improvement of driver’s safety, at a 95% confidence interval (CI), by a 8.8% reduction in total crashes, a 8.0% reduction in rear-end crashes, and a 7.1% reduction in PDO crashes. In addition, FI crashes and angle crashes were observed to be reduced by 4.8%, whereas a 4.6% reduction in angle crashes was observed. In the case of the FB approach, PCSs were observed to be effective and significant, at a 95% Bayesian credible interval (BCI), for a total (Mean = 0.894, 95% BCI (0.828, 0.911)), PDO (Mean = 0.908, 95% BCI (0.838, 0.953)), and rear-end (Mean = 0.920, 95% BCI (0.842, 0.942)) crashes. The results of two crash categories such as FI (Mean = 0.957, 95% BCI (0.886, 1. 020)) and angle (Mean = 0.969, 95% BCI (0.931, 1.022)) crashes are less than one but are not significant at the 95 % BCI. Also, discussed in this study are the CMFunctions, showing the relationship between the developed CMFs and total entering traffic volume, obtained by combining the total traffic on the major and the minor approaches. In addition, the CMFunctions developed using the FB indicated the relationship between the estimated CMFs with the post-treatment year. The CMFunctions developed in this study clearly show that the treatment effectiveness varies considerably with post-treatment time and traffic volume. Moreover, using the FB methodology, the results suggest the treatment effectiveness increased over time in the post-treatment years for the crash categories with two important indicators of effectiveness, i.e., total and PDO, and rear-end crashes. Nevertheless, the treatment effectiveness on rear-end crashes is observed to decline with post-treatment time, although the base value is still less than one for all the three years. In summary, the results suggest the usefulness of PCSs for drivers.

This research project develops an advanced computer model for the new design of Toyota Vehicle Frontal Protection System (VFPS) in terms of the future pedestrian safety requirements. The research method is based on the numerical simulation of dynamic vehicle-pedestrian collisions following New Car Assessment Program protocols. The numerical models which were validated by experimental data can accurately predict the Toyota VFPS products of pedestrian-friendliness.

Objective: State-of-the-art collision avoidance and collision mitigation systems predict the behavior of pedestrians based on trivial models that assume a constant acceleration or velocity. New sources of sensor information—for example, smart devices such as smartphones, tablets, smartwatches, etc.—can support enhanced pedestrian behavior models. The objective of this article is the development and implementation of a V2Xpedestrian collision avoidance system that uses new information sources. Methods: A literature review of existing state-of-the-art pedestrian collision avoidance systems, pedestrian behavior models in advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), and traffic simulations is conducted together with an analysis of existing studies on typical pedestrian patterns in traffic. Based on this analysis, possible parameters for predicting pedestrian behavior were investigated. The results led to new requirements from which a concept was developed and implemented. Results: The analysis of typical pedestrian behavior patterns in traffic situations showed the complexity of predicting pedestrian behavior. Requirements for an improved behavior prediction were derived. A concept for a V2X collision avoidance system, based on a cost function that predicts pedestrian near future presence, and its implementation is presented. The concept presented considers several challenges such as information privacy, inaccuracies of the localization, and inaccuracies of the prediction. Conclusion: A concept for an enhanced V2X pedestrian collision avoidance system was developed and introduced. The concept uses new information sources such as smart devices to improve the prediction of the pedestrian's presence in the near future and considers challenges that come along with the usage of these information sources.

This study assesses the role of crossing locations and light conditions in pedestrian injury severity through a multivariate regression analysis to control for many other factors that also may influence pedestrian injury severity. Crossing locations include midblock and intersections, and light conditions include daylight, dark with street lighting, and dark without street lighting. The study formulates a theoretical framework on the determinants of pedestrian injury severity, and specifies an empirical model accordingly. An ordered probit model is then applied to the KABCO severity scale of pedestrian injuries which occurred while attempting street crossing in the years 1986 to 2003 in Florida. In terms of crossing locations, the probability of a pedestrian dying when struck by a vehicle, is higher at midblock locations than at intersections for any light condition. In fact, the odds of sustaining a fatal injury is 49 percent lower at intersections than at midblock locations under daylight conditions, 24 percent lower under dark with street lighting conditions, and 5 percent lower under dark without street lighting conditions. Relative to dark conditions without street lighting, daylight reduces the odds of a fatal injury by 75 percent at midblock locations and by 83 percent at intersections, while street lighting reduces the odds by 42 percent at midblock locations and by 54 percent at intersections.

Child pedestrian safety is one of the biggest safety issues regarding planning of a well arranged urban traffic. The fact that vulnerable road users suffer most from traffic incidents also raises concern for children. Children need special care while considering traffic safety. The factors are various that they differ from adults by many aspects. For their physically smaller size, immature ability to judge the traffic situations, lack of experience about traffic and mental deficiencies like losing concentration after short periods, they are much more susceptible to the traffic hazards than adults. Various studies have been carried and many applications regarding child and school pedestrian safety worldwide and the most hazardous periods were found as afternoon hours. Age factor generally is flexible but as the child grows older, mobility increases and risks become larger. The risk factors also include the social and economical environment that children living in good life standards suffer less than those are not. Education is also crucial on adopting the sense of road safety on children’s perspective. Simulation based studies have proved to be effective in order to draw child’s attention to the subject, however it should be combined with field trips to gain a more realistic and solid idea about the matter. Besides, engineering measures rise up as another milestone where roadside and land use planning is important. Traffic calming measures have proved to be effective to warn road users and thus form a safer traffic environment for children. Special applications for school zones such as flashing lights, narrowed crossways or 30km/h areas have been effective. The case study concerns the evaluation of child pedestrian safety in the vicinities of various accidents previously happened in Norrköping. Two methods were used to examine the degree of safety for the places of incidents. For locations near an intersection, road safety audit and traffic conflicts technique were applied, while, for the incident points along streets, only road safety audit technique was used. It is stated that, because of the multivariable aspect of the problem, collective application of various safety evaluation solutions would give better idea on the risk of the location and possible improvements for the future.

Every winter, more than 100,000 pedestrians in the Nordic countries receive medical treatment as a result of falls on slippery surfaces. In addition, the risk of injury reduces interest in outdoor activities during the wintertime. Pedestrians injured in single-pedestrian accidents on icy and snowy surfaces also experience more serious injuries than pedestrians injured on other surfaces. Thus, there is a clear need for measures to reduce single-pedestrian injuries and improve the safety of walking, without curtailing the activity, year round. A "slip accident" occurs when a person loses his/her balance. An attempt is normally made to recover one's balance, and the person's balance is either recovered or a fall occurs. An injury may be the consequence of such a fall. The most critical phases of the human gait are the heel strike and the toe-off.Various countermeasures can be used .to reduce the risk of a person slipping and sliding when walking outdoors during the wintertime. Such countermeasures may involve the use of individual equipment, services provided by the community to assist vulnerable road-user groups or the public at large, and policy changes in winter-maintenance practices. Examples of measures targeting individuals include information on the risk of slipperiness, and encouraging the use of (or providing) winter footwear and/or anti-slip devices to be fastened to shoes. The issues considered in this thesis are related to the prevention of injuries from single-pedestrian accidents by a specific measure, the use of anti-slip devices. More specifically, the following questions have been addressed in the studies it is based upon:How can the properties of anti-slip devices be assessed?How can more effective anti-slip devices be developed?Do anti-slip devices improve walking ability and safety?In laboratory investigations, test methods were developed and applied to 33 anti-slip devices to assess the test methods against validated criteria, and to analyse the benefits of using different types of anti-slip devices. The tests were conducted by observing people making standard movements on various surfaces chosen to simulate the variations in winter maintenance standards on walkways: snow on ice, sand on ice, gravel on ice, salt on ice and pure ice. Movements were analysed from observations of video recordings, and subjective rating scales were developed to assess walking safety and walking balance. In addition, in a field study questionnaires were used to record exposure, occurrence of slips/falls, descriptions of the slips/falls that occurred and general experiences of the use of anti-slip devices.The results show that it is possible to record the performance of anti-slip devices for pedestrians in a laboratory setting, and that the method developed for doing this is satisfactory. The methods used, together with friction measurements made by the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health (FIOH), may provide a sound basis for establishing standard methodology for testing anti-slip devices as personal protective equipment.The results from the Laboratory tests can be used to identify favourable designs of anti-slip devices, and indicate that whole-foot devices are the best type, followed by heel devices, for supporting a natural gait. The results from the Field study show that the availability and use of anti-slip devices can promote walking, which is beneficial from a health perspective, and it does not lead to an increased risk of slipping/falling even though it increases exposure. Overall, the results indicate that the use of anti-slip devices is an effective traffic safety countermeasure for reducing single-pedestrian accidents.Aspects that warrant further attention include verification of the effects of anti-slip devices on exposure and the occurrence of falls, and their effects in relation to specific groups such as elderly.
I de Nordiska länderna beräknas mer än 100000 personer uppsöka sjukvård vintertid på grund av fall på snö och is. I Sverige beräknas ca 10000 män och 15000 kvinnor uppsöka sjukvård på grund av skada vid fall på snö och is. Personer skadade i fallolyckor på snö och is har svårare skador och längre konvalescenstid jämfört med fotgängare som faller på barmark. Därför är det viktigt att identifiera preventiva metoder för fallolyckor vintertid och möjliggöra säkra promenader året runt.En fallolycka inträffar när personen förlorar sin balans och alla försök att återfå den misslyckas. En skada kan uppkomma till följd av ett sådant fall. De kritiska momenten i gångcykeln är hälisättningen och fotavvecklingen (avstampet).Olika åtgärder kan vidtas för att reducera fallolyckor vintertid. De kan antingen relateras till åtgärder i miljön som snöröjning, halkbekämpning osv, eller vara inriktade på att stödja individen i form av balansträning, information om väderlek med hög halkrisk, skor med bra egenskaper eller halkskydd. I detta arbete är fokus på att förhindra skador från singelfotgängarolyckor med en individuell åtgärd, halkskydd.Syftet är att besvara följande forskningsfrågor:Hur kan olika egenskaper hos halkskydd testas?Hur kan effektivare halkskydd utvecklas?Förbättrar halkskydd gångförmågan och säkerheten?Halkskydd är av principiellt olika typer: helfotsskydd (vilka täcker hela eller huvuddelen av skons undersida), hälskydd (vilka i huvudsak täcker klacken under skon) samt fotbladsskydd (som i huvudsak täcker främre delen av undersidan på skon). I laboratoriestudier har en testmetodik utvecklats och 33 olika halkskydd har testats. Testbanorna och testcyklerna efterliknar förhållandena i trafikmiljön, speciellt vid anslutning till och på övergångsställen som antas mer fallolycksbelastat. Testerna sker på olika typer av hala ytor för att efterlikna olika driftstandard: grus på is, sand på is, ren is, snö på is samt salt på is. Analys av gångmönster från videoinspelningar har genomförts. Subjektiva metoder har utvecklats för att värdera gångsäkerhet och balans. I en fältstudie användes enkäter för att registrera exponering, förekomsten av halka och fall, beskrivning av halk- och falltillfällena och generella erfarenheter av användningen av halkskydd.Resultaten visar att det är möjligt att registrera egenskaper hos halkskydd i laboratoriemiljö och att de använda metoderna ger tillfredsställande resultat. Testmetoderna har utvärderats i samarbete med FIOH (Finnish Institute of Occupational Health) som utför tester av halkskydd för godkännande enligt EU:s certifieringsregler för personlig skyddsutrustning (CE-märkning). Utvärderingen kan ligga till grund för ett förslag till standardiserad testmetodik för halkskydd.Olika kvaliteter hos halkskydd har kunnat identifieras vid gång på de olika ytorna. Helfotsskydden stödjer bäst en naturlig gång. Hälskydden är näst bäst i att stödja en naturlig gång. Fältstudien visar att de som använde halkskydd hade signifikant högre exponering utan att få en ökade förekomst av halkincidenter/fall. Halkskydd kan antas vara en effektiv trafiksäkerhetsåtgärd för att minska fotgängarolyckor Nya studier rekommenderas för att verifiera effekten av halkskydd på exponering som fotgängare och förekomsten av fallolyckor samt även effekten för olika grupper som t ex äldre.
Godkänd; 2010; 20100518 (glenn); DISPUTATION Ämnesområde: Trafikteknik/Traffic Engineering Opponent: Professor emeritus Christer Hydén, Lunds tekniska högskola Ordförande: Professor Anders Lagerkvist, Luleå tekniska universitet Tid: Torsdag den 16 september 2010, kl 10.00 Plats: F1031, Luleå tekniska universitet

Master of Landscape Architecture
Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional & Community Planning
Katie Kingery-Page
Many cities in the United States have developed into auto-dominated places with decreased accessibility for pedestrians and bleak cityscapes of wide, barrier-like streets. While many studies exist on the correlation between street width and vehicular safety, and vehicular speed and pedestrian safety, little information is available on the correlation between street width and pedestrian safety. This project began while the researcher interned with the New York City Department of Transportation (NYCDOT) Pedestrian Projects Group (PPG). The researcher was asked to begin a study of New York City (NYC) streets, specifically analyzing the relationship between street width and pedestrian safety using NYC safety data. The street types studied represent a variety of conditions found in many cities. The exploratory correlation study, completed after returning to Kansas State University, found that narrow streets trend towards higher safety. The correlation study between street width and pedestrian safety provides justification to narrow Bluemont Avenue in Manhattan, Kansas and increase pedestrian safety. Bluemont Avenue is a primary vehicular connection between the east and west sides of Manhattan. The city’s future construction plans propose widening the street to accommodate a center turning lane along the entire length of Bluemont Avenue. The research presented in this report supports the hypothesis that narrower streets are safer for pedestrians. By utilizing the results of the study, a designer can strengthen their argument to narrow wide, auto-dominated streets. In addition, the use of a two-stage design process can create a safer environment for pedestrians on Bluemont Avenue. By utilizing a temporary design followed by a permanent installation, the City of Manhattan can decrease the priority of Bluemont Avenue within the vehicle hierarchy and increase pedestrian safety. The intent of this report is to begin a conversation with the City of Manhattan to begin looking at streets not as mere vehicular paths, but paths for all modes of transit.

La sécurité du piéton est un problème de santé publique, qui doit être traité tant par les acteurs de la recherche que par l'industrie automobile pour apporter des solutions technologiques innovantes. Dans les accidents impliquant des piétons, le premier contact est généralement localisé sur les membres inférieurs exhibant de fréquentes et nombreuses lésions pouvant être très sévères. Compte tenu des caractéristiques biomécaniques du membre inférieur, comment améliorer les critères de blessures existants pour contribuer au développement d'une voiture moins agressive pour les piétons ? La présente étude vise donc à promouvoir des améliorations significatives de critères de blessure des membres inférieurs pour la sécurité des piétons combinant des essais expérimentaux et des simulations numériques. Un modèle par éléments finis des membres inférieurs (modèle LLMS) a été utilisé et amélioré pour étudier les réponses mécaniques des membres inférieurs dans des conditions de chargement realists. Une attention particulière a été accordée sur la capacité du modèle à prédire séparément les blessures des os longs et celles de l'articulation du genou pour développer deux critères de blessures distincts. Pour le tibia, la nature de sa structure et les conditions de chargement qui lui sont appliquées nous ont conduit à proposer une courbe quadratique de moment en flexion qui tient compte de différents points d'impact. Pour le genou, le critère de blessure a été établi à partir d'une fonction combinant cisaillement latéral et flexion latérale. Ce critère permet de hiérarchiser la nature et la sévérité des lésions en fonction du mécanisme de blessure prépondérant
Pedestrian safety is a worldwide concern, which needs to be investigated by both vehicle manufacturers and researchers to approach innovative solutions. In car-Pedestrian accidents, lower limbs have been demonstrated to be the most frequently injured body region of the pedestrian. Given the biomechanical features of lower limbs, how the existing injury criteria could be improved to aid the development of a pedestrian friendly car? The current study aims to promote significant improvements in the injury criteria of lower limbs for pedestrian safety combining experimental tests and numerical simulations. A finite element lower limb model (LLMS model) was used and improved to investigate the mechanical responses of lower limbs in the loading conditions reflecting the car-Pedestrian impact. A particular attention was paid on the model ability of predicting separately the injuries of long bones and knee joints to develop the corresponding injury criteria. With regard to the tibia structure and its loading condition in pedestrian accidents, we proposed a quadratic curve of bending moments to tibia locations as its injury tolerance. Given dominant injury mechanisms of the ligaments, the knee injury criterion was established as a function of combined joint kinematics including lateral bending and lateral shearing. Moreover, these criteria are relevant with the previous and current experimental test results. Finally, the efficiency of the proposed criteria was evaluated by a parametric study of the realistic car-Pedestrian impact conditions

Built environment factors influence pedestrian route choice behaviour, but their impact is not well known. This thesis investigates the influences of the built environment factors on walking route preference and safety. By using the ‘Physical Activity through Sustainable Transport Approaches’ framework, this research studied the perceptions and preferences of pedestrian route choice in a typical suburban environment in Australia through a stated preference survey. This thesis has established the interrelationship between safety, security, and built environment factors across men and women pedestrians. The findings highlight increasing land-use diversity and providing adequate trees may improve perceived safety and security among pedestrians.

The pedestrian is one of the most vulnerable road users. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), traffic accidents cause about 1.34 million fatalities annually across the world. This is the eighth leading cause of death across all age groups. Among these fatalities, pedestrians represent 23% (world), 27% (Europe), 40% (Africa), 34% (Eastern Mediterranean), and 22% (Americas) of total traffic deaths. In the United States, approximately 6,227 pedestrians were killed in road crashes in 2018, the highest number in nearly three decades. To protect pedestrians during Car-to-Pedestrian Collisions (CPC), subsystem impact tests, using impactors corresponding to the pedestrian's head and upper/lower leg were included in regulations. However, these simple impact tests cannot capture the complex vehicle-pedestrian interaction, nor the pedestrian injury mechanisms, which are crucial to understanding pedestrian kinetics/kinematics responses in CPC accidents. Numerous variables influence injury variation during vehicle-pedestrian interactions, but current test procedures only require testing in the limited scenarios that mostly focus on the anthropometry of the 50th percentile male subject. This test procedure cannot be applied to real-world accidents nor the entire pedestrian population due to the incredibly specific nature of the testing. To better understand the injury mechanisms of pedestrians and improve the test protocols, more pre-impact variables should be considered in order to protect pedestrians in various accident scenarios. In this study, simplified finite element (FE) models corresponding to 5th percentile female (F05), 50th percentile male (M50), and 95th percentile male (M95) pedestrians were developed and validated in order to investigate the kinetics and kinematics of pedestrians in a cost-effective study. The model geometries were reconstructed from medical images and exterior scanned data corresponding to a small female, mid-sized male, and tall male volunteers, respectively. These models were validated based on post mortem human surrogate (PMHS) test data under various loading including valgus bending at knee joint, lateral/anterior-lateral impact at shoulder, pelvis, thorax, and abdomen, and lateral impact during CPC. Overall, the kinetic/kinematic responses predicted by the pedestrian FE models showed good agreement against the corresponding PMHS test data. To predict injuries from the tissue level up to the full-body, detailed pedestrian models, including sophisticated musculoskeletal system and internal organs, were developed and validated as well. Similar validations were performed on the detailed pedestrian models and showed high-biofidelic responses against the PMHS test data. After model development and validation, the effect of pre-impact variables, such as anthropometry, pedestrian posture, and vehicle type in CPC impacts were investigated in different impact scenarios. The M50-PS model's posture was modified to replicate pedestrian gait posture. Five models were developed to demonstrate pedestrian posture in 0, 20, 40, 60, and 80 % of the gait cycle. In a sensitivity study, the 50th percentile male pedestrian simplified (M50-PS) model in gait predicted various kinematic responses as well as the injury outcomes in CPC impact with different vehicle type. The pedestrian FE models developed in this work have the capability to reproduce the kinetic/kinematic responses of pedestrians and to predict injury outcomes in various CPC impact scenarios. Therefore, this work could be used to improve the design of new vehicles and current pedestrian test procedures, which eventually may reduce pedestrian fatalities in traffic accidents.
Doctor of Philosophy
The pedestrian is one of the most vulnerable road users. According to the World Health Organization, traffic accidents cause about 1.34 million fatalities annually across the world. This is the eighth leading cause of death across all age groups. Among these fatalities, pedestrians represent 23% (world), 27% (Europe), 40% (Africa), 34% (Eastern Mediterranean), and 22% (Americas) of total traffic deaths. In the United States, approximately 6,227 pedestrians were killed in road crashes in 2018, the highest number in nearly three decades. To protect pedestrians in traffic accidents, subsystem impact tests, using impactors corresponding to the pedestrian’s head and upper/lower leg were included in regulations. However, these simple impact tests cannot capture the complex vehicle-pedestrian interaction, nor the pedestrian injury mechanisms, which are crucial to understanding pedestrian kinetics/kinematics responses in traffic accidents. Numerous variables influence injury variation during vehicle-pedestrian interactions, but current test procedures only require testing in the limited scenarios that mostly focus on the anthropometry of the average male subject. This test procedure cannot be applied to real-world accidents nor the entire pedestrian population due to the incredibly specific nature of the testing. To better understand the injury mechanisms of pedestrians and improve the test protocols, more pre-impact variables should be considered in order to protect pedestrians in various accident scenarios. In this study, simplified pedestrian computational models corresponding to small female, average male, and large male pedestrians were developed and validated in order to investigate the kinetics and kinematics of pedestrians in a cost-effective study. Overall, the kinetic/kinematic responses predicted by the pedestrian models showed good agreement against the corresponding test data. To predict injuries from the tissue level up to the full-body, detailed pedestrian computational models, including sophisticated musculoskeletal system and internal organs, were developed and validated as well. Similar validations were performed on the detailed pedestrian models and showed high-biofidelic responses against the test data. After model development and validation, the pre-impact variables were examined using the average male pedestrian model, which was modified the position to replicate pedestrian gait posture. In a sensitivity study, the average male pedestrian model in gait predicted various kinematic responses as well as the injury outcomes in lateral impact with different vehicle types. The pedestrian models developed in this work have the capability to reproduce the kinetic/kinematic responses of pedestrian and to predict injury outcomes in various pedestrian impact scenarios. Therefore, this work could be used to improve the design of new vehicles and current pedestrian test procedures, which eventually many reduce pedestrian fatalities in traffic accidents.
The pedestrian is one of the most vulnerable road users. According to the World Health Organization, traffic accidents cause about 1.34 million fatalities annually across the world. This is the eighth leading cause of death across all age groups. Among these fatalities, pedestrians represent 23% (world), 27% (Europe), 40% (Africa), 34% (Eastern Mediterranean), and 22% (Americas) of total traffic deaths. In the United States, approximately 6,227 pedestrians were killed in road crashes in 2018, the highest number in nearly three decades. To protect pedestrians in traffic accidents, subsystem impact tests, using impactors corresponding to the pedestrian’s head and upper/lower leg were included in regulations. However, these simple impact tests cannot capture the complex vehicle-pedestrian interaction, nor the pedestrian injury mechanisms, which are crucial to understanding pedestrian kinetics/kinematics responses in traffic accidents. Numerous variables influence injury variation during vehicle-pedestrian interactions, but current test procedures only require testing in the limited scenarios that mostly focus on the anthropometry of the average male subject. This test procedure cannot be applied to real-world accidents nor the entire pedestrian population due to the incredibly specific nature of the testing. To better understand the injury mechanisms of pedestrians and improve the test protocols, more pre-impact variables should be considered in order to protect pedestrians in various accident scenarios. In this study, simplified pedestrian computational models corresponding to small female, average male, and large male pedestrians were developed and validated in order to investigate the kinetics and kinematics of pedestrians in a cost-effective study. Overall, the kinetic/kinematic responses predicted by the pedestrian models showed good agreement against the corresponding test data. To predict injuries from the tissue level up to the full-body, detailed pedestrian computational models, including sophisticated musculoskeletal system and internal organs, were developed and validated as well. Similar validations were performed on the detailed pedestrian models and showed high-biofidelic responses against the test data. After model development and validation, the pre-impact variables were examined using the average male pedestrian model, which was modified the position to replicate pedestrian gait posture. In a sensitivity study, the average male pedestrian model in gait predicted various kinematic responses as well as the injury outcomes in lateral impact with different vehicle types. The pedestrian models developed in this work have the capability to reproduce the kinetic/kinematic responses of pedestrian and to predict injury outcomes in various pedestrian impact scenarios. Therefore, this work could be used to improve the design of new vehicles and current pedestrian test procedures, which eventually many reduce pedestrian fatalities in traffic accidents.

Trespassing behaviour is a problem for railway operations and manifests itself through train-pedestrian collisions, incidents of theft and vandalism to rail infrastructure, as well as encroachment on railway property. The study has consisted of a quantitative and a qualitative part. The quantitative part analyses demographic, temporal and spatial data on train-pedestrian fatalities and injuries, as well as data on occurrences of theft and malicious damage to rail infrastructure in the Cape Town Functional Region between 2015 and 2018. The qualitative part presents the perspective from a diverse group of subject matter experts, having explored opinions on trespassing behaviours and preventative measures. Additionally, the trespassing behaviour at several sites was investigated and a case study evaluation of the efficacy of a pilot Rail Enforcement Unit was carried out. There were 456 railway-related deaths during the study period with 330 of this being train-pedestrian collisions. There were 4715 occurrences of theft and malicious damage to railway assets over the period. Several hot-spot areas were identified via the data and interviews with experts and several sites chosen for further verification. Site visits confirmed widespread trespassing behaviours with the two worst locations recording an average of over 300 persons in a 15-minute period. The case study reviewing the effectiveness of the security and enforcement countermeasure revealed that occurrences of train-pedestrian incidents, as well as security occurrences have increased by 1.4% and 7.5% respectively. Evidence of geographical displacement of crime is evident, suggesting that enforcement countermeasures are temporarily effective and need to be considered in combination with other measures to ensure its durability. In conclusion, this research presents a detailed analysis of railway trespassing and its main effects in order to understand the problem locally. Different approaches are required to combat the various guises of railway trespassing. Certain countermeasures may well be within the rail operator's remit, but essentially, the nature of problems experienced by the rail operator is beyond a rail problem, and requires a systems approach involving multiple authorities

My thesis is engaged in increasing safety of pedestrians in urban traffic. My work analyses cases of accidents in a specific area and attitudes and experiences of pedestrians as well as local inhabitants. The aim of my work is to map an accident rate – a case study and formation of applicable measures in the town Třeboň, thus in an urban area. The first part of my work is engaged in theory, which is divided in used proper terminology in accordance with the law followed by a universal view of issues of traffic and their safety. The empirical part of my work then examines analysis of dangerous places in a selected locality. These places were chosen on the base on a questionnaire survey among local residents with the goal to point out these dangerous places by actual traffic accidents in the town Třeboň. It is necessary to determine applicable measures in dangerous places from particular traffic accidents and thus to help increasing safety of pedestrians in a given place. Because of acquisition of necessary data, analysis of documents, a questionnaire survey and subsequent evaluation of results is used in my work. In conclusion I evaluated results and created a draft measure.

The effects that cellular (cell) phone conversation may have on pedestrian road-crossing performance is unknown. A series of experiments was conducted using a virtual reality road crossing simulator to examine this issue. The participants were primarily university students aged between 18 and 24 years old, although one study compared a group aged 18 to 24 to a group between 50 and 67 years old. Two experimental situations were used: a gap-choice situation, in which the participants had to choose a gap to cross through; and an infrequency situation, where vehicles were present on only 10% of the trials. Participants were impaired by a simulated phone conversation task when compared to no-conversation task, as evidenced by longer reaction times, slower walking speeds, poorer gap choices, and more cautious behaviours. Most importantly, conversation was related to a decrease in the mean margins of safety, and the participants were hit or nearly hit by vehicles more often when talking. The general performance of the older participants did not differ from that of the younger participants, and both groups were impaired to a similar extent by the conversation task. Participants were found to use irrelevant distance information to inform their gap-choice decisions, a strategy associated with a decrease in safety as the distance between the vehicles increased. It was also found that their use of time-to-arrival information was impaired when engaged in the conversation task. Overall, talking on a cell phone while crossing a road may represent an unnecessary increase in risk; therefore, care should be taken if these two acts are being conducted concurrently.

Older Australians walk for many reasons: health, recreation and transport. However, road safety statistics show that pedestrians over 65 represent one-third of Australia's pedestrian deaths. As Australia's population ages in place and older people take up a walking regime for health and transportation reasons, they need a supportive suburban setting. Urban design theories discuss such "pedestrian-friendly" concepts as sense of place, sense of community, responsive environments, traditional neighbourhood design, transit-oriented development, and crime prevention through environmental design. To investigate these concepts in relation to older pedestrians, this study brings together two areas of literature - research into older pedestrians in relation to urban design theories. Qualitative research methods were used in two case studies, to reveal how older people's interpretation of their local walking environment relates to urban design theories concerning walkable suburbs. The two Brisbane suburbs of Bulimba and Forest Lake were chosen for study, as they have different histories, topographies, street patterns, and other variations. Analysis of key themes gathered from two focus group discussions, one from each suburb, revealed the significance for participants of social interaction when walking for health. A photographic exercise performed by the Forest Lake focus group provided pictorial information for analysis, and revealed participants' interest in the lake's fauna and flora, and in its ongoing maintenance. The study was limited by an unforeseen failure to obtain the cooperation of the Bulimba group in the photographic exercise. In support of the claims made in the literature review, it seems that when older pedestrians walk through suburban streets, they avoid steep hills, busy roads, and intersections where possible, and require footpaths with even surfaces and shelters. When walking for health reasons, participants in this study did not favour local streets, but preferred "natural" places designed exclusively for walkers. Forest Lake participants stated a preference for driving to places they deemed suitable for walking, which suggests a need for more detailed design attention to the urban design qualities of local streets, so that those older people without cars are not disadvantaged.

Older Australians walk for many reasons: health, recreation and transport. However, road safety statistics show that pedestrians over 65 represent one-third of Australia's pedestrian deaths. As Australia's population ages in place and older people take up a walking regime for health and transportation reasons, they need a supportive suburban setting. Urban design theories discuss such "pedestrian-friendly" concepts as sense of place, sense of community, responsive environments, traditional neighbourhood design, transit-oriented development, and crime prevention through environmental design. To investigate these concepts in relation to older pedestrians, this study brings together two areas of literature - research into older pedestrians in relation to urban design theories. Qualitative research methods were used in two case studies, to reveal how older people's interpretation of their local walking environment relates to urban design theories concerning walkable suburbs. The two Brisbane suburbs of Bulimba and Forest Lake were chosen for study, as they have different histories, topographies, street patterns, and other variations. Analysis of key themes gathered from two focus group discussions, one from each suburb, revealed the significance for participants of social interaction when walking for health. A photographic exercise performed by the Forest Lake focus group provided pictorial information for analysis, and revealed participants' interest in the lake's fauna and flora, and in its ongoing maintenance. The study was limited by an unforeseen failure to obtain the cooperation of the Bulimba group in the photographic exercise. In support of the claims made in the literature review, it seems that when older pedestrians walk through suburban streets, they avoid steep hills, busy roads, and intersections where possible, and require footpaths with even surfaces and shelters. When walking for health reasons, participants in this study did not favour local streets, but preferred "natural" places designed exclusively for walkers. Forest Lake participants stated a preference for driving to places they deemed suitable for walking, which suggests a need for more detailed design attention to the urban design qualities of local streets, so that those older people without cars are not disadvantaged.

This study evaluated a parent implemented in-situ pedestrian safety skills intervention for three individuals with autism. Specifically, this study examined the utility of using a behavioral skills training (BST) to help parents implement the most-to-least prompting procedures in training their children with autism pedestrian safety skills in community settings. A multiple baseline design across participants was used to assess parent implementation of in-situ pedestrian training as well as child participants' independently performed correct skills. Results indicated that parents implemented most-to-least prompting procedures with high levels of accuracy across streets during intervention and fading of BST. All child participants improved their safety skills significantly during intervention. For one child, the acquired skills maintained during follow- up. The percentages of their independent correct use of pedestrian safety skills were similar to those in baseline during generalization probes.