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Zeitschriftenartikel zum Thema "Oil and gas leases Soviet Union":
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MCKIBBIN, WARWICK J., ADELE C. MORRIS und PETER J. WILCOXEN. „COMPARING CLIMATE COMMITMENTS: A MODEL-BASED ANALYSIS OF THE COPENHAGEN ACCORD“. Climate Change Economics 02, Nr. 02 (Mai 2011): 79–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s201000781100022x.
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The political accord struck by leaders at the United Nations negotiations in Copenhagen in December 2009 allows participants to express their greenhouse gas commitments in a variety of ways. This paper compares the environmental and economic performance of these disparate commitments using the G-Cubed model of the global economy. We focus on fossil-fuel-related CO2 and assume targets are achieved domestically. We show how different formulations make the same targets appear different in stringency and explore the Accord's spillover effects across countries. We find that commitments by Japan and Europe imply high carbon prices and relatively high GDP losses. The United States and China both have moderate carbon prices and moderate GDP effects. Australia and Eastern Europe/Former Soviet Union have relatively large GDP effects despite small or zero carbon prices because their terms of trade decline. OPEC suffers a large drop in GDP from a sharp decline in world oil demand.
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Newnham, Randall. „Russia and Belarus: Economic Linkage in a Patron-Client Relationship“. Journal of Belarusian Studies 9, Nr. 1 (17.02.2020): 3–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.30965/20526512-12340002.
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Abstract President Putin has embarked on a program of restoring Russia to world-power status. A key facet of his effort has been to establish a sphere of influence in the ‘Near Abroad,’ the countries of the former Soviet Union. While the world has focused on the dramatic events in Ukraine since 2013, much less attention has been paid to the vital role of Belarus in Putin’s plans. Belarus has long had closer relations with Russia than any other former Soviet state, dating back to the Yeltsin years. This paper will show that Russia has devoted considerable resources to Belarus, showering the country with a variety of economic inducements, including access to the Russian market, subsidized oil and gas, and outright grants and loans. In return, Belarus has tightened its political, economic, and military ties to Moscow. Yet, surprisingly, Belarus also has some bargaining power in this relationship. Its quixotic leader, Alexander Lukashenko, is well aware of his importance to the Kremlin, and uses it to gain even greater economic rewards – thus cementing his own power. This case thus can make an valuable contribution to extending the literature on patron-client relations in International Relations, showing that a client can stand up to its patron in certain circumstances.
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Hough, Jerry F. „Attack on protectionism in the Soviet Union? A comment“. International Organization 40, Nr. 2 (1986): 489–503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020818300027211.
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Unlike the other countries in what we tend to call “the Soviet bloc,” the Soviet Union benefited financially from the oil crises of the 1970s, for it was a major petroleum and natural gas exporter. The oil crises also benefited the Soviet Union indirectly as a number of radical Third World oil producers acquired money to buy more Soviet arms. Moreover, the windfall increase in petroleum prices was supplemented by a similar windfall increase in the price of the other major Soviet export product, gold. The subsidies that the Soviet Union provided to Eastern Europe did not entail any sacrifice of resources that had been previously committed but required only that it forgo even greater gains. The politics underlying the Soviet decisions were the politics underlying the rapid expansion of export earnings.
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Aguilera, Roberto F. „The economics of oil and gas supply in the Former Soviet Union“. International Journal of Global Energy Issues 35, Nr. 6 (2012): 480. http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/ijgei.2012.051730.
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Tull, Simon J., David Macdonald, Larisa Voronova und Graham Blackbourn. „Thematic set; habitat of oil and gas in the former Soviet Union“. Petroleum Geoscience 3, Nr. 4 (November 1997): 313–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/petgeo.3.4.313.
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Smith, Michael R. „Exploration for Oil in the Soviet Union: Special Problems Facing Western Companies“. Energy & Environment 9, Nr. 1-2 (März 1998): 4–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0958305x98009001-202.
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The Soviet Union, including its Republics and Autonomous Regions, although remaining the world's largest oil and gas producer, is seeking the co-operation of the international oil industry to assist in further developing its vast reserves and potential resources. A legislation and taxation system that allows for foreign investment in the Soviet oil industry is being created. Many international oil companies, large and small, are currently evaluating opportunities in the country. Western companies have not been directly involved in Soviet oil operations since 1918. During the intervening years significant diversities of approach, particularly with regard to exploration methods and geological analysis, have emerged between Soviet and western geoscientists. Such differences have caused a myriad of special problems for geologists and geophysicists employed by western oil companies newly evaluating the petroleum potential of the country. These probems must be addressed and overcome before embarking on an expensive exploration or development venture.
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Kirillova, Elena. „Rights of Transit and Intervention in the Oil and Gas Industry of the Former Soviet Union“. Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law 11, Nr. 4 (November 1993): 262–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02646811.1993.11432967.
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Mehdiyoun, Kamyar. „Ownership of Oil and Gas Resources in the Caspian Sea“. American Journal of International Law 94, Nr. 1 (Januar 2000): 179–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2555242.
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In the aftermath of the breakup of the Soviet Union and the birth of new sovereign nations bordering the Caspian Sea, the legal status of the sea has emerged as one of the most contentious international problems facing the region. The discovery of large offshore oil and gas deposits in the area has added urgency to the need to resolve the twin issues of the legal status of the sea and the corresponding mining rights.The Caspian, the largest inland body of water in the world, is approximately the size of Japan. The south Caspian is the deepest part and contains the most productive oil and gas fields. The oil-producing area of the south Caspian that holds the most promise extends along a narrow structural zone across the sea from the Apsheron Peninsula in Azerbaijan to the Peri-Balkhan region of western Turkmenistan.
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Bayetova, Nazgul. „Neoliberalism and Kazakhstan's emerging higher education“. Journal of Comparative & International Higher Education 11, Winter (14.03.2020): 89–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.32674/jcihe.v11iwinter.1342.
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The Republic of Kazakhstan is one of the Central Asian countries of the former Soviet Union. The ninth largest country in the world in physical size with a population of over 17 million people and significant oil, iron ore, coal, copper, and gas reserves, Kazakhstan gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. In the early 1990s, the Supreme Court of the Kazakh Social Soviet Republic declared the transition of a planned economy to a market economy. Kazakhstan’s market system has significantly impacted its emerging higher education system. Less government spending and the creation of private universities in Kazakhstan were the core strategies that have been implemented under the neoliberal policies of Nursultan Nazarbayev, Kazakhstan’s president from independence to this year (1991-2019).
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Blackbourn, Graham. „3. Habitat of Oil and Gas in the Former Soviet Union: University of Warwick (UK), 17–18th April“. Journal of Petroleum Geology 19, Nr. 4 (Oktober 1996): 483–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-5457.1996.tb00453.x.
Dissertationen zum Thema "Oil and gas leases Soviet Union":
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Wawryk, Alexandra Sophia. „The protection of indigenous peoples' lands from oil exploitation in emerging economies“. Title page, contents and abstract only, 2000. http://web4.library.adelaide.edu.au/theses/09PH/09phw346.pdf.
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Bibliography: leaves 651-699. "Through case studies of three emerging economies - Ecuador, Nigeria and Russia - this thesis analyses the factors present to a greater or lesser degree in emerging economies, such as severe foreign indebtedness and the absence of the rule of law, that undermine the effectiveness of the legal system in protecting indigenous peoples from oil exploitation. Having identified these factors, I propose that a dual approach to the protection of indigenous peoples' traditional lands and their environment be adopted, whereby international laws that set out the rights of indigenous peoples and place duties on states in this regard, are reinforced and translated into practice through the self-regulation of the international oil industry through a voluntary code of conduct for oil companies seeking to operate on indigenous peoples' traditional lands."
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Prodromidou, Alexandra. „Russian foreign energy policy conduct in the oil and gas sectors : a case study of the Caspian region 1991-2008“. Thesis, University of Birmingham, 2011. http://etheses.bham.ac.uk//id/eprint/3151/.
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This thesis explores the continuities and change in the conduct of Russian foreign policy in the Caspian region in the period 1991-2008 with the central focus set on the inclusion of energy both as a tool and one of the main targets of Russian foreign policy during the Putin administration. More specifically it looks at the impact that the choice to establish Russia as an energy superpower based mainly on its oil and gas sectors during this period had on the conduct of Russian foreign policy in the Caspian region. The central research question is how Russian oil and gas companies are used as foreign policy tools in the conduct of Russian foreign energy policy within the current foreign energy policy framework and to what end. The argument of this thesis is based on the hypothesis that the Russian state uses its oil and gas companies in order to infiltrate the Central Asian energy markets and assert its economic hegemony in the region through a web of legal and contractual monopolies aiming at maintaining Russia’s economic hegemony in the Caspian and contributing to one of Russia’s main energy policy priority of becoming an influential player in the global energy markets.
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Seck, Andrew Benjamin. „Financing upstream oil and gas ventures in the transitional economies of the former Soviet Union : a study of foreign investment and associated risks“. Thesis, University of Dundee, 2012. https://discovery.dundee.ac.uk/en/studentTheses/a6b90028-401b-4686-a715-2b5631df4e98.
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The development of the Foreign Oil and Gas Investment (FOGI) Database permitted a systematic study of all reported upstream projects involving foreign investors throughout FSU, in order to assess the reaction of western capital to the opening up of the FSU's oil industry. While we identified 292 upstream projects either under discussion or development and representing a potential investment of $231 - $308 billion, there is a wide dichotomy between the high level of interest and the low level of investment incurred. It is misleading to assess potential levels of investment in the FSU in isolation of global upstream investments which are estimated at $106 billion per year over the next decade. Of this amount western IOCs are expected to contribute approximately $55 billion per year. The challenge for the FSU is to attract its share (or increase its share) of global upstream capital expenditures. The latter implies a transfer of productive capacity from elsewhere in the world.International efforts vis-ä-vis the World Bank, IFC, EBRD, OPIC and various export credit agencies have failed to inject substantial credits into the FSU's petroleum industry. Disbursements remain slow and their claimed catalytic role appears to be overstated. As the FSU ranks very poorly on a scale of political/country risk, western commercial banks remain wary of extending credits. We believe the rejuvenation of the FSU's oil industry, particularly outside Russia, is pre-conditional upon the involvement of the `Major' IOCs who possess the requisite capital and technology to initiate the necessary projects. But, our research indicates that IOCs are pursuing a cautious policy of self-financing and staggered development. Thus the real onus of financing lies with the host-governments to provide the economic, legal and fiscal environment which will permit these projects to earn sufficient profits for reinvestment. Should such conditions be created in Russia, where a large domestic oil industry already exists, then the domestic industry would likely contribute a large portion of the needed investment as they would themselves be in a position to reinvest their own earnings. There is a strong correlation between levels of potential FDI and the location of known reserves as IOCs seek to minimise geological risk. In Central Asia and the Caspian Sea region where $55 - $75 billion in potential upstream investments have been reported, transportation uncertainty is singled out as the most critical impediment to growth. There are no realistic alternatives to the construction of new pipeline capacity which will act as the ultimate regulator of foreign upstream investment. For the time being large volumes of western investment capital remains cautious and beyond the reach of the FSU's petroleum industry.
Bücher zum Thema "Oil and gas leases Soviet Union":
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Stern, Jonathan P. Oil and gas in the former Soviet Union: The changing foreign investment agenda. London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1993.
Buchteile zum Thema "Oil and gas leases Soviet Union":
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Kuboniwa, Masaaki. „Estimating GDP and Foreign Rents of the Oil and Gas Sector in the Soviet Union and Present-Day Russia“. In Russian Economic Development over Three Centuries, 421–38. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8429-5_12.
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Rindzevičiūtė, Eglė. „Gray Eminences of the Scientific-Technical Revolution“. In The Power of Systems. Cornell University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501703188.003.0002.
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This chapter argues that a new, post-Stalinist governmentality emerged in the Soviet Union as a result of several postwar developments. Innovations in computer, information, and control technologies that emerged during the war informed a new developmental theory of the scientific-technical revolution that appealed to both East and West scientists and policy makers. The gospel of the STR, as well as the commitment of Soviet planning to new large infrastructure projects propelled computer technology and systems analysis into the avant-garde of Soviet governmental thought. If in postrevolutionary Russia the first attempts to develop methods for large-scale scientific management followed the GOELRO electrification plan of the 1920s, the post-Stalinist projects involved the extraction of Siberian oil and gas, building large transport systems, and managing growing metropolitan areas, all of which required computerization.
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„signified by a rapid increase in aggregate demand and shortages … The budget deficit reached … 19 per cent of GDP in 1991. The decision to liberalize 90 per cent of prices in January 1992 led to a price jump of 245 per cent and by the summer the monetary overhang had been eliminated. Efforts to tighten monetary policy in 1992–4 failed mainly due to attempts to preserve the rouble zone which after the break-up consisted of fifteen independent countries, each with their own central bank. And although the CBR [Central Bank of Russia], under the leadership of Viktor Gerashchenko, was the only one allowed to print roubles the central banks of other CIS countries (and initially also the Baltic States) could issue credits. This meant that monetary policy spun out of control … More countries started to introduce their own currency or issue monetary surro-gates. Furthermore, much of the credits issued by CIS central banks were used to finance imports of Russian commodities, mainly oil and gas, which meant that pressure was also put on the CBR and the Russian government by Russian exporters to continue looser monetary policy. As a result by mid-1992 the granting of concessional credits to agriculture and industry intensified. At the same time Russia was unable to increase tax revenues or reduce expenditures and as a result continued to run a large budget deficit. And without access to domestic capital markets and a lack of willingness by the West to lend money to Russia, the only source of finance was the printing presses. This policy resulted in a rapid growth of the money supply.“ In The Countries of the Former Soviet Union at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century, 478–93. Routledge, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203647547-29.
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Konferenzberichte zum Thema "Oil and gas leases Soviet Union":
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Dülger, Fikret, Kenan Lopcu, Almıla Burgaç und Esra Ballı. „Is Natural Resource-Rich Russia Suffering from the Dutch Disease?“ In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c03.00488.
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“Dutch Disease” phenomenon is defined as the increase in the price of natural resources, such as oil and natural gas, which causes the appreciation of the real exchange rate and leads to the decline of manufacturing and ultimately to increases in service prices. Since the 1980s there has been a great body of “Dutch Disease” empirical literature, and as a natural resource-rich country Russia is a good case for the exploration of this phenomenon. The Russian economy experienced some difficulties after the collapse of the Soviet Union in the adaptation to a free market economy model. In the process of moving towards a free market economy, Russia failed to diversify its economic structure despite increases in natural resource revenues. In the last decades, while the share of natural resources in export revenues has significantly increased, the share of manufacturing output has decreased. According to the United Nations Development Program Russia report 2009, increases in energy income have resulted in the decline of other sectors of the Russian economy. Furthermore, the report claims that these indicators may trigger a recession in the Russian economy in the future. In fact, in recent years the Russian economy has exhibited some typical symptoms of “Dutch Disease” along with increases in oil prices accompanied by a reduction in the share of manufacturing output and an increase in service prices. Using Gregory Hansen cointegration method, this paper finds that Russia is in fact might be suffering from the “Dutch Disease” in the post Soviet Union-era.
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Bulut, Cihan, Elchin Suleymanov und Fakhri Hasanov. „Problems Encountered during the Transition to Market Economy in Azerbaijan and Solution Attempts“. In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c04.00681.
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After re-gaining its independence on 18 October 1991, the Republic of Azerbaijan started to transform to the market-based economy and to integrate into the world economy. The country’s oil and natural gas reserves have been considered the main source for financing range of government programs for reforms. On the one hand, these reserves had to be used effectively; on the other hand, there was a huge demand for foreign investment for extraction. To this end, Azerbaijan has signed “Contract of the Century” in 1994. Although Azerbaijan has wide oil and natural gas reserves, it has faced a number of difficulties in its transition way. This study analyzes these problems and reforms for solving them. One of the types of the problems were related to the economic structure of the former Soviet Union: disruption of the economic ties between the republics resulted in decline of production, high levels of unemployment and prices and consequently led to an economic recession in all of the republics. Another set of problems was related to lack of sufficient institutional bases to transform to the market economy. Moreover, internal conflicts between the political parties and groups for having authority as well as political chaos in the republic can be considered other serious problems during the transition period. Furthermore, Karabakh war and occupation of 20 percent of the Azerbaijani territory by the Armenian military forces had made the situation extremely complicated. Despite all of these extremes, Azerbaijan transformed to the market-based economy decidedly and even became one of the fast growing countries of the world. Even in 2006, with the GDP growth rate of 34.5 percent, Azerbaijan was a leader among growing economies. In parallel with this significant economic development, there is still a need for some socio-economic and institutional reforms in order to get a well-functioned market-based economy in Azerbaijan.
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Foreman, Neil E. „The Bear Awakens: Resurgence of Oil and Gas in the Former Soviet Union“. In SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition. Society of Petroleum Engineers, 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/36634-ms.
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JI- EON, LEE, und YOO NA-YEON. „SOUTH KOREA’S DIPLOMATIC RELATIONSHIP WITH UZBEKISTAN SINCE 1991: STRATEGY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF EACH GOVERNMENT“. In UZBEKISTAN-KOREA: CURRENT STATE AND PROSPECTS OF COOPERATION. OrientalConferences LTD, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.37547/ocl-01-03.
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One of the biggest events in international political history at the end of the 20th century was end of the Cold War due to the dissolution of the Soviet Union. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991, the Cold War system, led by the US and the Soviet Union as the two main axes, disappeared into history, dramatically changing the international situation and creating new independent states in the international community. In the past, as the protagonist of the Silk Road civilization, it was a channel of trade and culture, linking the East and the West, but as members of the former Soviet Union, Central Asian countries whose importance and status were not well known have emerged on the international stage in the process of forming a new international order. After independence, Central Asia countries began to attract attention from the world as the rediscovery of the Silk Road, that is, the geopolitical importance of being the center of the Eurasian continent, and as a treasure trove of natural resources such as oil and gas increased.
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Aras, Osman Nuri, Elchin Suleymanov und Fakhri Hasanov. „Economic and Strategic Expectations of Trans-Anatolian Natural Gas Pipeline Project“. In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c04.00604.
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The Republic of Azerbaijan is one of the oil and gas rich countries of the former Soviet Union. After the second stage of the Shah Deniz gas field, natural gas extraction and exportation became one of the key elements of Azerbaijan’s oil and gas strategy. Diversification of the oil and gas transportation has a great importance in Azerbaijan’s energy security policy and in this regard, TANAP is an important project after Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline. TANAP is a proposed natural gas pipeline project to transport Azerbaijani natural gas through Turkey to Europe in two directions. The project was firstly announced on 17 November 2011 at the Third Black Sea Energy and Economic Forum in Istanbul. It was launched in 2014 and will be expected to finish in 2018. TANAP will cost seven billion USD and will have the capacity of 23 billion cubic meters by 2023 and 31 billion cubic meters by 2026. This paper analyzes expected strategic and economic outcomes of TANAP.
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Azer, Özlem Arzu. „Political and Economic Integration of the Central Asian and South Caucasian Turkish Republics into the Global World“. In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c02.00244.
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With the dissolution of Soviet Union, former Soviet Republics’ central planned economy transformed into free market economy and structural reforms were made as parallel of this development. These former socialist countries have some diffficulties to adopt capitalism due to absence of some fundamental feautures of capitalism and inheritance of Soviet Union.
Ending big threat of communism, the jeo-strategical importance of the region increased for the West because these countries own the oil and gas resources besides they are starting point or transit country of the energy pipelines. However, these transition countries could not develop economically and poverty became the major problem for most of Central Asian and South Caucasian Turkic Republics. As economic problems lead weakness of governance, ethnical conflicts and border conflicts threat these new independent countries. The region seems in the center of war for power due to rich natural resources and pipelines as well as the connection point to Afghanistan and being the exit to the Black Sea.
This paper seeks economic situations of Central Asian and South Caucasian Turkic Republics which jeo-strategical importance increased due to natural resources and geographic location during Post Cold-War era. This work is based on statistical data provided by United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database (COMTRADE), United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and International Monetary Fund (IMF), covering the period of 1990-2008 and contains Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan.
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Duran, Hasan, und Kadir Kürşat Yılmaz. „The Ties That Binds the Giant: China’s Interests in Energy Sources of Central Asia“. In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c02.00336.
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Following the collapse of Soviet Union, the interest of China towards the Central Asia first revolved around the security and border issues. Then the fast growing economy of China since 2000 needs energy more she can produce. Becoming one of the biggest energy users, China has become more and more dependent on other countries to fill her energy deficit. Thus China has identified Central Asia as her prime area to built cooperative relations. In this respect, China started new relationships with Turkmenistan and Kazakistan in order to secure and sustain the procurement of oil and natural gas.
Thanks to its rich oil and natural gas reserves, Central Asia has become a region in which the great powers compete; with the years 2000s China joined to the rush. The rivalry in the region has a potential to change the balance of power in the World. This study evaluates this rivalry in terms of political and economic effects on China.
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Azer, Özlem Arzu. „The Central Asia and Caucasia Politics of China in the Context of Energy Security“. In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c03.00441.
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After the dissolution of Soviet Union, the geo-strategical importance of Caucasia, the Central Asia and the Black Sea region increased fastly. This transition period had been difficult while central planned economies had transformed into free market economies and meet capitalism. Geo-strategic importance of the region increased for the West and Russia as well as some countries as China due to the oil and gas resources besides being transit countries of the energy pipelines. The Central Asia, Caucasia and the Black Sea Region had been so important because the region owns rich natural resources and pipelines as well as being a door to Afghanistan and the exit to the Black Sea. During Post Cold-War era, the region became a chess table for imperial countries. While USA and Russia had been playing hegemony game in this region, some other countries as China had been investing silently in important areas. The investments of China in the region are actually so invincible. In this paper, it will be analysed the investments of China in this region and its economically and political interest in Caucasia and the Central Asia.
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Akça, Tacinur. „Foreign Trade Relations Between Turkey and the Eurasian Countries: An Empirical Study“. In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c07.01793.
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The Eurasian Countries incorporates many economic and cultural wealth. The Eurasian countries have attracted attention all over the world with its rich oil and natural gas reserves and geopolitical situation. Due to the increasing importance of the Eurasian countries, as well as being an alternative to a political foreign policy and it has created an economically viable alternative in terms of foreign trade for Turkey. The importance of exports is increasing for the development of Turkey and Eurasia cannot be neglected as an important issue. History of the republic's foreign policy is focused on establishing good relations with the West. Of the Soviet Union collapsed and the Cold War ended after the opening of the new Turkish foreign policy became inevitable to be based in Central Asia and the Caucasus, Turkey aimed to be active in this region.
The main purpose of our study was that Turkey's foreign trade with The Eurasian Countries is to reveal the relationship. The interest in the region began in the beginning of 1990, the economic policies implemented by Turkey has tried to analyze using relevant data. İn our study, in order to analyze the economic relationship between our countries and Eurasian Countries, Turkey's import and export figures which were explained in the form of tables with the countries concerned. We will concentrate on the major Eurasian countries, especially in our work we focus on Russia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Georgia, Ukraine and Moldova.
