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Auswahl der wissenschaftlichen Literatur zum Thema „NPY/AgRP neuron“
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Zeitschriftenartikel zum Thema "NPY/AgRP neuron"
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Oh, Youjin, Eun-Seon Yoo, Sang Hyeon Ju, Eunha Kim, Seulgi Lee, Seyun Kim, Kevin Wickman und Jong-Woo Sohn. „GIRK2 potassium channels expressed by the AgRP neurons decrease adiposity and body weight in mice“. PLOS Biology 21, Nr. 8 (18.08.2023): e3002252. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002252.
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It is well known that the neuropeptide Y (NPY)/agouti-related peptide (AgRP) neurons increase appetite and decrease thermogenesis. Previous studies demonstrated that optogenetic and/or chemogenetic manipulations of NPY/AgRP neuronal activity alter food intake and/or energy expenditure (EE). However, little is known about intrinsic molecules regulating NPY/AgRP neuronal excitability to affect long-term metabolic function. Here, we found that the G protein-gated inwardly rectifying K+ (GIRK) channels are key to stabilize NPY/AgRP neurons and that NPY/AgRP neuron-selective deletion of the GIRK2 subunit results in a persistently increased excitability of the NPY/AgRP neurons. Interestingly, increased body weight and adiposity observed in the NPY/AgRP neuron-selective GIRK2 knockout mice were due to decreased sympathetic activity and EE, while food intake remained unchanged. The conditional knockout mice also showed compromised adaptation to coldness. In summary, our study identified GIRK2 as a key determinant of NPY/AgRP neuronal excitability and driver of EE in physiological and stress conditions.
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van de Wall, Esther, Rebecca Leshan, Allison W. Xu, Nina Balthasar, Roberto Coppari, Shun Mei Liu, Young Hwan Jo et al. „Collective and Individual Functions of Leptin Receptor Modulated Neurons Controlling Metabolism and Ingestion“. Endocrinology 149, Nr. 4 (27.12.2007): 1773–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2007-1132.
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Two known types of leptin-responsive neurons reside within the arcuate nucleus: the agouti gene-related peptide (AgRP)/neuropeptide Y (NPY) neuron and the proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neuron. By deleting the leptin receptor gene (Lepr) specifically in AgRP/NPY and/or POMC neurons of mice, we examined the several and combined contributions of these neurons to leptin action. Body weight and adiposity were increased by Lepr deletion from AgRP and POMC neurons individually, and simultaneous deletion in both neurons (A+P LEPR-KO mice) further increased these measures. Young (periweaning) A+P LEPR-KO mice exhibit hyperphagia and decreased energy expenditure, with increased weight gain, oxidative sparing of triglycerides, and increased fat accumulation. Interestingly, however, many of these abnormalities were attenuated in adult animals, and high doses of leptin partially suppress food intake in the A+P LEPR-KO mice. Although mildly hyperinsulinemic, the A+P LEPR-KO mice displayed normal glucose tolerance and fertility. Thus, AgRP/NPY and POMC neurons each play mandatory roles in aspects of leptin-regulated energy homeostasis, high leptin levels in adult mice mitigate the importance of leptin-responsiveness in these neurons for components of energy balance, suggesting the presence of other leptin-regulated pathways that partially compensate for the lack of leptin action on the POMC and AgRP/NPY neurons.
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Coutinho, Eulalia A., Melanie Prescott, Sabine Hessler, Christopher J. Marshall, Allan E. Herbison und Rebecca E. Campbell. „Activation of a Classic Hunger Circuit Slows Luteinizing Hormone Pulsatility“. Neuroendocrinology 110, Nr. 7-8 (21.10.2019): 671–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000504225.
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Introduction: The central regulation of fertility is carefully coordinated with energy homeostasis, and infertility is frequently the outcome of energy imbalance. Neurons in the hypothalamus expressing neuropeptide Y and agouti-related peptide (NPY/AgRP neurons) are strongly implicated in linking metabolic cues with fertility regulation. Objective: We aimed here to determine the impact of selectively activating NPY/AgRP neurons, critical regulators of metabolism, on the activity of luteinizing hormone (LH) pulse generation. Methods: We employed a suite of in vivo optogenetic and chemogenetic approaches with serial measurements of LH to determine the impact of selectively activating NPY/AgRP neurons on dynamic LH secretion. In addition, electrophysiological studies in ex vivo brain slices were employed to ascertain the functional impact of activating NPY/AgRP neurons on gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons. Results: Selective activation of NPY/AgRP neurons significantly decreased post-castration LH secretion. This was observed in males and females, as well as in prenatally androgenized females that recapitulate the persistently elevated LH pulse frequency characteristic of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Reduced LH pulse frequency was also observed when optogenetic stimulation was restricted to NPY/AgRP fiber projections surrounding GnRH neuron cell bodies in the rostral preoptic area. However, electrophysiological studies in ex vivo brain slices indicated these effects were likely to be indirect. Conclusions: These data demonstrate the ability of NPY/AgRP neuronal signaling to modulate and, specifically, reduce GnRH/LH pulse generation. The findings suggest a mechanism by which increased activity of this hunger circuit, in response to negative energy balance, mediates impaired fertility in otherwise reproductively fit states, and highlight a potential mechanism to slow LH pulsatility in female infertility disorders, such as PCOS, that are associated with hyperactive LH secretion.
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Jones, Edward S., Nicolas Nunn, Adam P. Chambers, Søren Østergaard, Birgitte S. Wulff und Simon M. Luckman. „Modified Peptide YY Molecule Attenuates the Activity of NPY/AgRP Neurons and Reduces Food Intake in Male Mice“. Endocrinology 160, Nr. 11 (10.05.2019): 2737–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2019-00100.
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Abstract To study the effects of an analog of the gut-produced hormone peptide YY (PYY3-36), which has increased selectivity for the Y2 receptor; specifically, to record its effects on food intake and on hypothalamic neuropeptide Y/agouti-related peptide (NPY/AgRP) neuron activity. NNC0165-1273, a modified form of the peptide hormone PYY3-36 with potent selectivity at Y2 receptor (>5000-fold over Y1, 1250-fold over Y4, and 650-fold over Y5 receptor), was tested in vivo and in vitro in mouse models. NNC0165-1273 has fivefold lower relative affinity for Y2 compared with PYY3-36, but >250-, 192-, and 400-fold higher selectivity, respectively, for the Y1, Y4, and Y5 receptors. NNC0165-1273 produced a reduction in nighttime feeding at a dose at which PYY3-36 loses efficacy. The normal behavioral satiety sequence observed suggests that NNC0165-1273 is not nauseating and, instead, reduces food intake by producing early satiety. Additionally, NNC0165-1273 blocked ghrelin-induced cFos expression in NPY/AgRP neurons. In vitro electrophysiological recordings showed that, opposite to ghrelin, NNC0165-1273 hyperpolarized NPY/AgRP neurons and reduced action potential frequency. Administration of NNC0165-1273 via subcutaneous osmotic minipump caused a dose-dependent decrease in body weight and fat mass in an obese mouse model. Finally, NNC0165-1273 attenuated the feeding response when NPY/AgRP neurons were activated using ghrelin or more selectively with designer receptors. NNC0165-1273 is nonnauseating and stimulates a satiety response through, at least in part, a direct action on hypothalamic NPY/AgRP neurons. Modification of PYY3-36 to produce compounds with increased affinity to Y2 receptors may be useful as antiobesity therapies in humans.
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Morton, GJ, und MW Schwartz. „The NPY/AgRP neuron and energy homeostasis“. International Journal of Obesity 25, S5 (Dezember 2001): S56—S62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0801915.
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Landry, Taylor, Daniel Shookster, Alec Chaves, Katrina Free, Tony Nguyen und Hu Huang. „Exercise increases NPY/AgRP and TH neuron activity in the hypothalamus of female mice“. Journal of Endocrinology 252, Nr. 3 (01.03.2022): 167–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/joe-21-0250.
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Recent evidence identifies a potent role for aerobic exercise to modulate the activity of hypothalamic neurons related to appetite; however, these studies have been primarily performed in male rodents. Since females have markedly different neuronal mechanisms regulating food intake, the current study aimed to determine the effects of acute treadmill exercise on hypothalamic neuron populations involved in regulating appetite in female mice. Mature, untrained female mice were exposed to acute sedentary, low- (10 m/min), moderate- (14 m/min), and high (18 m/min)-intensity treadmill exercise in a randomized crossover design. Mice were fasted 10 h before exercise, and food intake was monitored for 48 h after bouts. Immunohistochemical detection of cFOS was performed 3 h post-exercise to determine the changes in hypothalamic neuropeptide Y (NPY)/agouti-related peptide (AgRP), pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC), tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), and SIM1-expressing neuron activity concurrent with the changes in food intake. Additionally, stains for pSTAT3tyr705 and pERKthr202/tyr204 were performed to detect exercise-mediated changes in intracellular signaling. Briefly, moderate- and high-intensity exercises increased 24-h food intake by 5.9 and 19%, respectively, while low-intensity exercise had no effects. Furthermore, increases in NPY/AgRPARC, SIM1PVN, and TH neuron activity were observed 3 h after high-intensity exercise, with no effects on POMCARC neurons. While no effects of exercise on pERKthr202/tyr204 were observed, pSTAT3tyr705 was elevated specifically in NPY/AgRP neurons 3 h post-exercise. Overall, aerobic exercise increased the activity of several appetite-stimulating neuron populations in the hypothalamus of female mice, which may provide insight into previously reported sexual dimorphisms in post-exercise feeding.
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Smith, A. W., M. A. Bosch, E. J. Wagner, O. K. Rønnekleiv und M. J. Kelly. „The membrane estrogen receptor ligand STX rapidly enhances GABAergic signaling in NPY/AgRP neurons: role in mediating the anorexigenic effects of 17β-estradiol“. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism 305, Nr. 5 (01.09.2013): E632—E640. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00281.2013.
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Besides its quintessential role in reproduction, 17β-estradiol (E2) is a potent anorexigenic hormone. E2 and the selective Gq-coupled membrane estrogen receptor (Gq-mER) ligand STX rapidly increase membrane excitability in proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons by desensitizing the coupling of GABAB receptors to G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying K+ channels (GIRKs), which upon activation elicit a hyperpolarizing outward current. However, it is unknown whether E2 and STX can modulate GABAB signaling in neuropeptide Y (NPY)/agouti-related peptide (AgRP) neurons. We used single-cell RT-PCR and whole cell patch clamping with selective pharmacological reagents to show that NPY/AgRP cells of mice express the GABAB-R1 and -R2 receptors and are hyperpolarized by the GABAB agonist baclofen in an E2-dependent manner. In males, E2 rapidly attenuated the coupling of GABAB receptors to GIRKs, which was blocked by the general PI3K inhibitors wortmannin and LY-294002 or the selective p110β subunit inhibitor TGX-221. The ERα-selective agonist propyl pyrazole triol mimicked the effects of E2. STX, in contrast, enhanced the GABAB response in males, which was abrogated by the estrogen receptor (ER) antagonist ICI 182,780. In gonadectomized mice of both sexes, E2 enhanced or attenuated the GABAB response in different NPY/AgRP cells. Coperfusing wortmannin with E2 or simply applying STX always enhanced the GABAB response. Thus, in NPY/AgRP neurons, activation of the Gq-mER by E2 or STX enhances the GABAergic postsynaptic response, whereas activation of ERα by E2 attenuates it. These findings demonstrate a clear functional dichotomy of rapid E2 membrane-initiated signaling via ERα vs. Gq-mER in a CNS neuron vital for regulating energy homeostasis.
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Teaney, Nicole A., und Nicole E. Cyr. „Sirtuin 1 Regulates Synapsin 1 in POMC-Producing N43-5 Neurons via FOXO1“. Journal of the Endocrine Society 5, Supplement_1 (01.05.2021): A56—A57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jendso/bvab048.114.
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Abstract The nutrient-sensor protein Sirtuin 1 (Sirt1; silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1) has been shown to have significant and opposing effects on insulin resistance, leptin resistance, and body weight in the periphery and the brain. In the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC) of the brain, Sirt1 increases in the obese state and acts to promote weight gain as well as insulin and leptin resistance by increasing the orexigenic neuropeptides Agouti-related protein (AgRP) and neuropeptide Y (NPY), and in a distinct set of ARC neurons, by decreasing POMC and thus its anorexigenic derivative alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH) (1). Sirt1’s actions on these neuropeptides are mediated at least in part by the deacetylation of the transcription factor forkhead box O1 (FOXO1). Another mechanism by which Sirt1 regulates body weight appears to be through mediating changes in the synapses of these neuropeptide-producing ARC neurons. For example, a previous study demonstrated that Sirt1 inhibition with the specific Sirt1 inhibitor, Ex-527, decreased AgRP-NPY inhibitory synaptic input on POMC neurons, which suggests that the obesity-induced increase in ARC Sirt1 would increase AgRP-NPY inhibition of POMC neurons thus promoting weight gain (2). The present study investigated how Sirt1 regulates synapses specifically in POMC-producing N43-5 neurons. Results reveal that inhibition of Sirt1 with Ex-527 significantly increased the presynaptic marker Synapsin 1 (Syn1) in N43-5 neurons. Furthermore, we investigated whether the Sirt1 target, FOXO1, mediates these synaptic changes. FOXO1 overexpression significantly decreased Syn1 and transfection of mutant FOXO1 significantly increased Syn1. Overall, our results suggest that Sirt1 regulates synapses of POMC neurons and does so in a manner that differs from Sirt1’s regulation of AgRP-NPY neuronal synapses. Future work will elucidate the mechanisms and consequences of Sirt1 and FOXO1 regulation of POMC neuron synapses under different nutritional conditions in vitro and in vivo. (1) Cyr, N. E., Steger, J. S., Toorie, A. M., Yang, J. Z., Stuart, R., Nillni, E. A. (2014). Central Sirt1 Regulates Body Weight and Energy Expenditure Along With the POMC-Derived Peptide α-MSH and the Processing Enzyme CPE Production in Diet-Induced Obese Male Rats, Endocrinology, 155(7), 2423–2435. (2) Dietrich, M. O., Antunes, C., Geliang, G., Liu, Z., Borok, E., Nie, Y., . . . Horvath, T. L. (2010). Agrp neurons mediate Sirt1’s action on the melanocortin system and energy balance: Roles for Sirt1 in neuronal firing and synaptic plasticity. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30(35), 11815–11825.
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Johnson, Miranda D., Sebastien G. Bouret, Ambrose A. Dunn-Meynell, Christina N. Boyle, Thomas A. Lutz und Barry E. Levin. „Early postnatal amylin treatment enhances hypothalamic leptin signaling and neural development in the selectively bred diet-induced obese rat“. American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 311, Nr. 6 (01.12.2016): R1032—R1044. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00326.2016.
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Selectively bred diet-induced obese (DIO) rats become obese on a high-fat diet and are leptin resistant before becoming obese. Compared with diet-resistant (DR) neonates, DIO neonates have impaired leptin-dependent arcuate (ARC) neuropeptide Y/agouti-related peptide (NPY/AgRP) and α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH; from proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons) axon outgrowth to the paraventricular nucleus (PVN). Using phosphorylation of STAT3 (pSTAT3) as a surrogate, we show that reduced DIO ARC leptin signaling develops by postnatal day 7 (P7) and is reduced within POMC but not NPY/AgRP neurons. Since amylin increases leptin signaling in adult rats, we treated DIO neonates with amylin during postnatal hypothalamic development and assessed leptin signaling, leptin-dependent ARC-PVN pathway development, and metabolic changes. DIO neonates treated with amylin from P0–6 and from P0–16 increased ARC leptin signaling and both AgRP and α-MSH ARC-PVN pathway development, but increased only POMC neuron number. Despite ARC-PVN pathway correction, P0–16 amylin-induced reductions in body weight did not persist beyond treatment cessation. Since amylin enhances adult DIO ARC signaling via an IL-6-dependent mechanism, we assessed ARC-PVN pathway competency in IL-6 knockout mice and found that the AgRP, but not the α-MSH, ARC-PVN pathway was reduced. These results suggest that both leptin and amylin are important neurotrophic factors for the postnatal development of the ARC-PVN pathway. Amylin might act as a direct neurotrophic factor in DIO rats to enhance both the number of POMC neurons and their α-MSH ARC-PVN pathway development. This suggests important and selective roles for amylin during ARC hypothalamic development.
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Krashes, Michael J., Bhavik P. Shah, Shuichi Koda und Bradford B. Lowell. „Rapid versus Delayed Stimulation of Feeding by the Endogenously Released AgRP Neuron Mediators GABA, NPY, and AgRP“. Cell Metabolism 18, Nr. 4 (Oktober 2013): 588–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2013.09.009.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleDissertationen zum Thema "NPY/AgRP neuron"
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Qu, Mengdi. „Molecular mechanism underlying CaMK1D-dependent function in AgRP neurons“. Electronic Thesis or Diss., Strasbourg, 2024. http://www.theses.fr/2024STRAJ029.
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La perturbation des mécanismes de réponse au stress chez les organismes peut entraîner une dysfonction cellulaire et des maladies telles que le syndrome métabolique. L'équilibre énergétique est principalement régulé par le système nerveux central (SNC), qui intègre des signaux hormonaux, neuronaux et alimentaires provenant de divers tissus. Une dysfonction de ce système est liée à l'obésité et au syndrome métabolique, qui sont tous deux des précurseurs du diabète de type 2 (T2D). Notre laboratoire a découvert que la protéine kinase ID dépendante du calcium/calmoduline (CaMK1D), un gène associé au T2D, favorise la prise alimentaire médiée par la ghréline chez les souris. Cependant, le rôle de la signalisation de CaMK1D dans les neurones NPY/AgRP reste encore à éclaircir. Dans cette étude, nous avons réalisé un séquençage de l'ARN en utilisant la lignée cellulaire hypothalamique GT1-7. Nous avons ainsi découvert que CalHM6 est une cible potentielle en aval de la signalisation de CaMK1D. Les niveaux d'ARNm de CalHM6 sont ainsi significativement augmentés dans les cellules CaMK1D-/- et sont réduits lorsque CaMK1D est ré-exprimé. Cela a également été confirmé in vivo dans l'hypothalamus des souris CaMK1D-/-. CalHM6, probablement un canal calcique dépendant du voltage, a montré des niveaux intracellulaires de Ca2+ augmentés en réponse à la ghréline dans les cellules CaMK1D-/- par rapport aux cellules CaMK1D+/+ en utilisant la méthode jGCamps. En résumé, notre travail a montré que CalHM6 est une nouvelle cible de CaMK1D. Une expression élevée de CaMK1D, entraînant une faible expression de CalHM6, pourrait ainsi favoriser la prise alimentaire et l'obésité en modulant la signalisation dépendante du calcium dans les neurones NPY/AgRPDisruption of stress response mechanisms in organisms can lead to cellular dysfunction and diseases like metabolic syndrome. Energy balance is mainly regulated by the central nervous system (CNS), which integrates hormonal, neuronal, and dietary signals from various tissues. Dysfunction in this system is linked to obesity and metabolic syndrome, both precursors to type 2 diabetes (T2D). Our laboratory discovered that calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase ID (CaMK1D), a gene associated with T2D, promotes ghrelin-mediated food intake in mice. However, CaMK1D signaling in NPY/AgRP neurons still remains questions. In this work, we proformed RNA sequencing using the GT1-7 hypothalamic cell line. To this end, we found that CalHM6 is a downstream target of CaMK1D signaling. CalHM6 mRNA levels were significantly upregulated in CaMK1D-/- cells and downregulated when CaMK1D was re-expressed. This was confirmed in vivo in the hypothalamus of CaMK1D-/- mice. CalHM6, likely a voltage-gated calcium channel, showed increased intracellular Ca2+ levels in response to ghrelin in CaMK1D-/- cells compared to CaMK1D+/+ cells using jGCamps method. Altogether, our work showed CalHM6 is a novel target of CaMK1D. High CaMK1D, leading to low CalHM6 expression, may enhance food intake and obesity by modulating calcium-dependent signaling in NPY/AgRP neuron
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Ramírez, Flores Sara. „Hypothalamic Ceramide Levels regulated by CPT1C mediate the Orexigenic effect of Ghrelin“. Doctoral thesis, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10803/276184.
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Recent data suggest that ghrelin exerts its orexigenic action through regulation of hypothalamic AMP-activated protein kinase pathway, leading to a decline in malonyl-CoA levels and desinhibition of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A (CPT1A), which increases mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation and ultimately enhances the expression of the orexigenic neuropeptides agouti-related protein (AgRP) and neuropeptide Y (NPY). However, it is unclear whether the brain-specific isoform CPT1C, which is located in the endoplasmic reticulum of neurons, may play a role in this action. Here, we demonstrate that the orexigenic action of ghrelin is totally blunted in CPT1C knockout (KO) mice, despite having the canonical ghrelin signaling pathway activated. We also demonstrate that ghrelin elicits a marked upregulation of hypothalamic C18:0 ceramide levels mediated by CPT1C. Notably, central inhibition of ceramide synthesis with myriocin negated the orexigenic action of ghrelin and normalized the levels of AgRP and NPY, as well as their key transcription factors phosphorylated cAMP-response element-binding protein and forkhead box O1. Furthermore, central treatment with ceramide induced food intake and orexigenic neuropeptides expression in CPT1C KO mice. Third, we demonstrate that ceramides act increasing the BSX expression, the transcription factor that works coordinately with pCREB and FoxO1 to increase orexigenic neuropeptides. Finally we link CPT1C and longevity as we have seen that CPT1CKO mice have reduced lifespan. Overall, these data indicate that, in addition to formerly reported mechanisms, ghrelin also induces food intake through regulation of hypothalamic CPT1C and ceramide metabolism
Bücher zum Thema "NPY/AgRP neuron"
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Wójcik-Gładysz, Anna. Ghrelin – hormone with many faces. Central regulation and therapy. The Kielanowski Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, Polish Academy of Sciences, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.22358/mono_awg_2020.
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Discovered in 1999, ghrelin, is one of the peptides co-creating the hypothalamicgastrointestinal axis, otherwise known as the brain-gut axis. Ghrelin participates in many physiological processes and spectrum of its activity is still being discovered. This 28 amino acid peptide ‒ a product of the ghrl gene, was found in all vertebrates and is synthesized and secreted mainly from enteroendocrine X/A cells located in the gastric mucosa of the stomach. Expression of the ghrelin receptor has been found in many nuclei of the hypothalamus involved in appetite regulation. Therefore it’s presumed that ghrelin is one of the crucial hormones deciphering the energy status required for the maintenance of organism homeostasis. Ghrelin acts as a signal of starvation or energy insufficiency and its level in plasma is reduced after the meal. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide (AgRP; NPY/AgRP) neurons located in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) area are the main target of ghrelin in the hypothalamus. This subpopulation of neurons is indispensable for inducing orexigenic action of ghrelin. Moreover ghrelin acting as a neurohormone, mainly in the hypothalamus area, plays an important role in the regulation of growth and reproduction processes. Indeed, ghrelin action on reproductive processes has been observed in the systemic effects exerted at both hypothalamus-pituitary and gonadal levels. Similarly the GH-releasing ghrelin action was observed both on the hypothalamus level and directly on the somatotrophic cells in the pituitary and this dose-related GH releasing activity was found in in vitro as well as in in vivo experiments. In recent years, numerous studies revealed that ghrelin potentially takes part in the treatment of diseases associated with serious disturbances in the organism energy balance and/or functioning of the gastrointestinal tract. It was underlined that ghrelin may be a hormone with a broad spectrum of therapeutic effect on obesity and anorexia nervosa, as well as may also have protective effect on neurodegenerative diseases, inflammatory disorders or functional changes in the body caused by cancers. In overall, ghrelin treatment has been tested in over 100 preclinical studies with healthy volunteers as well as patients with various types of cancer, eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. It was observed that ghrelin has an excellent clinical safety profile and emerging side effects occurred only in 3–10% of patients and did not constitute a sufficient premise to discontinue the therapy. In general, it can be concluded that ghrelin may be sufficiently used as a prescription drug.