Dissertationen zum Thema „Milk economy“

Många av de aktuella miljöproblemen kan kopplas till dagens konsumtionssamhälle som intensivt brukar jordens resurser. För att nå klimatmålen och reducera antropogen påverkan på miljön krävs effektiva åtgärder, bland annat inom produktion och konsumtion av varor och tjänster. En åtgärd skulle kunna vara att införa ett återbrukssystem för förpackningar. Det kan bidra till att skapa en cirkulär ekonomi där material- och energiflöden sluts och resurser nyttjas till fullo. För att ett återbrukssystem ska fungera i praktiken har producenter och konsumenter en viktig roll då förpackningarna måste returneras för att kunna återanvändas. Därmed finns ett intresse av att undersöka hur producenter och konsumenter ser på införandet av ett potentiellt återbrukssystem. Denna studie kommer utvärdera potentialen för ett återbrukssystem i Sverige genom att utföra en fallstudie på återanvändbara mjölkflaskor av glas.  Syftet med studien är att utvärdera om en introducering av återanvändbara mjölkförpackningar av glas kan vara ett alternativ ur ett producent- och konsumentperspektiv. Detta analyseras genom att utreda intresset för ett återbrukssystem samt att identifiera eventuella hinder, för- och nackdelar och viktiga sociala aspekter med systemet. För att undersöka producenternas intresse genomfördes intervjuer med representanter från två mejerier i Sverige. Konsumenternas intresse undersöktes genom en enkätstudie. Utifrån befintlig litteratur inom området identifierades ett antal teman som har betydelse för individers beteenden: värderingar, medvetenhet och bekvämlighet. Dessa användes för analys av konsumenters intresse för systemet.  Resultatet visar att det inte finns något övergripande intresse hos producenter och konsumenter för ett återbrukssystem med mjölkflaskor av glas i dagsläget. För producenterna skulle det isåfall vara om det går att motivera att det medför miljömässiga fördelar samt lönsamhet för företaget. Konsumenternas intresse motiveras av sociala aspekter såsom personligt intresse och engagemang för miljön, och begränsas av den extra ansträngningen som krävs för att returnera flaskorna efter användning. Producenterna saknar övervägande incitament att byta från dagens mjölkkartonger och är tveksamma till återbrukssystemets lönsamhet. Det befaras även medföra problem med hygien och kvalitetssäkring av produkterna. Om det kan fastställas att det är miljömässigt fördelaktigt kan återbrukssystemet gynna mejeriernas försäljning, då det finns ett intresse hos konsumenterna för miljövänliga produkter. Dock konstateras glasflaskornas vikt vara en betydande faktor som påverkar både producenternas och konsumenternas intresse till systemet. Samtidigt identifieras en allmän osäkerhet hos både producenter och konsumenter om ett återbrukssystem skulle medföra miljömässiga fördelar. Det skulle därmed behövas ytterligare vetenskapliga studier för att utvärdera återbrukssystemets möjligheter till miljömässig och ekonomisk lönsamhet.
Many of the current environmental problems can be linked to our consumer society, which entails inefficient use of the earth's resources. In order to achieve climate goals and reduce anthropogenic impacts on the environment, effective measures are required, including in the production and consumption of goods and services. One measure is to introduce a system for reusable packaging. The system can help create a circular economy where resources are used in closed-loop systems, which minimises the use of natural resources. In order to create an efficient system for reusable packaging, producers and consumers have an important role as the packaging must be returned in order to be reused. Thus, there is an interest in examining producers and consumers attitudes to an introduction of a potential system for reusable packaging. Therefore, this study will evaluate the potential for reusable packaging in Sweden by conducting a case study on reusable glass milk bottles.  The purpose of the study is to evaluate whether the introduction of reusable milk packaging can be an alternative from a producer and consumer perspective. This is analysed by investigating the interest in a system for reusable packaging as well as identifying any obstacles, advantages, disadvantages and important social aspects with the system. To investigate the producers' interest, interviews with representatives from two dairies in Sweden were conducted. The consumers' interest was examined through a survey. Based on existing literature in the field, a number of themes were identified to be of importance for individuals' behaviors: values, awareness and convenience. These themes were used in the analysis of consumers' interest in reusable packaging.  The results show that there is no overall interest among producers and consumers for reusable glass milk bottles at present. Producers consider it to be a preferable packaging alternative only if it can be justified to entail environmental benefits as well as profitability for the company. The consumers' interest is motivated by social aspects such as personal interest and commitment to the environment, and their interest is limited by the extra effort required to return the bottles after use. Today, the producers consider a lack of incentives to switch from today's milk cartons, and are doubting the profitability of an investment in reusable packaging. They are also concerned that the reusable bottles would cause problems with hygiene and quality assurance of the products. Although, if it can be determined that reusable packaging is environmentally beneficial, it could benefit the dairies' sales, as there is an increasing demand among consumers for environmentally friendly products. However, the weight of the glass bottles is found to be a significant factor that affects both producers' and consumers' interest in the system. At the same time, both producers and consumers are uncertain as to whether reusable packaging would in fact entail environmental benefits. Further scientific studies would thus be needed to evaluate the recycling system's potential for environmental and economic profitability.

Idag sker många transporter med låg utnyttjandegrad vilket gör att transportkostnaden per produkt blir hög samtidigt som transporter har en negativ påverkan på miljön. Genom att konsolidera transporter kan utnyttjandegraden av transporterna öka. Ökad utnyttjandegrad kan även hjälpa företagen att gå mot cirkulär ekonomi där målet är att utnyttja resurserna maximalt. För små och medelstora företag kan det dock vara svårt att bygga upp samarbeten med andra företag. Dessa företag möter olika möjligheter och hinder vid implementering av transportkonsolidering, därför kommer denna studien identifiera vilka dessa är. Studien har genomförts i samarbete med 16 företag i Orust kommun och har visat att de största hindren vid transportkonsolidering är kundkrav, produktkrav och informationsdelning. Företagen upplevde att kundernas krav på korta ledtider skulle göra det svårt att samordna transporter med andra företag. Många företag upplevde även att produktkraven deras produkter ställer på transporterna skulle försvåra transportkonsolidering. Studien kunde dock visa att flera företag hade liknande produktkrav vilket möjliggör transportkonsolidering. En del företag ansåg att det saknades stöd och samarbete för den informationsdelning som krävs vid konsolidering. De främsta möjligheterna som identifierades är företagskulturen och viljan att gå mot en mer hållbar distributionskedja. Företagen som deltog i intervjuerna nämnde att de såg positivt på transportkonsolidering om det fanns ett sätt att enkelt samordna transporterna. De är även aktiva i Orust Kretsloppsakademi som arbetar för ett hållbart Orust vilket visar att det finns ett intresse av att bli mer hållbara.
Today, many transports are at a low rate of utilization. This means that shipping costs per product will be high and at the same time transports have a negative impact on the environment. Consolidating transports can increase the utilization rate for transports which minimizes costs and environmental impact. Increased utilization rates can also help companies move towards circular economics where the goal is to maximize their utilization of resources. However, for small and medium size companies it may be difficult to build up partnerships with other companies. These companies face different possibilities and obstacles in implementing transport consolidation, therefore this study will identify these. The study has been carried out in cooperation with 16 companies in Orust and has shown that the main obstacles to transport consolidation are customer requirements, product requirements and information sharing. The companies perceived that customer demand for short lead times would make it difficult to coordinate transport with other companies. Many companies also found that the productrequirements of their products on transport would make transport consolidation difficult. However, the study showed that several companies had similar product requirements, which enables transport consolidation. Some companies also felt that there was no support and cooperation for the information sharing required for consolidation. The main opportunities identified were corporate culture and the desire to move towards a more sustainable distribution chain. The companies that participated in the interviews mentioned that they can see possibilities of transport consolidation if there was a way to easily coordinate transport. They are also active in the Orust Kretsloppsakademi that works for a sustainable Orust, which shows that there is an interest in becoming more sustainable.

The purpose of this work is to contribute for the management of a small dairy producers network of cooperation throughout a structure of governance definition, which mitigates transaction costs in the dairy products market in the northeast of Rio Grande do Sul State. According to theoretical aspect, this research utilized the Transaction Costs Economy, and the New Institutional Economy. Sixteen cooperative companies, and an association of producers formed the network less than a year ago. One of its main goals is to make investments in a transaction costs. The methodology was the case study with only one unit of analysis. To main suggestion from this study was that the network could make use of different structures of governance for each phase described in its planning, beginning by market s shape, evolving to the hybrid shape, until it reaches the hierarch or integration shape according to performed investments in specific assets for the milk processing in natura. Complementary to the indication of structures of governance we presented other strategies to the network s logistics, such as: applying of Supply Chain Management to choose commercial partners as well as to reach the Modern Industrial Organization to accomplish a unique image, to find competitive strategies for the products of the AGEL.
O escopo do trabalho é contribuir para o gerenciamento de uma rede de cooperação de pequenos produtores de leite, pela definição de uma estrutura de governança mitigadora dos custos de transação, para atuação no mercado de produtos lácteos no noroeste do Rio Grande do Sul. Do ponto de vista teórico a pesquisa utilizou a Economia dos Custos de Transação e a Nova Economia Institucional. A rede é formada a menos de um ano, por dezesseis cooperativas e uma associação de produtores e pretende realizar investimentos em um ambiente envolvido em substanciais custos de transação. A metodologia utilizada foi o estudo de caso com uma única unidade de análise. A principal sugestão do estudo, foi que a rede fizesse uso de estruturas de governança diferentes para cada etapa almejada no seu planejamento, iniciando pela forma de mercado, passando a forma hibrida, até atingir a forma de hierarquia ou integração, à medida que forem efetuados investimentos em ativos específicos para o processamento do leite in natura. Complementarmente a indicação das estruturas de governança, foram apresentados outros aportes para operacionalização da rede, com aplicação de conceitos de Gestão da Cadeia de Suprimentos para escolha de parceiros comerciais e da Moderna Organização Industrial para definição de uma imagem diferenciada, na busca por estratégias competitivas, para os produtos da AGEL.

This thesis consisted of two computerized simulations of assembling milk from dairy farms and distributing it to milk plants, using TRUCKSTOPS, a commercial truck routing computer program. In the first simulation milk was assembled and delivered to the nearest available plant without regard to protein content, with the high-protein milk delivered to manufacturing plants. Doing so increased the fat and protein in milk delivered to manufacturing plants, and increased cheese production 2.6 percent. It also increased assembly costs and lowered fat and protein in milk delivered to fluid milk plants. The value of the extra cheese was less than the extra assembly costs and the value of the butterfat diverted from fluid milk to manufacturing plants, making the operation economically unfeasible.

The general objectives of the present thesis were to evaluate: (i) the effects of subclinical mastitis (SM) caused by major pathogens on SCC, milk leukocyte differentials (MLD) and milk yield; (ii) milk yield losses caused by SM at the cow and quarter level; and (iii) the economic impact of SM caused by major pathogens. The thesis was structured in four studies. In study 1, quarter milk samples (n = 302) from 78 cows with SCC gt;200,000 cells/mL were analyzed by milk leukocyte differential (MLD) methodology and by microbiological culture (MC). Quarters with positive-culture results were obtained from 102/156 (65.4%) of MLD-positive milk samples, while 28/135 (20.7%) of MLD-negative milk samples were MC-positive. When MC was considered the gold standard for mastitis diagnosis, the sensitivity (Se) of the MLD was 65.4% (IC95% = 57.4 to 72.8%) and the specificity (Sp) was 79.3% (IC95% = 71.4% to 85.7%). In conclusion, the use of the MLD on cows with monthly composite SCC > 200×103 cells/mL for screening at quarter level identified quarters more likely to be culture-positive. In study 2, the effect of different pathogens was evaluated by comparison of contralateral (healthy and infected) mammary quarters of 146 lactating cows. The impact of SM on economic return (quarter milk yield × milk price) was determined by applying milk payment estimates on milk collected from healthy versus infected glands. The milk losses ranged from 0.07 Kg/quarter.milking to 2.9 Kg/quarter.milking, and varied according to the pathogen causing SM. Economic losses were higher for SM caused by Enterococcus spp. (US$0.43/quarter.milking), Strep. Dysgalactiae (US$ 0.74/quarter.milking) and E. coli (US$0.98/quarter.milking). Additionally, there was a trend for Staph. aureus and Citrobacter spp. To induce economic losses of US$ 0.26 and 0.29/quarter.milking, respectively. In general, the economic return was lower in quarters with SM caused by environmental and contagious pathogens (US$ 0.18 and 0.22/quarter.milking, respectively) when compared to their healthy contralateral quarters. In study 3, a total of 146 out of 650 lactating cows were selected from seven dairy herds for having composite milk SCC > 200,000 cells/mL in combination with the isolation of a major mastitis pathogen. From these selected cows, 1,436 quarter milk samples were collected during three successive sampling occasions at intervals of 15-20 days. Quarter milk yield was measured by milking the mammary quarters individually using three successive milk samplings over time. Bacterial isolates were identified by microbiological culture, MALDI-TOF MS and partial sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. Milk losses and economic returns varied according to the type of mastitis-causing pathogen: 0.24 to -0.87 kg/quarter.milking for environmental streptococci, and -1.57 to -1.69 kg/quarter.milking for Staph. aureus. Overall, mammary quarters that were cured from SM caused by Staph. aureus and environmental streptococci exhibited an increase in economic return of approximately 0.47 and 0.69 US$/quarter.milking, respectively. In study 4, test day records (n = 1,200,002) were obtained from the Paraná State Holstein Association, which included data from 92,560 lactating cows, from 781 herds, from January 2010 to December 2015. A segmented regression was fitted to estimate the cut-off point of Log10SCC scale where milk yield started to be affected by mastitis: 0.90 (~7,963 cells/mL). In conclusion, first lactation cows have a reduction of 1.37 to 2.28 kg/cow/d of milk yield for each increase of one unit of Log10SCC over the cutoff point, whereas second and later lactation cows are expected to have milk yield losses of 2.36 to 4.20 kg/cow/d for each unit increase of Log10SCC over the cutoff point. Overall, the results of this thesis indicated that milk losses depend on the type of pathogen causing SM. Major pathogens have showed greater effects on milk quality than when it was observed using the approach of culture results of negative or positive. The methodology for evaluation of subclinical mastitis effect on milk yield interferes in the estimation of milk losses, and should include factors such as DIM and number of parity.
Os objetivos gerais da tese foram avaliar: (i) os efeitos da mastite subclínica (MS) causada por patógenos primários sobre a CCS, contagem diferencial de células e produção de leite; (ii) perdas de produção de leite ocasionadas pela MS, em nível de vacas e quartos mamários; e (iii) o impacto econômico da MS causado por patógenos primários. A tese foi estruturada em quatro estudos. No estudo 1, amostras de leite de quartos mamários (n = 302) foram submetidas a cultura microbiológica (CM) e contagem diferencial de leucócitos (MLD). Quartos com resultados cultura-positiva apresentaram 102/156 (65,4%) amostras de leite MLD-positivas, e 28/135 (20,7%) das amostras de leite MLD-negativas tiveram CM-positivas. Quando a CM foi considerada o padrão-ouro para o diagnóstico da mastite, o diagnóstico por meio da MLD apresentou sensibilidade (Se) de 65,4% (IC95% = 57,4 a 72,8%) e especificidade (Sp) de 79,3% (IC95% = 71,4% a 85,7%). Em conclusão, o uso da MLD em vacas com CCS mensal > 200,000 células/mL para triagem de quartos identificou os mais prováveis de ser cultura-positivos. No estudo 2, o efeito de diferentes tipos de patógenos foi estudado avaliando pares de quartos mamários contralaterais (sadios e infectados) de 146 vacas em lactação. O impacto da MS sobre o retorno econômico (produção de leite × preço do leite) foi determinado pela aplicação de estimativas de pagamento do leite de quartos sadios e infectados. As perdas de leite variaram de 0,07 Kg/quarto.ordenha a 2,9 Kg/quarto.ordenha de acordo com o patógeno causador de MS. As perdas econômicas foram maiores em casos de MS causados por Enterococcus spp. (US$ 0,43/quarto.ordenha), Strep. dysgalactiae (US$ 0,74/quarto.ordenha) e E. coli (US$ 0,98/quarto.ordenha). Além disso, houve uma tendência de Staph. aureus e Citrobacter spp. ocasionar perdas de US$ 0,26 e 0,29/quarto.ordenha, respectivamente. Em geral, o retorno econômico foi menor em quartos com MS causada por patógenos ambientais e contagiosos (US$ 0,18 e 0,22/quarto.ordenha, respectivamente) quando comparados com os quartos contralaterais sadios. No estudo 3, um total de 146 das 650 vacas em lactação foram selecionadas de sete rebanhos por apresentar amostras compostas de leite com alta CCS (> 200.000 células/mL) e isolamento de patógeno primário causador de MS. Destas vacas selecionadas, 1.436 amostras de leite de quartos foram coletadas durante três amostragens sucessivas com intervalos de 15-20 dias. A produção de leite em nível de quartos mamários foi mensurada por meio de ordenha completa e individual. Os isolados bacterianos foram identificados por CM, MALDI-TOF MS e sequenciamento parcial do gene 16S rRNA. As perdas de leite e os retornos econômicos variaram de acordo com o tipo de patógeno causador da mastite: - 0,24 a -0,87 kg/quarto.ordenha (Streptococcus ambientais) e -1,57 a -1,69 kg/quarto.ordenha (Staph. aureus). Em geral, os quartos mamários que apresentaram cura da MS causada por Staph. aureus e Streptococcus ambientais apresentaram aumento no retorno econômico de aproximadamente 0,47 e 0,69 US$/quarto.ordenha, respectivamente. No estudo 4, registros do controle leiteiro (n = 1.200.002) foram obtidos da associação Paranaense do gado Holandês, os quais incluíram dados de 92.560 vacas Holandesas em lactação de 781 rebanhos, de janeiro de 2010 a dezembro de 2015. Uma regressão segmentada foi ajustada para estimar o ponto de corte na escala Log10CCS em que a produção de leite começou a ser afetada pela MS: 0.90 (~ 7.963 células/mL). Como conclusão, vacas de primeira cria apresentaram redução de 1,37 a 2,28 kg/vaca/dia na produção de leite para cada aumento de uma unidade Log10CCS acima do ponto de corte, enquanto vacas com duas ou mais crias apresentaram perdas de 2,36 a 4,20 kg/vaca/dia. Em geral, os resultados desta tese indicaram que as perdas de leite dependem do tipo de patógeno que causa SM. Os patógenos primários mostraram maiores efeitos sobre a qualidade do leite do que quando foram observados pela abordagem com base nos resultados de cultura negativa ou positivos. A metodologia de avaliação do efeito da mastite subclínica sobre a produção de leite interfere na estimativa das perdas de leite e deve incluir fatores como DIM e número de paridade.

Government involvement in the production and marketing of milk and dairy products is more pronounced than in any other agricultural product. The U.S. government administers two major programs that affect significantly the production and marketing of milk throughout the United States. These are the Federal Milk Marketing Order Program and the Dairy Price Support Program. In Arizona, in addition to these two major programs, the United Dairymen of Arizona Cooperative operates a base system that determines how cooperative milk revenues are allocated among producer members. This dissertation discusses some theoretical models that provide some insights into the following questions: (1) How would the dairy industry perform without the historically administered prices? (2) What are the benefits and costs associated with the order program and the base system? Then, this inquiry focuses on the Arizona and New Mexico dairy sectors. The two production sectors are quite similar, as are the marketing institutions, except for the existence of the base system in Arizona. Milk supply response in Arizona and New Mexico is investigated. Two ways in which supply adjustments can be achieved are identified and empirically investigated. (1) Creation of new dairy facilities or relocation of dairy facilities from other markets. If the decision to invest in Arizona or New Mexico is assumed as given, it is found that the existence of base system is a significant factor in explaining the location choice of new producers. (2) Expansion in output of existing dairy farms. It is found that dairy farmers in Arizona and New Mexico respond to changes in the farm level price of milk. The last effort of the empirical investigation is on the consumers' welfare losses due to the regulations of the Arizona and New Mexico dairy markets. It is found that the milk marketing orders and the policies of the UDA Cooperative in Arizona and AMPI in New Mexico, on the average, enforce a tax on Arizona's consumers of fluid milk in the amount of 10 million dollars per year, or 13.5 percent of producers' total revenue, and a tax on New Mexico's consumers of fluid milk in the amount of 5.6 million dollars per year, or 12.6 percent of producers' total revenue. (Abstract shortened with permission of author.)

In many countries it has been found that as a result of cattle breeding there has been an increase in milk production, but the milk coagulation properties (MCP) have decreased, and the number of cows in the population producing non-coagulated milk has increased. The general aim of this thesis was to gain further knowledge about improving of milk coagulation properties in Italian dairy industries. The specific aims were: to propose a method for the transformation of the values of MCP traits analyzed using different methodologies; assess the influence of chemical and technological quality of milk on cheese yield; quantify the contribution of composite β- and κ-CN genotypes on additive genetic variance of MCP traits; develop a method for calculating economic values of milk coagulation properties traits; estimate the annual genetic response of MCP in Italian Holstein Friesian. The main results were that the transformation of MCP traits analyzed with different methodologies is feasible but was more precise for rennet coagulation time (RCT) than for curd firmness (a30). In field condition for Grana Padano cheese production the milk characterized by high values of a30 resulted in higher cheese yield than milk with low values of a30. In animal phenotypic recording, heritability of RCT was still appreciable after adjustment for composite β- and κ-casein genotypes, suggesting that the recording of this trait cannot be replaced by genotyping of animals for milk protein variants. Accounting for the effect of MCP on cheese yield, the weight for MCP in a possible sub-index for milk production and quality traits ranged from 2.1 to 8.2 %. Current selection index for Italian Holstein Friesian seems not affecting significantly MCP traits. Selection criteria with the implementation of Mid-Infrared spectroscopy prediction of MCP in the current recording systems allow to reach higher genetic response for MCP traits compare direct measure of MCP. Moreover including MCP traits in the selection index can increase casein:protein ratio and could be an indirect way for decrease SCS.
In molti paesi si è riscontrato che, a seguito della selezione genetica animale si è registrato un aumento della produzione di latte, ma un graduale peggioramento delle proprietà di coagulazione del latte, e la percentuale di campioni non coagulati è aumentata. L'obiettivo generale di questa tesi è stato quello di acquisire ulteriori conoscenze sul miglioramento delle proprietà di coagulazione del latte nella filiera lattiero-casearia italiana. Gli obiettivi specifici erano quelli di proporre un metodo per la trasformazione dei dati di attitudine casearia analizzati usando differenti metodologie; valutare l'influenza dei contenuti e della qualità tecnologica del latte sulla resa in formaggio; quantificare il contributo del genotipo composto β- e κ-caseina sulla varianza genetica additiva dei caratteri di attitudine casearia, sviluppare un metodo per calcolare i valori economici dei caratteri di attitudine casearia; stimare la risposta genetica alla selezione per i caratteri di attitudine casearia in Frisona Italiana. I principali risultati sono stati che la trasformazione dei dati di attitudine casearia analizzata con metodologie diverse è fattibile, ma è più precisa per tempo di coagulazione (RCT) che per consistenza del coagulo (a30). In condizioni di campo per la produzione di Grana Padano il latte caratterizzato da alti valori di a30 aveva una maggior resa casearia del latte con bassi valori di a30. Per quanto riguarda i fenotipici di singolo animale, l’ereditabilità stimata per RCT era ancora apprezzabile dopo l’aggiustamento per il genotipo composto β-e κ-caseina, suggerendo che la raccolta fenotipica di questo carattere non può essere sostituita dalla genotipizzazione e selezione per le varianti proteiche del latte. Tenendo conto dell'effetto dell’attitudine casearia sulla resa in formaggio, il peso di questa in un eventuale sub-indice di selezione per la produzione e caratteristiche di qualità del latte variava dal 2,1-8,2%. L’attuale indice di selezione per la Frisona italiana non sembra influenzare significativamente l’attitudine casearia. L'implementazione nei controlli funzionali dell’analisi dell’attitudine casearia attraverso la predizione con il medio infrarosso permetterebbe di raggiungere una più elevata risposta selettiva per l’attitudine casearia rispetto all’analisi diretta. Inoltre l’inserimento dell’attitudine casearia nell'indice selezione può portare all’aumento del rapporto caseina:proteina totale e alla selezione indiretta per la diminuzione delle cellule somatiche.

J. S. Mill a été l’une des cibles privilégiées de toute une littérature critique dénonçant la prétention de l’économie à l’universalité, c’est-à-dire à établir des lois naturelles. Parmi ces critiques, on peut déceler deux angles d’attaque différents : celui d’auteurs qui, comme Durkheim, Veblen ou Schmoller, fustigent la prétention de l’économie à réduire l’homme à un homo œconomicus, et par suite à faire l’apologie du « laissez-faire » ; celui de Marx qui dénonce le caractère naturalisant de la propriété privée capitaliste dans le discours économique. Pourtant, en examinant de près les textes épistémologiques de Mill, nous montrons que ce dernier se trouve justement être l’avocat – et par anticipation – de ses critiques. Toutefois, rien ne garantit que Mill dise tout le vrai sur sa propre pratique d’économiste. Or, nous dévoilons que certains de ses écrits économiques présentent bien une forme d’universalité, n’étant pas uniquement valables dans les économies de marchés capitalistes
J. S. Mill was one of the main targets of a whole critical literature denouncing the pretention of economics to universality, that is to say, to establish natural laws. Among the criticisms one can detect two different angles of attack: that of authors such as Durkheim, Veblen or Schmoller who criticize the claim of political economy to reduce man to a mere homo œconomicus, and consequently to glorify “laissez-faire”; that of Marx who castigates the naturalizing character of capitalist private property in the economic discourse. However, by closely examining Mill’s epistemological texts, we show that this author just happens to be the advocate of his own critics. However, there is no guarantee that Mill says all the truth about his own practice as an economist. Now, we demonstrate that some of his economic writings present indeed a form of universality, in as much as they are not only valid in capitalist market economies

Inspired by the sudden recent incline in and awareness of veganism as well as my own personal involvement in such matters, I sought out to complete an empirical analysis to study the impact of consumer preferences. Originally intrigued by the consumption of meat and its impact on developing countries, I opted for a related topic with better accompanying data. Consumer preferences change regularly with an increasing plethora of reasons behind their decisions. As the guiding force of the demand side of the market, it was vital to study the impact of their choices. My decision to use plant-based milk was meant to be a proxy for consumers who could not consume dairy. To my surprise, the force behind the increase in plant-based milk consumption was not propelled by those with alternative lifestyles but regular consumers who wanted healthier and better-tasting options. Further analysis has led me to look past consumers themselves and their individual choices to identify the impacts of their choices. This required an intricate look into the United States dairy industry and its composition. What is recorded within the next 45 pages is a delicate web of outcomes spun by the needs of consumers. It branches out into the lives of small dairy farmers who cannot compete with larger farms. It spins out to form a massive web of increasing profit for the plant-based milk industry. It creates a loss in the whole milk sector of the dairy industry only to be filled by the organic and specialty sectors. While they can be guided into choices through various forms of advertisement, the world has changed since the introduction of modern economics, and consumers are learning to utilize the products that fit their lifestyles. Gone are the days of passive consumption and food pyramids. Information has never been as readily available as it is today, with the help of the internet and independent researchers, and consumers have chosen to use this to their advantage.

Constitutive rhetoric is the idea that spoken language is a powerful force in the world that creates audiences and social worlds while simultaneously making and remaking language users. I employ the notion of constitutive rhetoric to investigate the character constitutions and communities invented by the rhetoric of economic inquiry in the work of Adam Smith, Richard Whately, John Stuart Mill, and Deirdre McCloskey. Though the character constituted by Smith, Whately, and Mill is that of the bourgeois character, as McCloskey has pointed out, the differences between Smith, Whately, and Mill are highlighted to show the way constitutive rhetoric operates as a process in three distinct cases. Additionally, I examine the different ways the work of Smith, Whately, and Mill continue to constitute character communities through the rhetoric of contemporary scholars, including, Deirdre McCloskey, Michael Ignatieff, Martha Nussbaum, Amartya Sen, Richard Rorty, James Buchanan, and Michael Novak. In Chapter II, I provide a short history of rhetoric and economics from the point of view of a history of rhetoric beginning with a re-reading of the Sophists. In Chapters III-V I examine the rhetoric of economic inquiry in Smith, Whately, and Mill, including the rhetorical presence of their ideas in contemporary times. In Chapter VI, I conclude by comparing the contemporary bourgeois character advocated so eloquently by McCloskey to the Homeric and Christian virtues. I also compare the present bourgeois society based on the work of Adam Smith with another liberal view of society as advocated by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The comparisons reveal that the present constitution of bourgeois society and its social world is unlike a Christian society, and that a view of citizenship akin to Rousseau??s would help us to constitute persons holistically, rather than as separate selves.

Na década de 90 houve mudanças significativas no setor agroindustrial do leite no Brasil. Dentre elas destacam-se: i) a desregulamentação do rigoroso controle estatal após 46 anos (1945-1991); ii) o lançamento de novos produtos; iii) a entrada de multinacionais; iv) a criação do Mercado Comum do Cone Sul e v) a abertura comercial generalizada. O comércio mundial de lácteos tem a participação de poucos países, sendo os principais importadores e exportadores os países membros da Organização para Cooperação e Desenvolvimento Econômico (OCDE). Países como o Brasil e a Índia possuem parcelas pouco expressivas do volume de comércio. O objetivo geral da pesquisa é analisar os fatores que têm influenciado as importações de lácteos pelo Brasil no período de 1991 a 2003. A metodologia empregada para medir os impactos das importações de leite nas variáveis macroeconômicas foi a de séries temporais. Incorporou-se uma análise gráfica a partir do diagrama back to back analisado por Barros (1987). E, ainda, utilizou-se a equação de excesso de demanda para definir a demanda por importação de leite. Concluiu-se que as variáveis: preço de importação de leite, taxa de câmbio real, PIB per capita e preço interno de leite são significativas e apresentam sinais coerentes com a teoria econômica. As elasticidades estimadas foram todas próximas ou superiores à unidade, revelando um mercado bastante dinâmico com ajustes rápidos a curto prazo. As elasticidades foram de magnitudes bem parecidas, sugerindo uma boa integração do segmento leiteiro ao mercado internacional. Vale salientar que as dummies incluídas para captar as variações de políticas econômicas como estabilização monetária e políticas anti-dumping não apresentaram efeitos significativos. É possível que seus efeitos tenham sido captados por outras variáveis incluídas no modelo.
During the decade of the 1990´s several significant changes took place in the milk agroindustry sector in Brazil: i) the sector was deregulated after 46 years of state control; ii) new milk products were created; iii) the market share of multinational enterprises increased; iv) the Common Market of the South (Mercosul) was created; v) the economy was opened through tariff reduction and deregulations. Only a few countries participate in the world milk trade. Major importers and exporters are members of OECD. The trade share of countries like Brazil and India in rather small. The general objective of this study is to analyze the factors that influenced the imports of milk by Brazil during the period 1991 to 2003. The milk imports market is analysed through “back to back” graphic system such that Brazil imports demand faces the world export supply. These two functions are then estimated. The variables dollar price of imported milk, real exchange rate, per capita GDP an domestic price of milk presented significant coefficient with sign coherent to economic theory. Estimated elasticities were all close to or higher than one, revealing a quite dynamic market with short term fast a adjustments. The magnitudes of the elasticities were very similar, suggesting a good integration of the milk sector to the international market. It should be pointed out that the dummy variables included in the model to capture the effects of the monetary stabilization and the anti-dumping measures did not present statiscally significant coefficients. It is possible that these effects have been capture by other variables in the model.

The purpose of this thesis is to study the effect of lower milk support prices trigger ed by chronic surplus production problems and to offer alter native management strategies for dairymen caught in the cash flow squeeze precipitated by resulting cuts in the producer price of milk. Historical dairy policy is reviewed and recommendations are offered for consideration in developing dairy policy over the next decade. FLIPSIM V, a powerful, firm-level computerized simulation model is employed to predict the probable outcome of employing alternative management strategies designed to improve profitability for individual dairymen. The study focuses on a typical farm devised from survey data to be representative of Utah's dairy industry. A five-year planning horizon is simulated.

FundaÃÃo de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do CearÃ
Objetivou-se com esse trabalho avaliar os efeitos da intensificaÃÃo da produÃÃo de leite, via nÃveis de intensificaÃÃo do sistema, em pastagens de capim-mombaÃa (Panicum maximum Jacq. cv. MombaÃa) no trÃpico Ãmido, durante o perÃodo das Ãguas. Os tratamentos consistiram de quatro nÃveis de intensificaÃÃo, determinados pela combinaÃÃo de nÃveis de adubaÃÃo e nÃvel de produÃÃo dos animais. Foram eles, na sequÃncia crescente de intensificaÃÃo: 1  adubaÃÃo com 400 kg de NÃha-1Ãano-1, com vacas de baixa produÃÃo; 2 adubaÃÃo com 800 kg de NÃha-1Ãano-1, com vacas de baixa produÃÃo; 3 adubaÃÃo com 400 kg de NÃha-1Ãano-1, com vacas de alta produÃÃo; 4 adubaÃÃo com 800 kg de NÃha-1Ãano-1, com vacas de alta produÃÃo. As vacas eram sem raÃas definidas, em mÃdia de terceira cria, com partos ocorridos em outubro/novembro de 2009. No inÃcio das avaliaÃÃes de produÃÃo de leite, encontravam-se com aproximadamente 110 dias de lactaÃÃo. O perÃodo experimental foi de 24 de dezembro de 2009 a 10 de maio de 2010. Para as medidas relacionadas à morfogÃnese e estrutura, foi utilizado o delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com medida repetida no tempo. Quatro tratamentos, com quatro ciclos e quatro repetiÃÃes (piquetes), avaliando a interaÃÃo entre tratamentos e ciclos. Para a avaliaÃÃo do comportamento dos animais, foi utilizado o delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com quatro tratamentos, oito perÃodos e quatro repetiÃÃes (animais), avaliando a interaÃÃo entre tratamentos e perÃodos. Na avaliaÃÃo da distribuiÃÃo de fezes, foi utilizada a anÃlise geoestatÃstica, com quatro tratamentos e trÃs repetiÃÃes (piquetes). Nas anÃlises de produÃÃo dos animais, foi utilizado delineamento inteiramente casualizado simples (placas de fezes, total de fezes, consumo de forragem e consumo total), com medidas repetidas no tempo (escore de condiÃÃo corporal e peso vivo) e com medidas repetidas no tempo, sendo o tempo medida de controle local (produÃÃo de leite por vaca, peso vivo, taxa de lotaÃÃo e produÃÃo de leite por hectare). O perÃodo de descanso utilizado foi o necessÃrio para que fosse possÃvel a expansÃo de 2,5 novas folhas e o resÃduo equivalente ao IAF residual 2,0. O maior fornecimento de nitrogÃnio nÃo proporcionou elevaÃÃo nas variÃveis TAlF, TAlH, TSFant e TSFpost. NÃo foram observadas diferenÃas entre tratamentos em funÃÃo dos tipos de animais. A TAlF segue, em parte, a disponibilidade de Ãgua oriunda da precipitaÃÃo. NÃo houve diferenÃa na TAlH em funÃÃo dos tratamentos. Esse efeito, sendo reflexo do perÃodo de descanso adotado (2,5 novas folhas à perfilho-1), reduziu o nÃvel de interceptaÃÃo da radiaÃÃo fotossinteticamente ativa para valores inferiores a 95%. A intensificaÃÃo apresenta pouco reflexo nas variÃveis estudadas (MSFT, MSFV, MSLV e MSCV). A altura prÃ-pastejo apresentou crescimento do primeiro para o segundo ciclo e posterior declÃnio atà o Ãltimo ciclo, sendo esse o que apresentou os menores valores, para todos os tratamentos. A elevaÃÃo da oferta de nitrogÃnio proporcionou maiores nÃveis de produÃÃo em determinados momentos, quando da oferta de Ãgua em nÃveis adequados. A disponibilidade de Ãgua influenciou a resposta da produÃÃo das pastagens ao longo dos ciclos. Houve relaÃÃo do teor de matÃria orgÃnica do solo e o desempenho produtivo das pastagens. Quanto ao comportamento dos animais, foi observado interaÃÃo entre os tratamentos e os perÃodos do dia, com exceÃÃo do âcomportamento urinandoâ que sà apresentou efeito de perÃodo. A adubaÃÃo influenciou positivamente no âcomportamento pastejandoâ, elevando o tempo gasto na expressÃo do mesmo. Para Outras atividades, o efeito foi negativo, diminuindo o tempo de deslocamento dos animais. A adubaÃÃo e a interaÃÃo a adubaÃÃo à suplemento proporcionaram maior tempo de utilizaÃÃo de sombra pelos animais. A utilizaÃÃo de alimento concentrado elevou o nÃmero de defecaÃÃes, com concentraÃÃo durante os perÃodos de maior permanÃncia no pasto. O perÃodo do dia influenciou o âcomportamento bebendoâ, causando maior consumo de Ãgua nos perÃodos de maiores temperaturas, assim como os tratamentos intermediÃrios apresentaram maiores consumos. No que se refere à distribuiÃÃo de fezes, os dados apresentaram coeficientes de assimetria positiva e de curtose platicÃrtica. Para o coeficiente de variaÃÃo verificou-se uma elevaÃÃo acentuada, com as Ãreas de descanso, apresentando maiores valores e piquetes com maior nÃvel de adubaÃÃo e menores valores. Os fatores climÃticos radiaÃÃo, temperatura e umidade relativa influenciaram significativamente na dispersÃo e localizaÃÃo das fezes. No que se refere ao grau de dependÃncia espacial (GDE), foi verificado classificaÃÃo, variando de moderado a forte. O alcance foi de 14,0 e 12,7 m para as Ãreas de descanso e piquetes, respectivamente. A adubaÃÃo e o fornecimento de concentrado influenciaram a deposiÃÃo e a perda de nitrogÃnio via fezes, elevando seus valores na medida em que se elevou o aporte nutricional. Observou-se heterogeneidade na deposiÃÃo das fezes, ocorrendo zonas de maior concentraÃÃo, como sombra, entrada de piquetes e malhadouro, mostrando picos de deposiÃÃo que chegaram a 1.051,2 kg de N à ha- à ano- e mÃdia variando de 148,8 a 210,7 kg de N à ha- à ano-Â. Houve crescimento das produÃÃes diÃrias e por Ãrea de leite, na medida em que intensificou o sistema. Com a intensificaÃÃo houve maior persistÃncia da lactaÃÃo, observado por meio da relaÃÃo obtida pela divisÃo do coeficiente angular pelo intercepto, resultando em percentual diÃrio de diminuiÃÃo da lactaÃÃo. A persistÃncia da produÃÃo dos animais respondeu diretamente à intensificaÃÃo do sistema, como reflexo da maior intensificaÃÃo (melhoria da dieta). A produÃÃo por Ãrea respondeu mais fortemente ao nÃvel de produÃÃo individual diÃria e segue comportamento quadrÃtico, de acordo com a distribuiÃÃo das chuvas. A produÃÃo fecal cresceu no sentido do maior nÃvel de intensificaÃÃo, resultando em maiores estimativas de consumo. O maior aporte de nutrientes (mais intensivo) possibilitou elevar os nÃveis de produtividade por animal, por Ãrea, em relaÃÃo à mÃo-de-obra e à produÃÃo total diÃria. A maior intensificaÃÃo possibilitou elevar as receitas, todavia elevou os custos totais mensais, apresentando melhor relaÃÃo nos nÃveis intermediÃrios de intensificaÃÃo. Na medida em que se elevou a Ãrea utilizada, o nÃvel menos intensivo apresentou margem bruta positiva. Os custos operacionais efetivos elevaram-se com a intensificaÃÃo dos sistemas. Jà os custos operacionais totais diminuÃram com a intensificaÃÃo, voltando a crescer no nÃvel mais intensivo. A alimentaÃÃo representou por volta de 70% dos custos operacionais efetivos. Os sistemas apresentaram-se inviÃveis no mÃdio-longo prazo, e no curto prazo, foram menos atrativos que o observado na amostra de produtores utilizada nesse estudo.
This study aimed at analyzing the intensification effects via different enhancement levels of the system of milk production in Mombasa grass pastures (Panicum maximum Jacq. cv. MombaÃa) in the humid tropics, during the water period. Treatments consisted of four enhancement levels, determined by combining fertilization levels and production level of the animals. Treatments were in increasing sequence of fertilization, as follow: 1Â Â fertilization with 400 kg of NÃha-1Ãyear-1, with low yield dairy cows; 2ÂÂ fertilization with 800 kg of NÃha-1Ãyear-1, with low yield dairy cows; 3ÂÂ fertilization with 400 kg of NÃha-1Ãyear-1, with high yield dairy cows; 4ÂÂ fertilization with 800 kg of NÃha-1Ãyear-1, with high yield dairy cows. It was used mixed breed cows, on average of third calving, and the births had occurred in October/November 2009. At the beginning of the evaluation of milk production, the cows had around 110 days of lactation. The experiment was conducted between December 24th, 2009 and May 10th, 2010. For the measures related to the morphogenesis and structure, we used a completely randomized design with repeated measurements over time. Four treatments, with four cycles, and four replicates (paddocks) were used to assess the interaction between treatments and cycles. To evaluate the behavior of the animals, we used a completely randomized design, with four treatments, eight periods and four replicates (animals) to evaluate the interaction between treatments and periods. In the evaluation of the distribution of feces, a geostatistical analysis was applied, with four treatments and three replicates (paddocks). In the analysis of animal production, a simple completely randomized design (feces patches, total feces, forage intake and total consumption), with repeated measures over time (body condition score and live weight) and with repeated measures over time; the time considered the measure of local control (milk yield per cow, live weight, stocking rate, and milk production per hectare). The rest period was the necessary to enable the expansion of 2.5 new leaves and the residue equivalent to the residual leaf area index 2.0 (residual LAI 2.0). The greater supply of nitrogen has not provided increase in the following variables: leaf elongation rate (TAlF), stem elongation rate (TAlH), anterior leaf senescence rate (TSFant) and posterior leaf senescence rate (TSFpost). There was no difference among treatments as a function of the type of animals. The TAlF partly had followed the availability of water from the rainfall. It was observed a variation in the organic matter content throughout the area, reflected in the ability to store water and nutrients, which influenced their availability to the pastures. No difference was detected in TAlH in function of treatments. This effect was a result of the rest period adopted (2.5 new leavesÃtiller-1), reducing the capture level of photosynthetically active radiation to values below 95%. The intensification has little consequence on studied variables (total forage dry mass, green forage dry mass, green leaf blade dry mass, and green stem dry mass). The pre-grazing height presented growth from the first to the second cycle and a subsequent decline until the last cycle, considering that this had the lowest values for all treatments. The increase in nitrogen availability promoted higher yield levels at certain moments, when water was supplied at suitable levels. Water availability influenced the yield response of pasture over the cycles. A relationship was verified between the soil organic matter content and yield performance of pastures. Regarding the animals behavior, it was registered interaction between treatments and day periods, except for urinating behavior that was only affected by the period. The fertilization had positive influence on the grazing behavior, increasing the time spent to expressing it. For the other activities the effect was negative, reducing the displacement time of animals. The fertilization and the interaction fertilization x supplement provided a longer use of shading by the animals. The use of concentrate feed increased the number of defecations, especially during the periods of longer permanence in the pasture. Day period influenced the drinking behavior, leading to a higher consumption of water in the periods with higher temperatures, as well as intermediate treatments presented higher consumption. In relation to the feces distribution, the data had coefficients of positive skewness and platicÃrtica kurtosis. For the coefficient of variation, we verified a great variation, with the rest areas presenting higher values, and paddocks with higher fertilization level presenting the lowest values. Climatic factors radiation, temperature and relative humidity have significantly influenced the dispersal and location of the feces. Regarding the degree of spatial dependence (GDE) it was verified classification ranging from moderate to strong, with higher proportion of GDE. The range was between 14.0 and 12.7m for rest areas and paddocks, respectively. The fertilization and supply of concentrate influenced the deposition and loss of nitrogen via feces, increasing its values to the extent that it increased the nutrient input. We observed heterogeneity in deposition of feces, with areas of higher concentration, as shadow, entrance of paddocks, and rest area, presenting peaks of deposition reaching 1,051.2kg NÃha-ÂÃyear-Â, and average varying between 148.8 and 210.7 NÃha-ÂÃyear-Â. There was increase in milk daily production and per area, as it intensified the system, via enhancement. With the intensification there was a greater persistence of lactation, observed through the relationship obtained by dividing the slope per intercept, resulting in a daily percentage of decrease in lactations. The persistence of animalsâ production responded directly to the system intensification, as a consequence of higher enhancement (improved diet). The production per area responded more strongly to the level of individual daily production and followed a quadratic trend, accompanying the rainfall distribution. The fecal production increased towards the highest level of enhancement, resulting in higher estimates of consumption. The greater input of nutrients (more intensive) allowed elevating the productivity levels per animal, per area, in relation to the labor and total daily production. The increase in area used for production improves the investment/production ratio, decreasing as enlarges the area. The greater enhancement enabled raising the revenues, but also raised the total monthly costs, presenting better relationship the intermediate levels of enhancement. To the extent that it has increased the area used, the lowest intensive level had a positive gross margin. The actual operating costs increased as the systems had been intensified. But the total operating costs decreased with the intensification, increasing again at the most intensive level. The feed represented around 70% of actual operating costs. Systems were unfeasible at medium-long terms, and at short term they were less attractive than observed in the sample of producers used in this study.

Major ampullate spider silk represents a promising biomaterial with diverse commercial potential ranging from textiles to medical devices due to the excellent physical and thermal properties from the protein structure. Recent advancements in synthetic biology have facilitated the development of recombinant spider silk proteins from Escherichia coli (E. coli), alfalfa, and goats. This study specifically investigates the economic feasibility and environmental impact of synthetic spider silk manufacturing. Pilot scale data was used to validate an engineering process model that includes all of the required sub-processing steps for synthetic fiber manufacture: production, harvesting, purification, drying, and spinning. Modeling was constructed modularly to support assessment of alternative protein production methods (alfalfa and goats) as well as alternative down-stream processing technologies. The techno-economic analysis indicates a minimum sale price from pioneer and optimized E. coli plants at $761 kg-1 and $23 kg-1 with greenhouse gas emissions of 572 kg CO2-eq. kg-1 and 55 kg CO2-eq. kg-1, respectively. Spider silk sale price estimates from goat pioneer and optimized results are $730 kg-1 and $54 kg-1, respectively, with pioneer and optimized alfalfa plants are $207 kg-1 and $9.22 kg-1 respectively. Elevated costs and emissions from the pioneer plant can be directly tied to the high material consumption and low protein yield. Decreased production costs associated with the optimized plants include improved protein yield, process optimization, and an Nth plant assumption. Discussion focuses on the commercial potential of spider silk, the production performance requirements for commercialization, and impact of alternative technologies on the sustainability of the system.

O contínuo aumento na produção leiteira, associado à diminuição no número de produtores na atividade, acaba por levantar um questionamento no tocante à produtividade. Afinal, quais os fatores socioeconômicos que podem estar afetando esta produtividade? A fim de investigar mais sobre o assunto, o presente trabalho analisou o comportamento das funções de produtividade, de custo e de lucro. Além das variáveis econômicas propriamente ditas – como escala de produção, nível e tipo de tecnologia, essas funções incluíram algumas especificidades do produtor – como escolaridade, idade, experiência, domicilio etc. Para sintetizar tais especificidades, utilizou-se o método dos componentes principais da análise fatorial. Em seguida, os fatores obtidos foram incorporados nos modelos de lucro, custo e da produtividade. As variáveis econômicas tiveram efeito predominante sobre a produtividade. Observaram-se ganhos moderados de escala, que reduzem os custos e aumentam os lucros. Dessa forma, há uma tendência moderada de longo prazo de expansão de volume produzido em maiores propriedades, ficando os pequenos produtores em desvantagem competitiva. A permanência desses produtores na atividade dependerá da capacitação que venham a receber, o que costuma ser oferecido por cooperativas e laticínios. Esse treinamento deveria ser estendido também aos filhos. Investimentos nesse sentido trariam ganhos na receita e um impacto social positivo por reter o jovem no campo e/ou prepará-lo para que, em melhores condições, busque outras formas de ocupação nas áreas urbanas.
The continuous growth of the milk production along with the reduction of the number of producers raises questions concerning productivity. What factors might be affecting productivity? This work aimed to analyze the effects of economic variables on the cost, the profit and the milk productivity functions. In addition some specificities of the farmer – such as age, experience etc. - were considered in those functions. The method of principal components of the factorial analysis was used to group the specificity variables in factors that later entered the models of profit, cost and the productivity. As for the economic variables, they are the main variables that affect the productivity. Moderate increasing returns to scale were observed. Therefore there is a tendency in the long run of increasing production in large farms. The permanence of small producers in the activity will depend on the training they will receive, which is usually offered by cooperatives and some milk companies. It is essential that this training also be extended to their children. Investments in this direction would bring gains in income either by enhancing farm productivity or by improving the chances of success in urban activities.

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Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
Since the 90 decade, Brazilian milk sector has suffered important changes, mainly due to macroeconomic, concurrential and consumption modifications in the country. Among those changes, it is been observed new transaction forms between rural producers and milk processing companies. Governance structures between those agents are still under construction, thus not being considered definitive. In some countries, such as France, it is possible to note high coordination level in the chain and consolidated governance structures. The present thesis has analyzed transactions and governance structures between milk producers and processing companies in the region of São Carlos /SP and in the western region of France. Theoretical fundaments of New Institutional Economics, Transaction Cost Economics and Industrial Organization are considered. To accomplish the work, it has been used secondary data, as well as field research in the two countries, with rural producers, milk processing companies representatives and key-agents. It has been identified bilateral governance in the region of São Carlos /SP, and trilateral governance in the West of France. Besides the predominance of informal contracts in both studied regions, it has been observed differences in terms of transaction characteristics and negotiation aspects. Such differences are due to distinctions of institutional and organizational environments, agents and coordination level. It has also been concluded that not only transaction attributes influence governance structures. The work remarks the role of trust, power in the relation and dependence between agents as relevant aspects to understand transactions and governance structures.
Desde o início dos anos 90, o SAI do leite no Brasil tem sofrido profundas alterações, decorrentes principalmente de mudanças macroeconômicas, concorrenciais e de consumo no país. Dentre essas mudanças, pode-se destacar o estabelecimento de novas formas de transação entre produtores rurais e laticínios. Essas formas de governança ainda se encontram em fase de transição, não podendo ser, portanto, consideradas definitivas. Em alguns países, dentre os quais a França, pode-se observar um elevado grau de coordenação da cadeia e estruturas de governança consolidadas. O presente trabalho analisou as transações e as estruturas de governança estabelecidas entre esses produtores rurais e empresas processadoras na região de São Carlos / SP (Brasil) e no Oeste da França. Para tanto, os fundamentos teóricos da Nova Economia Institucional, da Economia dos Custos de Transação e da Organização Industrial são utilizados como base. Foram utilizados dados secundários, bem como realizadas pesquisas de campo nos dois países, junto a produtores rurais, laticínios e agentes-chave. Identificou-se na região de São Carlos /SP, governança bilateral e no Oeste França, governança trilateral. Apesar da predominância de contratos informais para negociação do leite cru nos dois países, verificaram-se características das transações e termos de negociação bastante distintos nas duas regiões estudadas. Tais diferenças decorrem de distinções em termos de ambientes institucional e organizacional, características dos agentes e coordenação dos SAIs. Pôde-se concluir também que não só os atributos das transações, mas também outros fatores influenciam as transações e estruturas de governança. Destaca-se o papel da confiança, o poder na relação e a dependência entre os agentes como fatores relevantes para compreensão das transações e estruturas de governança.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior
This study aims to evaluate the technical and economic performance of dairy cattle, identify the main barriers in activity, indicating the possible causes by identifying the technological profile of milk producers. In order to achieve this goal, it was made with data collected through survey questionnaires to the producers of milk Quixeramobim, Cearà State. Based on the literature review, we divided the system of milk production to conduct the evaluation of the technological level of the producers, in three components: management of the activity, system infrastructure of production and herd management. We analyzed to plot the producersthe following factors: marketing, productivity, racial profiling of herds, expenses incurred and gross revenues from the activity. Next, we determined the technological indices for each component separately and for all of them, based on its recommended technology, creating the mean rates of technology and technology index for dairy cattle. The producers were stratified by means of cluster analysis, presented as the technological level and used to analyze the individual contribution of each and every indicator in the index constituents. The evaluation of cost was performed using the methodology of the Integrated Agricultural Costs - CUSTAGRI. We identified four levels of technology which were subsequently laminated and used for the analysis of technological, economic, cost estimates and assessment of profitability. The survey showed that the main deficiency of the producers is to adopt appropriate management practices. Access to credit, labor, unskilled and lack of public policies aimed at promoting the dairy industry also adversely affect the results. The dairy industry in the region proved to be a profitable activity, with levels of profitability appropriate to the region and capable of delivering sustainable development in rural areas.
O presente trabalho tem por objetivo avaliar o desempenho tÃcnico-econÃmico da pecuÃria leiteira, apontar os principais entraves existentes na atividade, indicando as possÃveis causas por meio da identificaÃÃo do perfil tecnolÃgico dos produtores de leite. No intuito de alcanÃar tal objetivo, efetuou-se pesquisa com dados coletados mediante aplicaÃÃo de questionÃrios junto aos produtores de leite associados à Cooperativa de Leite do MunicÃpio de Quixeramobim, Estado do CearÃ. Com base na revisÃo de literatura, para realizar a avaliaÃÃo do nÃvel tecnolÃgico dos produtores, dividiu-se o sistema de produÃÃo de leite em trÃs componentes: gerenciamento da atividade, infraestrutura do sistema de produÃÃo e manejo do rebanho. Para traÃar o perfil dos produtores analisaram-se os seguintes fatores: comercializaÃÃo, produtividade, caracterizaÃÃo racial dos rebanhos, despesas realizadas e receita bruta auferida com a atividade. Em seguida, determinou-se os Ãndices tecnolÃgicos para cada componente, separadamente e para o conjunto deles, com base na respectiva tecnologia recomendada, criando-se os Ãndices mÃdios de tecnologia e o Ãndice geral de tecnologia para a pecuÃria leiteira. Os produtores foram estratificados, por meio de AnÃlise de Cluster, conforme o nÃvel tecnolÃgico apresentado e usado para analisar a contribuiÃÃo individual de cada um e de cada indicador na composiÃÃo dos Ãndices. A avaliaÃÃo da rentabilidade foi feita utilizando-se a metodologia do Sistema Integrado de Custos AgropecuÃrios â CUSTAGRI. Foram identificados quatro nÃveis tecnolÃgicos que posteriormente foram estratificados e usados para a anÃlise dos aspectos tecnolÃgicos, econÃmicos, estimativas de custos e avaliaÃÃo de rentabilidade. A pesquisa apontou que a principal deficiÃncia dos produtores està em adotar prÃticas adequadas de gerenciamento. O pouco acesso ao crÃdito, a mÃo de obra desqualificada e ausÃncia de polÃticas pÃblicas voltadas ao fomento da pecuÃria leiteira tambÃm interferem negativamente nos resultados. A pecuÃria leiteira na regiÃo mostrou ser uma atividade rentÃvel, com Ãndices de lucratividade satisfatÃrios e capazes de viabilizar a continuidade da atividade no meio rural.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2007.
The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from title screen of research.pdf file (viewed on February 13, 2008) Includes bibliographical references.

COORDENAÇÃO DE APERFEIÇOAMENTO DO PESSOAL DE ENSINO SUPERIOR
CATV / Gigabit Ethernet / DWDM : Novas Alternativas Técnicas e Econômicas para a Última Milha tem como objetivo descrever a ativação de novas funcionalidades de uma rede de distribuição de CATV associada à distribuição de dados em faixa larga. A utilização da tecnologia DWDM no domínio óptico, associada a novas topologias de distribuição em cabo coaxial e ao padrão Gigabit Ethernet, permite a obtenção de uma nova concepção em rede de telecomunicações, onde os serviços tradicionais de distribuição analógica são inteiramente preservados. As vantagens desta solução residem na obtenção de uma rede de muito alta velocidade, ideal para aplicações Internet de segunda geração e em um dramático aumento do retorno econômico nas redes CATV já instaladas.
CATV / Gigabit Ethernet / DWDM : New Technical and Economic Altermatives to the Last Mile is aiming at describing the activation of a new family of functionalities applicable to a CATV distribution network together with a delivery of broadband data. Optical domain DWDM technology is used, associated with new coaxial cable distribution topologies and the Gigabit Ethernet standard, allowing for a new telecommunications network concept, where the traditional analogical distribution services are totally preserved. The above proposed solution presents two advantages. The first is such that a very high-speed data network becomes available. This last, is an ideal outfit for second generation Internet. The second advantage is that the obtained data network provides for economic revenues by far greater than those of the traditional CATV networks.

L'elaborato ha il proposito di comprendere i Customer Journey moderni, rivoluzionati dall'introduzione degli smartphone nella quotidianità degli utenti e frammentati in quelli che Google ha definito micro-momenti. Dopo una approfondita analisi della letteratura relativa all'argomento, si intende fornire una visione d'insieme del fenomeno, individuando un "fil rouge" in grado di collegare concetti fino ad ora rimasti slegati e di proporre, quindi, un modello capace di spiegare la complessità assunta dalle relazioni tra consumatori e brand nell’ambiente competitivo moderno e come sia possibile, per questi ultimi, costruire proattivamente dei percorsi attraverso cui guidare i consumatori.

Gli ultimi vent'anni hanno rappresentato un periodo di forte cambiamento per i mercati agroalimentari mondiali. Le diverse fusioni e acquisizioni hanno generato preoccupazioni circa il livello di concentrazione lungo le filiere agroalimentari e la conseguente inefficiente distribuzione del valore. Le recenti fluttuazioni dei prezzi delle materie prime agricole a livello mondiale sono state trasmesse ai diversi mercati agricoli Europei, mentre la Politica Agricola Comune (PAC) si è mossa verso una forte liberalizzazione degli stessi mercati. Capire in che modo questi due eventi hanno impattato i meccanismi di trasmissione di prezzo rappresenta una priorità per i policymaker come per la comunità scientifica. L'analisi delle dinamiche di trasmissione di prezzo ha suscitato quindi un notevole interesse tra gli economisti agrari. I prezzi rappresentano il primo anello di congiunzione tra i vari agenti delle filiere, guidando decisioni sia strategiche che strutturali. Per questo motivo si rivela uno strumento fondamentale per la descrizione del funzionamento delle filiere e delle relazioni tra gli agenti che le compongono, individuando e formulando ipotesi sulle fonti di inefficienza. Inoltre, permette di capire quali sono gli agenti maggiormente colpiti dai cambiamenti di prezzo, fornendo una solida base per lo sviluppo e la valutazione delle politiche e della distribuzione del valore. Il settore lattiero-caseario rappresenta un mercato affascinante, sia per la sua importanza economica, sia per rappresentare un settore agricolo di forti interventi di politica Europea. Da un lato, i produttori di latte affermano come un sistema distributivo fortemente concentrato stia erodendo i loro margini, mentre la forte dipendenza dai mercati cerealicoli (input primari per l'alimentazione dei bovini che rappresentano più della metà dei costi di trasformazione) rende il sistema ancora più complesso. Infine, la PAC ha conosciuto, dal 200 ad oggi, importanti riforme volte a liberalizzare i mercati agricoli europei, che non hanno risparmiato il settore lattiero-caseario. Attraverso l’applicazione di tre diversi modelli non strutturali di serie temporali per le tre diverse macro-aree descritte, la presente tesi vuole offrire un'analisi della filiera italiana del latte. In un primo capitolo viene analizzata la trasmissione di prezzo tra l’industria di trasformazione e la distribuzione moderna, tenendo conto del latte convenzionale e della sua controparte biologica. Attraverso l’uso di un dataset unico di prezzi scanner, i risultati forniscono nuovi spunti riguardo le strategie e le dinamiche dell’anello distributivo, così come sul funzionamento di un mercato di nicchia come il latte biologico. Successivamente, tenendo conto delle riforme PAC, viene studiato nuovamente il processo di trasmissione dei prezzi tra i trasformatori industriali e la distribuzione, concludendo come le riforme abbiano eliminato le asimmetrie ma aumentato la volatilità, ostacolando la velocità di aggiustamento del mercato al suo equilibrio di lungo periodo. Infine, attraverso un approccio più flessibile che tiene conto di eventuali interruzioni nella relazione di cointegrazione, è stato indagato l’impatto di un'ampia gamma di variabili, di tipo sia esogeno che endogeno rispetto al mercato di riferimento, sul meccanismo di trasmissione verticale dei prezzi tra il mais italiano e il mangime composto destinato alle vacche da latte. Considerando diverse serie di prezzi di tipo esogeno ed endogeno, si è rilevato come i cosiddetti non-fondamentali del mercato abbiano effetti trascurabili, mentre variabili afferenti ai fondamentali di mercato svolgano ancora un ruolo rilevante nella definizione dei cicli di prezzo nel mercato mangimistico Italiano.
The last twenty years undoubtedly represented a very tumultuous run for the agrifood markets worldwide. Mergers and acquisitions (especially at the processing and retail levels) have raised worries about concentration level within the agro-food industry about market power exertion, and the following inefficient distribution of value. Recent international agricultural commodities price fluctuations have been pass-through along food chains, whereas the European Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) moved towards a strong liberalization of the agricultural markets. Disentangling how these two events framed price transmission mechanisms in European agricultural markets is a priority for policymakers and the academic community, allowing for a better understanding of the food sector functioning. The analysis of vertical price transmission dynamics has attracted considerable interest among agricultural economists. Indeed, prices are the first link among market economic agents, driving both strategic and structural decisions. Unveiling price transmission dynamics deepens the understanding of how the chain works, spotting inefficiencies, and draw hypothesis over the source of such inefficient behaviors. Facilitating the understanding on which agents of the supply chain the burden of price changes is taking place, provides a basis for policy assessment and contributes to the debate of the distributional effects in the food system. The dairy sector represents a fascinating argument, both for its economic importance and for being the most intervened agricultural sector under the CAP. Dairy farmers are claiming the distribution system is eroding their margins through the exertion of market power. The interrelation with the cereal markets – being cereals and oil crops raw inputs for bovine feeding, and accruing for more than a half of milk production costs in Italy – makes the system even more complex, since the 2007 commodity price increase opened up a fierce debate over the causes of such rise. The CAP featured important reforms since the 2000s, aimed at a liberalizing the European agricultural markets. Applying non-structural time series econometric models, this Thesis offers an analysis of the Italian milk supply chain, discovering price transmission processes considering three different macro-arguments (i.e., the role of distributors, the CAP liberalization reforms, and the effect of market (non) fundamentals) approached with three different econometric models. Firstly, we analyzed the PT mechanism between the processing and distribution phases, accounting for the conventional fluid milk and its organic counterpart. We relied on a unique retail-scanner price dataset accruing for a quality-differenced product, two aspects providing new insights both on the functioning of the distribution level and niche markets. Long and short-run behaviors describe different mechanisms of transmission according to specific structures of the two different retailing systems. Accounting for CAP reforms (i.e., structural breaks) in the cointegrating relationship, we investigated the price transmission process between industrial processors and retailers, disentangling how reforms impacted the process. Results indicate the set of reforms eliminated asymmetries, although the increase in price volatility hampered the speed of adjustment of the market to the equilibrium. Finally, a more flexible approach has been designed to investigate the impact of a wide range of variables, both exogenous and endogenous, on the vertical price transmission mechanism between Italian maize and Italian compound feed for dairy cows. Considering energy-related price series for both crude oil and biofuels, as well as financial-related variables, we conclude that non-fundamentals have negligible effects on the mechanism of transmission concerning the Italian scenario, while market fundamentals (i.e., supply and demand) still play a relevant role in shaping price cycles.

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Analysis of the northeastern sugar economy insertion on the modernization process of these economy based on the Jos? Lins do Rego literary Discourse. In order to do so, there were used the literary works Fogo Morto, Menino de Engenho, Bang?? and Usina as study objects. Throughout the prosecution of a exploratory and documental bibliographic research it was identified that, in the cited literary works, there are three specialties corresponding to the main scenarios of the plots, the Santa F? and Santa Rosa mills and the Bom Jesus mill factory. We have conceived the mills as main charachters, since all stories deployment corresponds to the other charachters reactions to the many forms that the specialties are, or not, affected by the modernization. Therefore, the narratives in Fogo Morto, Menino de Engenho, Bang?? and Usina reaffirm the viability of the literary discourse application as a source for the construction of the sociological interpretation of the northeastern sugar economy process of modernization in the end of 19th century and beginning of the 20th century
An?lise da inser??o da economia a?ucareira nordestina no processo de moderniza??o deste ramo de economia a partir do discurso liter?rio de Jos? Lins do Rego. Para isso, foram utilizadas as obras Fogo Morto, Menino de Engenho, Bang?? e Usina como objeto de estudo. Atrav?s da realiza??o de uma pesquisa bibliogr?fica de cunho explorat?rio e documental, identificou-se que, nos enredos dos romances, existem tr?s espacialidades correspondentes aos cen?rios principais das tramas, os engenhos Santa F? e Santa Rosa e a usina Bom Jesus. Concebemos os engenhos como protagonistas, uma vez que todo o desenrolar das hist?rias corresponde a rea??es dos demais personagens ?s diversas formas com que as especialidades s?o atingidas ou n?o pela moderniza??o. Portanto, as narrativas presentes em Fogo Morto, Menino de Engenho, Bang?? e Usina reafirmam a viabilidade da utiliza??o do discurso liter?rio enquanto fonte para a constru??o da interpreta??o sociol?gica do processo de moderniza??o da economia a?ucareira nordestina dos fins do s?culo XIX e in?cio do s?culo XX

Este mestrado tem por objetivo o estudo sobre a atuação das Senhoras do Açúcar, que poderiam ser tanto proprietárias quanto as esposas de donos de engenhos, em Itu do final do século XVIII a meados do século XIX. A documentação escolhida reúne inventários, testamentos, mapas com relações de engenhos, recenseamento dos bens rústicos e registros de notas de imóveis, cujas informações permitiram obter dados para uma análise bastante ampla do tema em pauta. A pesquisa insere-se no campo de estudos relativos à História das Mulheres, voltando-se para a análise das distinções e semelhanças entre aquelas do período e a sua situação específica neste contexto histórico. O trabalho, no entanto, não se limita apenas à uma História das Mulheres na economia canavieira de Itu, mas busca, sobretudo, uma oportunidade de dialogar com a historiografia brasileira sobre temas mais abrangentes, como a própria formação econômica de São Paulo.
This work has for objective the study on the performance of the sugar Ladies who could be proprietors or wives of owners of sugar mill in the city of Itu in the late XVIII or middle XIX. The chosen documentation congregates inventories, testaments, maps with relations of sugar mills, census of the rustic goods and registers of properties, whose information had allowed to get data for a sufficiently ample and complete analysis of the subject in guideline. The research is inserted in the field of studies of the History of the Women, turning itself to the analysis of the distinctions and similarities between those of the period and its specific situation in this historical context. The work, however, does not limit only to a History of the Women in the sugar economy of Itu, but it searchs an opportunity to dialogue with the Brazilian historiography in reference of more including subjects, as the proper economic formation of São Paulo.

Performance of two different waste heat recovery systems (one based on Rankine cycle and the other one using thermoelectricity) combined with non-hybrid, mild-hybrid and full hybrid systems are investigated. The vehicle under investigation was a 440hp Scania truck, loaded by 40 tons. Input data included logged data from a long haulage drive test in Sweden.All systems (waste heat recovery as well as hybrid) are implemented and simulated in Matlab/Simulink. Almost all systems are modeled using measured data or performance curves provided by one manufacturer. For Rankine system results from another investigation were used.Regardless of practical issues in implementing systems, reduction in fuel consumption for six different combination of waste heat recovery systems and hybrid systems with different degrees of hybridization are calculated. In general Rankine cycle shows a better performance. However, due to improvements achieved in laboratories, thermoelectricity could also be an option in future.This study focuses on “system” point of view and therefore high precision calculations is not included. However it can be useful in making decisions for further investigations.

The increase in global carbon dioxide emission has raised concerns about climate change. This has caused nations to consider different carbon dioxide mitigation pathways to reduce emissions. The iron and steel industry contributes to approximately 30% of total global CO2 direct emission in the industrial sector. It is an energy intense industry. Many steel mills are operating close to thermodynamic limits in efficiency. Therefore decarbonising the steel industry through process improvements is limited. Breakthrough technologies such as carbon capture and storage (CCS) is an alternative and attractive solution. In this research I have explored the application of a retrofit carbon capture technology to an existing steel mill. The steel mill chosen, combusts gases arising from the steel making processes. Different locations within the steel mill were analysed, the in-house power station and the turbo blower house were chosen for retrofit post-combustion carbon capture. Two different separation technologies were process modelled to capture the carbon dioxide from the flue gas of the in-house power station and the turbo blower house. The technologies were chemical absorption and adsorption. The two technologies were techno-economically studied. Chemical absorption, with solvent MEA, showed capability of recovering 86% of CO2 with a purity of more than 99 mol%. Adsorption using sorbent zeolite 13X was able to achieve 82% recovery with purity of 96 mol%. Sorbent activated carbon showed a capability of recovering 67% of carbon dioxide with a purity of 95 mol%. The cost of CO2 avoidance for the process using chemical absorption (MEA) was equal to $44.92/tonne CO2. For the process using adsorption (zeolite 13X) the CO2 avoided cost was equal to $44.90/tonne of CO2. Activated carbon was the most expensive capture process, out of the three processes studied. It costs $45.81/tonne of CO2 avoidance.

Natural resources and economic development in Africa take place within a set of external and internal factors. These factors range from issues that prevail in the international trading system, political factors and other issues that confront natural resource exploitation and development. Community participation in natural resource development in Africa should incorporate direct economic benefit to host communities, in appropriate cases, as part of equitable benefit and development. In advancing this argument, the research will answer the following question: Are there rights under international and regional human rights regimes that host or local communities in Africa can utilise in order to advance their claim for direct economic benefit from participation in natural resource exploitation?
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Law University of Pretoria, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Masters of Law (LLM in Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa). Prepared under the supervision of prof Tobias van Reeneen, Faculty of Law, University of Western Cape, South Africa.
Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2009.
http://www.chr.up.ac.za/
Centre for Human Rights
LLM

A realidade do ambiente competitivo marcada por fenômenos como a globalização dos mercados e das culturas e o rápido desenvolvimento tecnológico determina a forma como se deve pensar as organizações econômicas. No campo do agronegócio esta mudança de olhar foi marcada pela construção de lógicas de análise que não se colocam como micro ou macroeconômicas, mas buscam o entendimento das interconexões de atividades. As abordagens de cadeias produtivas (filières) e sistemas de commodities dominaram os estudos em agronegócios em virtude desta sua lógica própria de salientar as ligações interorganizacionais e pela tentativa de englobar o máximo possível do processo de produção, transformação, comercialização e consumo de produtos de origem agropecuária. Avançando sobre a lógica de encadeamento de atividades e das parcerias de longo prazo, esta pesquisa partiu do entendimento de que é o processo de formação de valor que constitui a base sobre a qual articulam-se os relacionamentos interorganizacionais presentes nas cadeias produtivas agronegociais. Enquanto arranjo interorganizacional, uma cadeia produtiva compõe-se de diferentes organizações unidas por um componente relacional ainda não muito bem explicado pelas abordagens existentes. Nesta direção, tomou-se por objetivo central a busca do entendimento de como se estabelece o processo de construção de relacionamentos interorganizacionais sob a ótica da formação valor. Dentro desta perspectiva, esta pesquisa teve como objetivo investigar a configuração dos relacionamentos interorganizacionais e o estabelecimento de parcerias de longo prazo no interior das cadeias produtivas agronegociais, procurando especificar a participação de elementos relacionais formadores ou geradores de valor neste processo, considerando este como um fenômeno marcado pela complexidade, dinâmica e multidimensionalidade. Frente a este objetivo, a pesquisa desenvolveu-se tomando como referência a cadeia produtiva do leite no Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, em especial o segmento da industrialização do leite. Esta pesquisa construiu-se sustentada numa revisão teórica sobre diferentes tipos de configurações interorganizacionais que obedecem a uma lógica de cadeia, da Economia dos Custos de Transação – ECT enquanto base teórica para a formação destes arranjos interorganizacionais e fundamentalmente sobre o processo de formação de valor através de relacionamentos interorganizacionais. Os resultados alcançados permitem uma ampliação do entendimento sobre a própria noção de cadeia produtiva (MORVAN, 1985, RAINELLI et al., 1991, MONTIGAUD, 1992) e de sistemas de valor (PORTER, 1989). Assim, baseado no entendimento econômico de valor e do conceito de empresa orientada pelo mercado, concluise que os relacionamentos interorganizacionais, formados no centro da cadeia produtiva estudada, efetivam-se quando há uma percepção inicial de valor ao nível mínimo dos atributos intrínsecos dos bens (valor comercial). Em complemento, na medida em que a percepção de valor atinge níveis mais complexos, forma-se valor relacional e solidificam-se os relacionamentos e as parcerias de longo prazo entre as organizações inseridas nas cadeias produtivas agronegociais. Neste processo, identifica-se a presença e atuação de seis elementos essenciais ou básicos da formação de valor relacional: confiança, cooperação, comprometimento, compartilhamento, comunicação e compensação.
The complex reality of the competitive environment, globalization of markets and cultures and the fast technological development determines the way as we should think the organizations. In the agribusiness field this change was signaled by the construction of an analytical logic that could not be situate as micro or macroeconomics, but this approach goes toward a more holistic understanding on the interconnected activities. These productive chains (filières) and commodities systems approaches dominated the studies in agribusiness due to their own logic that points out the interorganizational connections with the aim of viewing the whole process of the production, transformation, marketing and consumption of agricultural goods. Moving forward on the logic of linkage of activities and long run partnership, this study starts from the understanding that it is the value formation process that constitutes the base on which the interorganizational relationships are build in the agribusiness productive chain’s context. While an interorganizational configuration, an agribusiness chain is composed by different joined organizations that are integrated by a relational component that is not still very well explained by the current theoretical approaches. In this perspective, the research had as objective investigates the configuration of the interorganizational relationships and the establishment of long run partnerships inside the agribusiness chains reality. Particularly this study try to specify the participation of the relational elements while value producers in this process that are understood as a complexity, dynamic and multidimensional phenomena. In this sense, this study investigated the agribusiness productive chains configuration trying to deepen the study about the value formation process, considering this as complex, dynamic and multidimensional phenomena. With this purpose, this research was developed taking the milk agribusiness chain of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil as reference and focusing on the agro-industry. The study is supported by a theoretical background about different kinds of interorganizational configurations that follow the logic of chains, on the Transaction Costs Economics - TCE as theoretical base for the formation of these arrangements and fundamentally about the process of value formation through multidimensional relationships. The reached results allow an enlargement of the understanding on the own notion of productive chain or filière (MORVAN, 1985; RAINELLI et al., 1991; MONTIGAUD, 1992) and value systems (PORTER, 1989). Then, based on the economical understanding of value and market it is possible to conclude that the interorganizational relationships formed in the center of the chain productive studied taking shape when there is an initial perception of value at the minimum level of the intrinsic attributes of the goods (commercial value). When the perception of value reaches more complex levels the relational value is formed and the relationships and long run partnerships among organizations inserted in agribusiness chains become consolidated. Inside of this process it is possible to identify the presence and performance of six decisive relational value formation elements: trust, cooperation, sharing, commitment, communication and compensation.

MScAgric
ABSTRACT: Small dairy farms in South Africa are observed to have higher costs than larger farms, and whether those higher costs are due to technology or inefficiency has implications for policy. This research focused on finding the curve that best represents the relationship between average cost and level of output. That was done by relating average cost to actual output. However, it was found to be more appropriate to relate average cost to planned output on the basis that costs are more likely to reflect what the farmer expects output to be. As a result, a pragmatic two-step procedure was adopted. In the first step, the farmer’s planned output was determined by estimating a production function based on the farmer’s actual use of inputs, i.e., land, number of cows in the herd, labour, feed and veterinary costs. In the second step, the long-run average cost (LAC) curve was estimated where average cost is calculated as total cost divided by planned output and this is then related to the level of planned output. To identify the determinants of production cost thus the drivers of higher costs on small farms, the cost of milk production by farm size was decomposed into frontier and efficiency components with a stochastic cost curve and long run cost curve using data from dairy farms in KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa). Financial data of 37 farms for the period 1999 to 2007 were used in econometrics estimation of long run average cost curve (LAC) function for different level of production (as a proxy of planned output). Results show that average cost curves exhibiting variation in unit cost with output thus suggesting the existence of economies of size with larger farms being able to produce any given level of output at lower costs compared to their smaller counterparts. The study found that long-run average cost curve (LAC) for the sample of dairy farms is L-shaped rather than U-shaped.

The study was conducted in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa with the objective of characterising milk production and consumption among the communal households. A pretested semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data through a single visit survey between June 2014 and May 2015. The study was undertaken in five randomly selected communal districts using a multi – stage area probability sampling method. Household sample size was calculated using a statistical methodology through a fixed formula based on a rural population size of 4410000, at a confidence level of 95 percent. A total of 500 households were selected with a sample size of 20 households in 5 communities within five different communal districts within the province. Half of the total sample size was used to represent the number of non-milk producing households (250) to get a true reflection on consumption profiles for nonproducers. Across the province the average communal family size was between 5-10 members with a monthly income of ZAR1340 per household. On average, pasture land size of the sampled households was 1 ha, with a range of 0.25-1.7 ha. The numbers of animals per species found in the studied province was highest for sheep (310) followed by cattle (227) and goat (87). Average livestock holding per household in the study area was 9.85 TLU (Tropical Livestock Unit). According to the respondents the predominant milking livestock numbers were between 1-3 animals milking per household. In the studied area traditional hand milking of livestock was the major milking practices at 12 percent in goats, 15 percent in sheep and 45 percent in cattle milk production. Consumption was the predominant reason for milk production recorded at 27 percent across the province. Milk production was 43 percent most preferred in cattle followed by 32 percent in goat and least at 29 percent in sheep across the province. In general, from the study it was noted that the majority (38 percent) of the respondents across the province indicated 0-5mins as the time it took to milk most milk producing livestock. The majority of the milking practices was done (37 percent) predominantly once a day, followed by 2 percent twice daily across the province. The daily milk production was on average (0.45±1.07) 2-5 litre in cattle, (4.86±0.814) 0-1litre in goats and (2.62±0.42) 0-1 litre sheep per producing house hold with in the province The monthly raw milk consumption in the province was (2.20± 1.42) 2-5 litres of cattle milk, (4.78±0.79) 2-5 litres of goat milk and (4.98±0.69) 2-5 litres of sheep milk per consuming household.

The thesis will examine the harm principle, as originally described by John Stuart Mill. In doing so, it will defend that, though unintended, the harm principle may justify several principles of distributive justice. To augment this analysis, the paper will examine several secondary authors’ interpretations of the harm principle, including potential critiques of the thesis itself.

The impacts of tariffication on Canadian milk producers were estimated via supply, price and trade flow parameters using a spatial price equilibrium model applied to milk production regions of Canada and the United States.
Two price scenarios were put forward because of supply management in Canada. The first incorporated producer prices while the second used shadow prices for Canadian producers, defined as the producer price less a reduction in price which accounts for the value of production quota. The hypothesis that tariffication reduces milk production in Canada to the extent that U.S. producers increase their exports to Canada was partly supported in scenario one but not in scenario two. Specific tariffs of $11.00/hl prevented U.S. imports to reach Qu 'ebec and Ontario. However, the rest of Canada increased its imports from Great Lakes to the detriment of Quebec and Ontario. Consequently, production decreased slightly in Qu 'ebec and increased in Ontario, whereas prices decreased significantly in both provinces. Scenario two showed ability of Qu 'ebec and Ontario to withstand American competition. Prices and production level remained unchanged while export flows to the rest of Canada increased to the detriment of the Great Lakes.
The present study investigated only a specific aspect of the tariffication proposal in the GATT and does not intend not to reflect the very complex aspects of GATT negotiations. The findings of this analysis must be interpreted with this caveat. Further studies considering other plausible tariffication scenarios or effective tariffs on an individual dairy product basis would broaden our understanding of the potential implications of tariffication.

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This work comes from the need to analyze the improvement of logistics services entail high costs in the final product of milk production chain as well as improving the efficiency of revenue in the micro-region of Imperatriz, Maranhão State. In this context, the objective is to investigate the logistics of the milk production chain in microrregion Empress and propose suggestions for improvements to the production process of this important human food. The methodology consists of bibliographic research and statistical analysis, the latter using the Monte Carlo method to analyze the feasibility of the proposed integrated logistics model. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the benefit of integrating logistics or business network to reduce costs of the final product, since sharing offers the opportunity to reduce uncertainties and to achieve business competitive advantages chain as well as revenue increase. In other words, provide lower production periods, as well as increases the quality (cleaning) and reduces the logistics costs
Este trabalho parte da necessidade de analisar o melhoramento dos serviços logísticos que acarretam elevados custos no produto final da cadeia produtiva do leite, bem como ampliar a eficiência da receita na Microrregião de Imperatriz, no Estado do Maranhão. Nesse contexto, objetiva-se investigar a logística da cadeia produtiva do leite na Microrregião de Imperatriz e propor sugestões de melhoria para o processo produtivo desse importante alimento humano. A metodologia utilizada consiste de pesquisa bibliográfica e análise estatística, esta última utilizando o método de Monte Carlo para análise de viabilidade do modelo de logística integrada proposto. O intuito desse estudo é comprovar a vantagem da integração da cadeia logística ou rede de empresas para a redução de custos da mercadoria final, uma vez que o compartilhamento oferece a oportunidade para a redução de incertezas e a obtenção de negócios de vantagens competitivas, bem como ampliação de receita. Em outras palavras, proporcionar períodos menores de produção, bem como aumentar a qualidade (higienização) e redução dos custos logísticos

This study examines how Bovine Somatotropin (BST) may impact Arizona dairy producers. The results of dairy scientists experimenting with BST are summarized in terms of reported milk yields and possible changes in feeding and herd management. Dairy enterprize budgets representative of Arizona are constructed to examine how income statements may change if BST is approved. The effects of increased milk supply on Arizona milk prices are estimated using the institutional structure of the Central Arizona Order and the United Dairyman of Arizona. Results of experiments with BST in Arizona are used to generate net returns at several rates of adoption under changing milk prices for three dairy farms in Arizona.

The study investigates the role of front line managers in people management1 to explore how the way people are managed is expected to impact on employee attitudes and outcomes. Research on the link between HRM and organizational performance has overlooked the vital role of front line managers, however it is these managers who are increasingly charged with the enactment of many HR practices. This study seeks to address this gap through examining particularly how the employee attitudes seen in affective organizational commitment and job satisfaction are influenced by the front line managers’ leadership behavior, trustworthy behavior and by satisfaction with HR practices as they have a powerful impact on them. This paper draws on a case study based research which employs both quantitative and qualitative data analysis techniques. Data for this study was collected among 306 employees working in an Egyptian governmental entity. Data analysis and OLS regression showed that employees’ perceptions of front line managers’ leadership behavior, trustworthiness and satisfaction with HR practices have significant correlations with their affective organizational commitment and job satisfaction.

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The main purpose of this work is to characterize competition in the fluid milk market (long-shelf and pasteurized milk) in São Paulo considering evidences from retail price movements and market margins. It was applied the model proposed by Houck (1977) including the changes latter suggested by Carman and Sexton (2005). This approach separates the explanatory variables between price increases and price decreases paid to milk producers. This analysis allows to compare the different lags movements between prices increases and decreases and to study agents’ pricing strategies. Data ranges from December 1999 to December 2005, including milk retail price (source FIPE) and milk producer price (source CEPEA/USP). It is possible to conclude that competition in the long shelf market is different from the competition in the pasteurized milk market. Whereas in the long shelf market competition is closer to the perfect competitive market, the pasteurized market is far from competitive. To better understand these differences, it was considered the geographical relevant market and the retail area influence. The results allow some inferences for sector analysis and for public policies concerning the milk chain. The huge increase in the long shelf sales, when it has taken a major share in the fluid milk market, it has brought a higher competition in the processing and distribution milk industry, as long as a faster decrease price transmission to the consumer level. However, the mark-up pricing strategy on the retail level, as observed at the long shelf milk, reveals that at processor and at distribution level the industry has some market power. As a consequence price increases movements are higher transmitted at absolute level to the consumer marke.
O objetivo deste trabalho é caracterizar o padrão de concorrência no mercado de leite fluido (longa vida e pasteurizado) na cidade de São Paulo a partir de evidências sobre os movimentos de preços no varejo e do comportamento das margens de mercado. Utilizou-se o modelo originalmente proposto por Houck (1977) acrescido das observações feitas por Carman e Sexton (2005). Essa abordagem separa as variáveis explicativas entre aumentos e diminuições de preços pagos ao produtor. Além de maior clareza na sua estrutura, essa construção permite comparar a defasagem entre esses dois movimentos e estudar a estratégia de preços dos agentes a partir das margens dos intermediários. O período analisado foi de dezembro de 1999 à dezembro de 2005, com dados de preços ao consumidor da FIPE e dados de preços ao produtor da CEPEA/ USP. Identificou-se que o padrão de concorrência do leite longa vida é bastante diverso do encontrado para o leite pasteurizado. Enquanto para o longa vida o padrão de concorrência é mais próximo do modelo competitivo, para o leite pasteurizado o padrão encontrado foi de pouca concorrência. Para compreender essas diferenças, foi discutido o aspecto locacional do varejo e a importância do mercado relevante geográfico. Os resultados permitem algumas inferências para análises setoriais e de políticas públicas voltadas à produção leiteira. O vertiginoso crescimento das vendas de leite longa vida, absorvendo grande parte do mercado antes abastecido pelo leite pasteurizado, trouxe maior concorrência nos segmentos de indústria e distribuição, assim como maior velocidade de transmissão de preços ao longo da cadeia produtiva. Entretanto, a precificação com markups com percentual fixo, observada no leite longa vida, indica que indústria e distribuição gozam de algum poder de mercado e que variações de custo da matéria-prima são repassadas mais que proporcionalmente, em termos absolutos, ao consumidor final.