Dissertationen zum Thema „Military orders (Criminal law)“

International criminal courts do not operate to the exclusion of national legal orders, but co-exist with them. The present thesis provides an in-depth analysis of the above relationship. By examining the concepts of primacy and complementarity on the basis of which the ad hoc international criminal Tribunals and the permanent International Criminal Court seize jurisdiction, the foundations of the interface are explored. As effectiveness is a key concept to international criminal justice, the relationship between international criminal courts and national legal systems is tested, by examining the co-operation regimes envisaged in the Statutes of both the Tribunals and the ICC, as well as the problems that arise in practice. Moreover, the way the UN Security Council affects State interplay with international criminal justice institutions is crucial for a holistic understanding of the limitations of the interaction. The final part of the thesis focuses on national incorporation efforts and provides a detailed analysis of implementing legislation of a number of key States with a view to discerning some common approaches and highlighting problem areas. The present thesis argues that despite the different constitutional bases of the Tribunals and the ICC, similar questions of interface with national courts arise and the challenges presented could be better tackled by aiming for a "functional or workable interaction". Overall, the originality of this thesis lies in its analytical approach. By scrutinising a number of crucial aspects of the relationship between international criminal courts and national legal orders an overview of the research question posed is achieved. Moreover, the examination of the legal principles and their practical application is complemented by a comprehensive discussion of national implementing legislation which has not previously been attempted in a similar manner. [Files associated with the accompanying CD-ROM (print version) are available on request to subject librarian.]

State compliance with International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) arrest and surrender orders, Article 29(d) and (e) obligations, remains under explored in international criminal tribunal (ICT) scholarship despite the fact compliance with ICTY orders often proved not forthcoming from the states of the former Yugoslavia. This thesis will attempt to identiy causal phenomena behind compliance with ICT arrest and surrender orders through an exploration of compliance on the part of the diverse spectrum of states and non-state governing entities across the former Yugoslavia. Because International Relations (IR) scholarship identifies competing causal mechanisms to explain compliance and non-compliance outcomes, which range from a rationalist focus on material incentives and disincentives to norm-centric approaches, there will be an exploration of both ideational and material explanatory variables. Moreover, as mainstream neorealist and neoliberal institutionalist theories are unable to cope with entites where an autonomous state is not an ontological given, this thesis will be divided into two constituent parts. Part I will address the question of state compliance and include three case studies, Croatia, Serbia and Macedonia, while Part II will address the question of compliance in the context of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo, both of which do not conform to traditional models of the Westphalian state. This thesis will argue that the study of compliance is limited by the state centricity of international law and the rationalist failure to integrate ideational structures itno the study of compliance.

Why has international society been unable to develop political and judicial collective-security arrangements to limit external aggression? The thesis argues that efforts to limit aggression in moral and legal theory have created an unjust order in which great powers have used these theoretical traditions to reinforce their power in the global order. The thesis argues that is not a new development but can be found in one of the oldest traditions of moral reflection on war, the just war tradition. To substantiate this point, the thesis critically surveys the philosophers of the ancient Greek, Roman, Medieval Christian Renaissance, and early modern theorists of just war and demonstrates that their just war ideas contain assumptions about exclusion, identity and power reflecting their cultural superiority which underlie the practices and theories of the leading states and justifications of their aggressive wars. The thesis connects these moral reflections to the emergence of modern international law and the European pluralist international society of states based on mutual respect for sovereignty and the norm of non-intervention, highlighting how justifications of its colonial aggression against non-Europeans established an unjust solidarist order against them which persists in the post-Cold War era. To conclude it presents suggestions for improvement in the current pluralist international arrangements to address the issue of aggression.

Born in the aftermath of the Second World War, the doctrine of command or superior responsibility provides that a military commander or a civilian leader may be held criminally responsible in relation to crimes committed by subordinates even where he has taken no direct or personal part in the commission of these crimes. The basis of this type of liability lies in a grave and culpable failure on the part of a superior to fulfill his duty to prevent or punish crimes of subordinates. Command responsibility is not a form of objective liability, nor is it a form of accomplice liability although it borrows elements from various types and forms of liability. It is a form of liability that is personal in nature and which is triggered by a personal and culpable dereliction of duty. Liability is entailed, however, not for a specific crime of 'dereliction of duty', but instead in relation to the underlying offence that has been committed by subordinates of the superior. In that sense, the responsibility of a superior is entailed and is closely linked to the crimes of his subordinates for which he may be convicted. Contrary to most other forms of criminal liability, the doctrine of command responsibility first developed as a norm of international law, rather than under domestic law. It is central to the ability of international law to ensure compliance with standards of humanitarian law and it remains a most important legal instrument in the fight against impunity. The present thesis provides a comprehensive and insightful dissection of that doctrine, its scope of application, its elements as well as the evidential difficulties involved in establishing those elements in the context of criminal prosecutions.

Thesis (M.A. in International Security and Civil-Military Relations)--Naval Postgraduate School, December 2002.
Thesis advisor(s): James Holmes Armstead, Thomas Bruneau. Includes bibliographical references (p. 129-134). Also available online.

The duality of the United States’ relationship with international criminal law and human rights atrocities is a fascinating theme that weaves through all of American history, but most distinctly demonstrates the contradictory nature of American foreign policy in the latter half of the 20th century. America is both protector of human rights and perpetrator of human rights atrocities, global police force and aggressor. The Cold War exacerbated the tensions caused by American military dominance. The international political and physical power of the American military allowed the United States to do as it pleased in the 20th century with few consequences, but that power also brought watchfulness from the global community and an expectation that the United States would intervene when rogue states or leaders committed crimes against humanity. The international legal community has expected the United States to act and illegally intervene in some situations, but to pursue policy changes peacefully through diplomatic channels on other occasions.

Since the aftermath of the brutal civil war in Somaliland, no one has systematically considered the human rights atrocities committed by one of the most brutal regimes in sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, it is the objective of this study, firstly, to throw light on the international rules which govern those crimes committed in Somaliland during the military regime. Secondly, the study will apply those rules to the case of Somaliland, based on the available evidence. Thirdly, the study will establish a case for the international prosecution of those who bear the greatest responsibilities for the human rights atrocities that occurred in Somaliland. Fourthly, this study will investigate which international mechanism provides the best chance of serving as an adequate prosecutorial mechanism. Finally, the study will analyse the role of individual criminal responsibility under international criminal law
Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2008.
A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Law University of Pretoria, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Masters of Law (LLM in Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa). Prepared under the supervision of Prof. Frans Viljoen of the Faculty of Law, University of Pretoria
http://www.chr.up.ac.za/
Centre for Human Rights
LLM

The history of urban policing paints an evolutionary picture describing the various forces that impinged on society's earliest efforts at public policing and led to numerous reforms culminating in what has been termed the professional model of policing. The dynamics of an ever-changing urban society continued to present new challenges to policing and have driven police administrators and politicians to seek new methods of responding to society's criminal element.

Treaties and international organizations work together to create a global environment that protects the rights of a person and actively promotes the well-being of society. However, they do not necessarily guarantee the rights of everyone. Since women are not explicitly named in human rights documents, they are often not granted equal human rights. Therefore, it takes more than just international legal instruments to guarantee women's rights as human rights. A combination of civil society (NGOs), International organizations (IOs), and domestic government creates a perfect coalition to beat the barriers that must be overcome to fully protect women from violence.

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As intervenções policiais com resultado morte de civil constituem tema relevante, atual e constantemente debatido em âmbito nacional. Desta forma, a Segurança Pública, desponta como um dos Direitos Fundamentais carreados no texto constitucional vigente, enquanto a atividade policial militar um de seus desdobramentos para a realização do interesse coletivo. Por isso, revelam-se prementes as bases legais que fundamentam a atuação de Polícia Judiciária Militar e, em particular, pela Coordenação de Polícia Judiciária Militar – CPJM, da Corregedoria Geral da Polícia Militar da Bahia. Desta forma, o presente estudo se dedica à apreciação dos casos registrados na aludida seção no período de 2013 a 2014, desencadeados na Capital baiana. Através da metodologia de cunho exploratório quantitativa potencializou-se a análise do tema, com ênfase ao raciocínio dedutivo das informações obtidas. Por ora, a atuação da referida seção trouxe maior celeridade e qualidade dos inquéritos policiais, constituindo salvaguarda dos interesses da sociedade baiana, consoante preceitos da Constituição Federal de 1988.
Police interventions resulting in the death of civilians are a relevant, current and constantly discussed issue at the national level. In this way, Public Security emerges as one of the Fundamental Rights carried in the current constitutional text, while military police activity is one of its consequences for the realization of collective interest. Therefore, the legal bases that support the activities of the Military Judicial Police and, in particular, the Military Judicial Police Coordination (CPJM), of the General Internal Affairs of the Military Police of Bahia, are of paramount importance. In consequence, this study aims to assess the cases registered in the aforementioned section during the period from 2013 to 2014, unleashed in the Capital of Bahia. Through the quantitative exploratory methodology, the analysis of the topic was strengthened, with emphasis on the deductive reasoning of the information obtained. For the time being, the action of this section brought greater speed and quality of police investigations, constituting a safeguard of the interests of society in Bahia, according to the provisions of the Federal Constitution of 1988.

L’échec de l’impérativité du droit international pénal et la fragilité de la justice pénale internationale qui en résulte ne dépendent pas du choix normatif d’un modèle de juridiction, ad hoc ou conventionnel, mais simplement des défaillances et des réticences des États à l’égard de la norme choisie. Ce constat d’évidence trouve sa confirmation dans le processus de mise en place et de fonctionnement de la Cour pénale internationale, fâcheusement contournée à faire prévaloir sur la lutte contre l’impunité une lutte pour la « justiciabilité » des auteurs des crimes les plus graves qui heurtent la conscience de l’Humanité : crimes contre l’humanité, crime de génocide, crimes de guerre, crime d’agression. L’obstacle qu’elle doit essentiellement surmonter est en effet que sa compétence peut être délibérément mise en échec à tout moment, directement ou indirectement, par tout État avant tout soucieux de sa propre souveraineté, qu’il soit ou non partie au Statut de Rome. L’observation des stratégies étatiques montre d’une part que la faculté de renoncer à l’exercice de sa propre compétence répressive se traduit par une négation de l’impérativité des engagements souscrits auparavant, certains Etats se désolidarisent de la répression dont ils se sont désistés. D’autre part, et à l’inverse, l’exercice légitime de sa compétence répressive par un Etat peut très facilement lui permettre de glisser vers une obstruction chronique de la juridiction internationale, voire ou déni du droit impératif qui la régit. En l’absence d’une réelle reconnaissance de la juridiction internationale, les conséquences de telles attitudes sont d’une ampleur qui dépasse l’imagination. Seul un comportement coopératif et constructif, affranchi des compromis égoïstes et opportunistes des États, pourrait parer au risque actuel d’une érosion progressive de l’architecture punitive partagée mise en place par les États eux-mêmes lors de la création de la Cour pénale internationale et ainsi de garantir que soient punis à coup sûr les auteurs de crimes insupportables
The failure to make international criminal law imperative and the resulting fragility of international criminal justice should not be understood as the consequence of a normative choice toward a jurisdictional model, be it ad hoc or conventional. Rather, it derives from the State's weaknesses and reluctance to abide by the chosen norm. This is clearly confirmed by the very way the International Criminal Court was implemented, functions and is being sadly circumvented. Instead of bolstering the fight against impunity, it focuses on the fight for the “justiciability” of the perpetrators of the most serious crimes, resulting in subsequent negative effects on Humanity’s consciousness: crimes against humanity, crime of genocide, war crimes and crime of aggression. Owing to the fact that a State's primary concern is its own sovereignty, the biggest obstacle the Court has to overcome remains that at any moment, directly or indirectly, its competence can be intentionally overruled by any State, signatory or not of the Treaty of Rome. Observing State strategies shows that relinquishing one’s repressive authority is generally seen through a negation of formerly made commitments: some States dissociate from the repression monopoly they disclaim. Conversely, the legitimate exercise of a State’s repressive authority can easily result in regular obstruction of international jurisdiction, and even the refusal of the imperative law that governs it. Without any genuine recognition of international jurisdiction, such attitudes have undeniable serious consequences that far outreach the imagination. The only solution is cooperative and constructive behavior, free of opportunistic and selfish compromises of States. This behavior could protect against the current risk of the progressive erosion regarding shared punitive organization which States themselves implemented through the creation of the International Criminal Court. The result would guarantee the punishment of perpetrators of unbearable crimes

Le droit international pénal est né de l'engagement de la responsabilité pénale individuelle des principaux criminels de la Seconde guerre mondiale. Aux Tribunaux de Nuremberg et de Tokyo, ont succédé dans les années 1990 les deux juridictions ad hoc pour l'ex-Yougoslavie et le Rwanda, créées par le Conseil de sécurité des Nations Unies, avant l'avènement d'une juridiction indépendante, permanente et à vocation universelle en 1998 : la Cour pénale internationale. Parmi les actes sous-jacents constitutifs de crimes de guerre, de crimes contre l'humanité et de génocide, une constante apparaît : l'intégrité physique et mentale. En l'absence de définition uniforme dans les systèmes juridiques nationaux, cette notion se définit sur la base des dispositions statutaires et se précise grâce à la jurisprudence des juridictions internationales pénales. Érigeant un véritable droit à l'intégrité physique et mentale en matière de génocide et de crimes de guerre, la jurisprudence des Tribunaux ad hoc utilise également la notion pour compléter la liste des actes sous-jacents constitutifs de crimes contre l'humanité et définir d'autres infractions. Les Chambres vont même jusqu'à protéger cette intégrité en dehors de toute incrimination. Car au-delà de l'intégrité physique et mentale des victimes se pose la question de l'intégrité physique et mentale des autres acteurs impliqués dans les conflits et les procès : soldats et personnel humanitaire, témoins, accusés.L'étude du droit à l'intégrité physique et mentale dans la jurisprudence internationale pénale permet de constater l'émergence d'un droit inconnu des systèmes juridiques nationaux en tant que tel. Ce droit soulève des questions de sécurité juridique tout en démontrant l'autonomie du droit international pénal
The roots of international criminal law may be found in the individual criminal liability of the major criminals of the Second World War. The Nuremberg and Tokyo International Military Tribunals were followed in the 1990's by the two ad hoc Tribunals for Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda, created by the United Nations Security Council, and then in 1998 by an independant and permanent tribunal with a universal vocation : the International Criminal Court. Among the underlying acts of war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide, a leitmotif stands out : physical and mental integrity. Without a uniform definition in national legal systems, this notion is defined on the basis of statutory provisions and becomes clear in the international criminal tribunals' case law. Establishing an autonomous right to physical and mental integrity in terms of genocide and war crimes, the case law of ad hoc tribunals alsouses the notion to complete the liste of underlying acts of crimes against humanity and to define some other crimes. Chambers are also protecting this integrity without any incrimination. Because beyond physical and mental integrity of victimes, arises the question of the physical and mental integrity of other actors of conflicts and proceedings : soldiers, humanitarian workers, witnesses and accused.Studying the right to physical and mental integrity in international criminal case law uncovers the emergence of a right unknown to national legal systems as such. This right raises questions of legal certainty as much as demonstrates the autonomy of international criminal law

Avant les Conventions de Genève de 1949, seuls les conflits armés internationaux étaient réglementés par le droit de la guerre. Ce dernier ne pouvait s’appliquer dans les guerres civiles qu’après la reconnaissance des forces rebelles comme partie belligérante. Or, depuis la Seconde guerre mondiale on a assisté à une multiplication des conflits armés non internationaux. Mais les Conventions de Genève de 1949 leur ont consacré seulement l’article 3 commun ; puis le Protocole II additionnel de 1977 est venu le compléter. Ces deux textes comportent de nombreuses lacunes, notamment l’absence de définition des « combattants » et des « civils », rendant ainsi difficile le respect du principe de distinction pourtant essentiel à la protection des populations civiles. Ces dispositions ne réglementent pas non plus les moyens et méthodes de guerre. Outre les lacunes normatives, il y a des problèmes matériels qui compliquent la mise en œuvre efficace des règles pertinentes. Il s’agit notamment de la participation des populations civiles aux hostilités, y compris les enfants-Soldats et les mercenaires. L’absence du statut de combattant dans les conflits armés non internationaux apparaît comme le problème principal compromettant l’efficacité du DIH. Celle-Ci ne contribue-T-Elle pas au non respect de ce droit par les groupes armés ? Faudrait-Il conférer ce statut à ces derniers en vue de les amener à appliquer le droit international humanitaire ou envisager d’autres moyens ? Lesquels ?
Before the Geneva Conventions of 1949, only the international armed conflicts were regulated by the law of the war. This last one could apply in the civil wars only after the recognition of the rebel forces as belligerent party. Now, since the Second World War we attended an increase in non-International armed conflicts. But the Geneva Conventions of 1949 dedicated them only the common article 3; then the additional Protocol II of 1977 came to complete it. These two texts contain numerous gaps, in particular the absence of definition of the "combatants" and the "civilians", making so difficult the respect for the principle of distinction nevertheless essential for the protection of the civil populations. These rules do not regulate either the means and the war methods. Besides the normative gaps, there are material problems which complicate the effective implementation of the relevant rules. It is in particular about the participation of the civil populations in the hostilities, including the children-Soldiers and the mercenaries. The absence of combatant's status in the non-International armed conflicts appears as the main problem compromising the efficiency of the international humanitarian law. Does not this one contribute to the non compliance with this law by the armed groups? Would it be necessary to confer this status to these last ones to bring them to apply the international humanitarian law or to envisage the other means? Which one?

The topic of the thesis is the military criminal law in the Czech Republic. Czech military criminal law is a specific area of criminal law relating exclusively on special subjects which are soldiers, prisoners of war and in a more limited scale members of the security forces. The purpose of this thesis is to present a comprehensive picture of the Czech military criminal law, because up to now as comprehensive piece of work has not been made. The first chapter summarizes the historical development. It describes the grounds of the legal regulation with the historical background that further explains the reasons for specific legislation. This chapter is divided chronologically into four parts, the first of which introduces us to the beginnings of the development of military criminal law, the second to the development from the Middle Ages to the early 20th century, the third is devoted to military criminal law in the First Republic and the fourth to development in the second half of the 20th century. The second chapter represents a crucial part of this thesis. Firstly, it defines military criminal law in the field of criminal law describing the coherence of the different laws in this area which are relevant and necessary for the application. Emphasis is put on the definition of the terms, which are used...

Defence date: 4 March 2016
Examining Board: Professor Francesco Francioni, European University Institute (Supervisor); Professor Nehal Bhuta, European University Institute; Professor Manlio Frigo, Università degli Studi di Milano; Professor Ana Vrdoljak, University of Technology, Sydney.
It is now universally accepted that during armed conflicts, cultural property is entitled to a special status, which translates, inter alia, into a ban on its use for military purposes and a prohibition of acts of hostility against it as per the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (1954). However, this special status is weakened in the presence of a 'military necessity'; an elusive concept which equally limits the protected status of property of no cultural value. This raises questions whether in practice cultural property is at all given any special treatment during wars. This thesis argues that it is precisely the understanding of military necessity which constitutes the essential difference between the legal framework protecting 'regular' civilian property during armed conflicts and the framework for cultural property as lex specialis. Although the Convention's 1999 Second Protocol's definition of military necessity is formally only binding on half of the States participating in the Hague Convention, it corresponds to the customary criteria of necessity and proportionality. The evolutive character of that concept is also reflected in the case-law of international courts and in the military manuals of States not party to the Second Protocol. A narrow reading of military necessity in the cultural context is further supported by: the dynamic evolution of treaty and customary international law in the field; the rise of a new type of armed conflicts, which frequently feature cultural destruction as means of harming the enemy; the reinforcement of individual criminal responsibility for unlawful attacks against cultural property; the rise of erga omnes obligations, and, finally, analogies in the application of necessity in other fields of international law. If international practice continues to develop in this direction, the fundamental intention of the architects of the Hague Convention will be respected, and the world's cultural riches will have a better chance of escaping the greedy toll of wartime destruction and being preserved for the enjoyment of future generations.

碩士
國防大學管理學院
法律學系
98
Following the party-shifted, democratization and the completed foundation of Constitutional Interpretation (CI) in Taiwan, our country has established a principle and foundation of rule of law. It means that the country must follow the rule of law and its sovereign power must possess objective and legitimate laws to be the root of administration. If administrative actions conducted by govern lacks regulations or keeps some interpretative room, the administrative institution must correspond with the principle of proportion, equality, trusty and conservation, and the demand of human rights protected under constitution. In order to prevent the infringement of personal benefits and rights, this research points out a controversial type of military executive orders to discuss the vague phenomenon and try to find out the effective way of solutions. This research begin from the introduction of the rule of law, and review all the definition, categories, characteristics, limitation, efficacy, etc. Finally, we choose three dimensions-ordinance, regulation and official letter, which both process interpretive function and efficacy of restricted adjudication, to illustrate the patterns of executive orders nowadays. Those discussions are the base to review the pattern about executive orders from interior military, so as to prevent the violation of human rights and enhanced relative benefits on military HR protection.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the sentencing practice of the military courts. Since an independent and impartial military judiciary is essential to ensure that justice is done a further aim of this study is to investigate whether the military courts are impartial, independent and affords the accused his fair trial rights. The sentences imposed by military courts are investigated and concerns regarding the imposition of these sentences are identified. Finally the appeal and review procedures followed by the military courts are investigated with specific reference to the military accused’s right appeal and review to a higher court as provided for by the Constitution. The sentencing phase of a trial forms an important part of the whole trial process. This is also true for military trials, yet no research has been done on military sentencing practice. Because of the potential influence of the draft Military Discipline Bill and the Law Reform Commission’s revision of the defence legislation on sentencing, research in this area is critical in the positive development of sentencing law in the military justice environment. An extensive literature study is undertaken to evaluate current military sentencing practices against civilian practices. The result of this study identifies certain concerns regarding the independence of the military courts, the treatment of military offenders and the appeal and review powers of the military reviewing authority. To a large extent it is also found that many concerns are based on the apparent rather than the existence of any real dangers to the independence of the military courts or the rights of the military accused. This thesis contributes to the accessibility of military law for a civilian audience, creating a platform for the development of future military sentences.
Jurisprudence
LLD

Recent Inter-American Court of Human Rights jurisprudence has resulted in major amendments to Mexican military justice law that were previously thought to be impossible, considering the historical role of the armed forces and Mexico's civil-military pact. Yet, with a recent Supreme Court decision, Mexican law has been modified to bring it into compliance with the Inter-American Court's decisions. However, their efficacy has been undermined by aspects of the decisions which were not made on a principled basis.

130 ABSTRACT This Master's degree thesis deals with the problematics of the military criminal law in the Czechoslovak Republic between 1918 and 1938. I have chosen this theme for several reasons. First of these reasons is, that this subject mingles two legal disciplines - legal history and criminal law. Concurrently it is a topic, that has not yet been widely written up. The reason is that in both law disciplines combined in the theme of interwar criminal law, it is a marginal area of interest. Existing works in most cases focus only on a constituent parts of the problematics. In the second group of works the topic was chosen too widely and the character of resulting outputs was enumeratives, withnout providing context. The purpose of this tesis is to provide a global view on the matter of our military criminal law in the begining of 20th century and within this view then further focus on its dominant elements. The work is based mainly on the legislation effective in the given period, and the commented wordings. Another valuable source for the elaboration of the thesis were historical publications, although recent papers were not excluded. On several occasions the work marginally mentiones the comparison with the interwar general criminal law. In the topics of the military criminal law, whose legislation or...

Streszczenie rozprawy doktorskiej „Odpowiedzialność karna żołnierzy za przestępstwa popełnione podczas użycia Sił Zbrojnych Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej poza granicami państwa” mgr Wojciecha MENDEL. Polscy żołnierze od wielu lat uczestniczą w operacjach militarnych prowadzonych przez Organizacje Narodów Zjednoczonych, Unię Europejską, Pakt Północnoatlantycki czy inne koalicje utworzone ad hoc przez społeczność międzynarodową. Konsekwencją podjętych decyzji politycznych o zaangażowaniu Sił Zbrojnych RP w międzynarodowe operacje militarne jest kierowanie żołnierzy w regiony świata targane gwałtownymi konfliktami społecznymi z wojną włącznie. Dla żołnierzy oznacza to nie tylko przemieszczenie geograficzne, ale i istotną zmianę wiążących ich uwarunkowań prawnych, uzyskują oni, bowiem kompetencje do stosowania siły wojskowej podczas prowadzonych działań bojowych i sami stają się legalnym obiektem ataku przeprowadzanego przez przeciwną stronę konfliktu zbrojnego. Dlatego w pracy przeprowadzono analizę uwarunkowań prawno-karnych działań zbrojnych prowadzonych poza granicami państwa. Badaniu poddano normy prawne kształtujące zasady odpowiedzialności karnej żołnierzy w sposób odmienny od zasad powszechnych. W wyniku analizy przystawalności przepisów krajowego prawa karnego wojskowego do warunków, w których prowadzone są międzynarodowe operacje militarne zidentyfikowano potrzebę zmian w przepisach prawa karnego wojskowego w zakresie dwóch kontratypów - rozkazu oraz ostatecznej potrzeby. Natomiast badając normy określające zasady ponoszenia odpowiedzialności karnej za naruszenia prawa wojennego, wykazano istnienie wady niedookreśloności krajowych przepisów kryminalizujących zbrodnie wojenne i ich rozbieżność z przepisami Statutu Międzynarodowego Trybunału Karnego. Dowiedziono, iż źródłem niedookreśloności przepisów z rozdziału XVI k.k. jest przyjęta w prawie krajowym metoda implementacji postanowień międzynarodowego prawa karnego oparta na generalnym odwołaniu do prawa międzynarodowego. Komparacja metod, którymi posłużyli się legislatorzy w innych państwach przenosząc normy międzynarodowego prawa karnego do wewnętrznych systemów prawnych wskazała metody kryminalizacji, których zastosowanie pozwoliłoby zredukować dysfunkcje występujące w krajowych regulacjach kryminalizujących zbrodnie prawa międzynarodowego. The abstract of PhD dissertation ‘The Criminal liability of deployed polish soldiers’ written by Wojciech MENDEL. For many years, Polish soldiers have taking part in military operations conducted by The United Nations, The European Union, The North Atlantic Treaty Organization and coalitions ad hoc as created by international communities. As a consequence of political decisions regarding the engagement The Polish Armed Forces into international military operations - polish troops are deployed to conflict zones. This situation means that soldiers are displaced not only geographically, but they are bounded by a differing legal framework. Soldiers have right to use a military force whilst conducting hostilities and could be lawfully attacked by an opposing side of armed conflict. This dissertation is focused on investigating the criminal law framework of military operations executed outside the polish state therefor; both domestic military criminal law and international criminal law were examined as the two main factors which modify universal principles of criminal responsibility in battlefield environments. The main research conclusion found that the method of implementation of war crimes into polish criminal law through a general and open-ended reference to international law to face, prove to be insufficient in regard to the principle of legality and thereby caused gaps between the Rome Statute and domestic law. By comparison, the number of ways in which other states defined core international crimes within their jurisdictions dissertation, identified different options which are open to the domestic legislator. Additionally the research leads to the recommendations of a few other minor changes in military criminal law.

Text in English
The study aims to investigate criminal jurisdiction of the visiting SADC armed forces during peace time focusing only on the Republic of Botswana and the Republic of South Africa. Since the adoption of the Declaration and Treaty of SADC, the armed forces of both Botswana and South Africa at times find themselves on each other’s territory. Once in each other’s territory the question of criminal jurisdiction becomes imperative. The two countries seem not to agree on the content of status of force agreements while cooperating in terms of the SADC Treaty. The contentious point is that the death sentence is still a competent sentence for certain offences under certain circumstances in terms of Botswana laws, whereas in South Africa the death sentence was declared unconstitutional. In the absence of any agreement, South African armed forces may face a death sentence while in Botswana and Botswana authorities might not be able to carry out a death sentence over their members for offences committed while in South Africa. In trying to answer the question of criminal jurisdiction while on each other’s territory during peace time, a study of the evolution of jurisdiction is undertaken. The laws of both countries are considered, especially the application and protection afforded by their respective constitutions. The approach followed by the UN in sending a peace-keeping force to conflict areas is analysed. A micro-comparison of agreements concluded by selected countries, more especially the NATO agreement, is undertaken. Treaties as a source of international law are analysed to show that rights can be extended and be limited by agreement. The study concludes by recommending that concurrent criminal jurisdiction with certain qualification seems to be the accepted norm and compromise amongst the international community, and that the two countries may consider this approach as the basis for such agreement.
Public, Constitutional, & International Law
LL.M

Within the context of recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments the recognition and enforcement of foreign custody orders is unique. By reason of the fact that custody orders are always modifiable "in the best interests of the child" they cannot be regarded as final orders and are thus not capable of recognition and enforcement on the same basis as final orders. The failure of courts to afford foreign custody orders recognition and enforcement in the normal course has created the potential for a person deprived of the custody of a child to remove the child from the jurisdiction of a court rendering a custody order to another jurisdiction within which he or she may seek a new, more favourable order. This potential for behaviour in contempt of an existing order has been exploited by numerous parents who feel aggrieved by custody orders. The problem of parental child snatching has escalated to such a degree that the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction was drawn up to introduce uniform measures amongst member states to address this problem. Despite being a meaningful step in the fight against international child abduction the Hague Convention does not fully resolve the problem. For this reason other measures have been suggested to supplement the Convention. The different approaches taken in South Africa, the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States of America to recognition and enforcement of foreign custody orders and the measures to overcome the problem of international child abduction are examined and a comparative methodology applied to the design of a model approach for South Africa. The object of this model is to permit the South African courts to address the international child abduction problem without falling prey to any of the pitfalls experienced elsewhere in the legal systems examined.
Law
LL.D.

MPD is an entity within the SANDF responsible for maintaining law and order, prevent and combat crime, investigates criminal cases or alleged within the DoD. The role of the MPs has changed drastically over the past years especially after the integration of the non-statutory and statutory forces with all changes in crime growth increased in South Africa and affected the DoD. This led to the MPD shifting from disciplinary crime prevention issues to criminal crime prevention, as the basic mission of the police is to prevent crime and disorder. MPs form part of the police agencies that are within South Africa, the uniqueness of the MPs they operating within the SANDF but they cannot be isolated from the complicated growing crime phenomenon that affects the whole South African community. As crime prevention is the catchphrase for all the police agencies and government departments, it is imperative for the MPs to align its crime prevention to the modern policing. This study gives a comprehensive explanation of what crime prevention is, from the literature reviewed relevant to the study, with the aim to critically analyse the role of the MPs in crime prevention within the military proclaimed environment. The researcher collected data in the form of unstructured interviews, documents and literature. Collected data was transcribed; larger text was broken into smaller segments, coded and then selected into themes. Participants had different views of the understanding of the meaning of crime prevention and different comprehension of the MPs crime prevention guideline and procedures. This analysis was done in order to determine the level of understanding of the role of the MPs, in crime prevention within the military proclaimed environment and how MPs can be effective and efficient within this environment.
Police Practice
M. Tech. (Police Practice)

The purpose of this research study was to offer a critical analysis of the crime prevention role of the MPD in the SANDF. A recent development in SA where military personnel are deployed to quell acts of violence and xenophobic attacks, makes this requisite and pertinent research. A qualitative research method was adopted, which goes well with the pragmatist worldview. A pragmatist worldview affords researchers the flexibility to choose the type of technique, method and procedures to be utilised in the research study. A literature review was conducted, followed by interviews with members of the MPD. The researcher interviewed a total of 23 members from the MPD. These members were chosen based on their experience and knowledge as military police officials. The data received from participants was analysed using a computer software programme called Atlas.ti. The findings of this research study revealed that crime prevention in SA is the responsibility of the SAPS, not the SANDF. The defence force can be deployed as a last resort in extreme cases when the SAPS are not able to contain the situation. Members of the defence force are not trained to deal with matters of maintenance of law and order. However, the defence force has its own crime fighting component in the form of the MPD, which can perform policing functions anywhere and at any time as long as it is aimed at enforcing the Defence Act (Act 42 of 2002). The conclusion reached by this research study is that MPD members must be capacitated in terms of both human resources and training so that they are able to deal effectively with crime within the SANDF. In an effort to address crime within the SANDF, the study proposes a model that supports the interaction between various role players in crime prevention.
Injongo yalolu cwaningo ukuhlolisisa nokuhlaziya igunya namandla okuvikela ubugebengu embuthweni wezokuvikela wase Ningizimu Afrika. Lolu cwaningo lusungulwe ngokubonakala kwentuthuko yakamuva ezenzweni zobugebengu eNingizimu Afrika lapho amalunga amasosha ethu agcina esefakwe emsebenzini wokuqeda udlame kanye nokuvikela kokuhlaselwa kwabokufika. I qualitative method indlela ucwaningo oluqhutshwa ngayo emhlabeni wonke olubheka ingqikithi nomsusa wesenzo lesi esisuke senzekile futhi kutholakele ukuthi loluhlobo lokucwaninga lusebenza kahle kakhulu. Ukwenza ucwaningo ngokuzikhandla kanye nokukhululeka kwenza abacwaningi basebenzise ubuhlakani babo kanye nezindlela ezingcono zokucwaninga, futhi zenza ukufunda ngocwaningo kuhambe kahle. Umcwaningi wabuyekeza izincwadi ezazisetshenzisiwe ngaphambilini waphinde wakhulumisana namalunga angamashumi amabili nantathu amaphoyisa wezokuvikela kwezwe phecelezi Military Police Division. Lamalunga akhethwa ngokuba ngomakade ebona futhi nangokuba mkantshubomvu kulomsebenzi wobuphoyisa embuthweni wezempi. Ubuciko bukangcondomshini obuthiwa yi-Atlas.ti buye basetshenziswa ukuhlunga kabanzi yonke imininingwane eye yatholakala kulamalunga. Okutholakele kulolu cwaningo kukhombisa ukuthi umsebenzi wokuvimbela ubulelesi ukuthi kungenzeki kungumsebenzi wamaphoyisa aseNingizimu Afrika (SAPS) kuphela, akuwona umsebenzi wombutho wezokuvikela. Umbutho wezokuvikela ungatshalwa kuphela njengendlela yokugcina ezimweni ezibucayi lapho khona amaphoyisa aseNingizimu Afrika engakwazi ukulungisa noma ukumelana nesimo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, amalungu ombutho wezokuvikela aweqeqeshelwe ukulwa nobugebengu. Umbutho wezokuvikela unebutho eliqeqeshelwe ukulwa ubugebengu kanye nokwephulwa komthetho lelo butho amaphoyisa wombutho wezokuvikela phecelezi Military Police Division. Isiphetho salolu cwaningo ukuthi amaphoyisa ombutho wezokuvikela kufanele anikezwe zonke izinsiza ezifanele aphinde aceceshwe kanzulu ukuze akwazi ukumelana kanye nokuceda ubugebengu embuthweni wezokivikela. Ukuze kubhekwe ubugebengu ngaphakathi kwi SANDF, umfuziselo olwatuswa olusekela ukusebenzisana phakathi kwabo bonke ababambe iqhaza ezinhlakeni ezahlukene ekuvimbeleni ubugebengu.
Injongo yolu phando kukunikezela ngohlalutyo oluntsonkothileyo ngendima yeMPD kwi SANDF, yokuthintela ulwaphulo-mthetho. Iziganeko zakutsha nje eMzantsi Afrika, apho kuye kwafuneka ukuba abasebenzi bomkhosi wokhuselo bathunyelwe ukuya kunqanda izenzo zobundlobongela nokuhlaselwa kwabemi bangaphandle, zenza ukuba olu ibe luphando olunyanzelekileyo nolubalulekileyo. Indlela yophando ngokwexabiso isetyenzisiwe, iyeyona ihambelana kakuhle nendlela ebona ngeliso elibanzi kwilizwe jikelele. Indlela ebona ngeliso elibanzi kwilizwe jikelele yeyona inika abaphandi inkululeko yokukhetha ubuchule, umgaqo kunye nenkqubo enokusetyenziswa kuphando olo. Uhlalutyo lwemibhalo luye lwenziwa, kwalandela udliwano ndlebe namalungu eMPD. Umphandi wenze udliwano-ndlebe namalungu eMPD angama-23 ewonke. La malungu akhethwe ngenxa yamava kunye nolwazi analo njengabasebenzi bomkhosi wezokhuselo. Iinkcukacha ezifumaneke kwabo bathathe inxaxheba ziye zahlalutywa kusetyenziswa ubuchwepheshe bekhompyutha obubizwa ngokuba yi-Atlas.ti. Ulwazi olufumaneke kolu phando lubonise ukuba ukunqandwa kolwaphulo mthetho eMzantsi Afrika luxanduva lweSAPS, hayi olweSANDF. Igqiza lomkhosi wokhuselo linakho ukuthunyelwa ngondancama xa kukho iimeko eziqatseleyo, xa i-SAPS isoyiswa kukumelana nesimo. Amalungu womkhosi wokhuselo awakuqeqeshelwanga ukujongana neemeko zokugcinwa komthetho. Nangona kunjalo, amalungu womkhosi wokhuselo analo icandelo lokulwa ulwaphulo-mthetho eliyi-MPD, elelona candelo elikwaziyo ukwenza umsebenzi wesipolisa naphina kwaye nanini na ekubeni nje inyanzelisa umthetho obizwangokuba yi-Defence Act (Umthetho wama- 42 wonyaka wama-2002). Xa beluqukumbela olu phando bafumanise ukuba amalungu weMPD kufuneka axhotyiswe ngokunikwa abasebenzi abafanelekileyo nangokuqeqeshwa ukwenzela ukuba bakwazi ukugagana ngokufanekelikelyo nolwaphulo mthetho ngaphakathi kwiSANDF. Kwiinzame zokujongana nolwaphulo mthetho kwiSANDF, olu phando luphakamisa ukuba kubekho indlela yokusebenza exhasa unxibelelwano phakathi kwabathathi nxaxheba abahlukeneyo ekuthinteleni ulwaphulo mthetho.
Police Practice
D. Litt. et Phil. (Police Science)

In my thesis I focused on the czech lawyer and jurist JUDr. Bohuslav Ečer. He became one of the main ideologist of international criminal law thanks to his hard work . He represeted Czechoslovakia during the Nuremberg trials after World War II.

Cap I: Questo capitolo mira a stabilire un punto di partenza per quanto riguarda questa tesi, ricostruendo una definizione ampiamente accettata dalla comunità internazionale su ciò che si deve intendere come concetto di vittime di crimini atroci, concetto sviluppato e perfezionato dal diritto internazionale pubblico, in particolare i contributi a tale concetto proverranno dal diritto internazionale dei diritti umani e dal diritto penale internazionale, inoltre si analizzerà ciascuno degli obiettivi dei modelli di giustizia restaurativa e la di giustizia retributiva per le vittime, dimostrando che esiste un punto di convergenza o di visione eclettica tra i due modelli nel diritto penale internazionale a favore delle vittime di crimini atroci. In questo capitolo si pretende introdurre un concetto simile a quello riconosciuto a livello internazionale come la carta dei diritti umani, in questo caso si introdurrà il concetto di Carta Internazionale dei diritti delle Vittime di crimini atroci, carta fondamentale composta da quattro documenti essenziali e la riunione degli stessi sarà la loro carta dei loro diritti, nel senso di fornire la protezione, difesa e riconoscimento dei loro diritti come Lex specialis, termine utilizzato non per privilegiare l'applicazione di una norma, ma per la costruzione di un corpo legale attraverso l'unione di vari pezzi che contiene disposizioni specifiche e generali, che di per sé non corrispondono ad una posizione cronologica, allo stesso modo, questa Carta delle Vittime si vedrà arricchita dal retaggio di due tradizioni giuridiche del common law e del civile law che hanno inciso nei tribunali internazionali penali e/o dei diritti umani, che rendono effettiva la protezione delle vittime . È allora che si tratterà: In primo luogo, sugli apporti che realizzano i Principi fondamentali di giustizia per le vittime di reati e dell'abuso di potere. In secondo luogo, si approfondirà sui contributi dei principi e delle linee guida sul diritto delle vittime di violazioni manifeste delle norme internazionali dei Cap I diritti umani e di gravi violazioni del diritto internazionale umanitario a interporre ricorsi e ottenere riparazioni, si farà riferimento agli strumenti e alla giurisprudenza del Sistema Universale Dei Diritti Umani, il Sistema regionale Interamericano Dei Diritti Umani, il Sistema Regionale Europeo Dei Diritti Umani e il Sistema Regionale Africano Dei Diritti Umani. In modo uguale si tratterà di garantire in ogni momento alle vittime il diritto di ottenere un risarcimento per le violazioni verificatesi ai loro diritti internazionalmente riconosciuti o per le violazioni del diritto internazionale umanitario. In terzo luogo, si analizzeranno i contributi apportati dai Principi contro l'impunità, in particolare i principi del diritto di sapere, del diritto alla giustizia e del diritto alla riparazione. Quarto luogo: Si descriveranno le caratteristiche generali del riconoscimento dei diritti delle vittime nel Sistema della Corte Penale Internazionale.
cap II: Questo capitolo analizzerà i principi generali che regolano il processo penale internazionale, in particolare quelli a favore delle vittime e degli imputati coinvolti nel processo. Questi principi saranno definiti e spiegati sulla base della giurisprudenza internazionale dei diritti umani, del diritto penale internazionale e della dottrina internazionale. Di conseguenza, saranno trattati come principi per le vittime; l'accesso alla giustizia che tratta il ricorso effettivo contro i gravi crimini perpetrati, che comprendono: il diritto di accedere a un rimedio adeguato e idoneo, il diritto a un ricorso effettivo e il diritto a un ricorso opportuno. Il principio della quarta istanza a favore delle vittime, in particolare l'esame del diritto penale internazionale sulla cosa giudicata fraudolenta l principio dell'adozione di misure di protezione a favore delle vittime di crimini atroci: il principio delle Norme imperative di diritto internazionale generale, jus cogens ed i principi secondo i quali l'imputato deve essere presente nel processo. Allo stesso modo, per sviluppare il processo e come garanzia per gli indagati e imputati e talvolta della vittima, si svilupperanno i principi di: la presunzione di innocenza; il principio di indipendenza e di imparzialità dei giudici; il principio della parità e della ragionevolezza della durata del procedimento; l'uguaglianza delle parti; la pubblicità del procedimento; accesso obbligatorio all' informazione, la confidenzialità e la riservatezza; la durata ragionevole del procedimento e il principio della doppia istanza.
Cap III: Una volta definiti i diritti delle vittime, Carta Internazionale dei diritti delle Vittime di crimini atroci, questo capitolo mira a descrivere le fasi proprie del processo dinanzi alla Corte Internazionale Penale quale massimo esponente del diritto penale internazionale; per questo, la procedura sarà spiegata in modo dettagliato e illustrativo, facendo riferimento alle norme pertinenti degli Statuti e delle regole di procedimento e prova dell'TPIY, dell'TPIR e della Corte Internazionale Penale CPI, nonché alla prassi giuridica dei tribunali penali ad hoc, così come all'influenza degli strumenti e della giurisprudenza dei Tribunali penali internazionali di diritti umani. Pertanto, descriverà il modo di attivazione della Corte da parte di: Gli Stati, il Consiglio di sicurezza, la Procura della CPI, introducendo la partecipazione delle vittime alla trasmissione di informazioni sui reati atroci alla Procura della CPI; così come sitratterà dell'accesso e capacità di azione delle vittime, il diritto di partecipazione al diritto penale internazionale, in particolare dinanzi alla Corte Internazionale Penale, nonché i diritti riconosciuti dallo Statuto di Roma agli indagati e che si trovano in un processo internazionale penale in confronto con gli strumenti relativi ai diritti umani. Dopo di ciò si procederà ad affrontare le varie fasi del processo avviato dalla Corte Internazionale Penale, vale a dire la fase di apertura dell'inchiesta da parte del Procuratore, il principio di complementarità e il test di ammissibilità, le condizioni per l'avvio delle indagini, Lo svolgimento delle indagini e delle indagini da parte del Procuratore della CPI, comprese: la cooperazione giudiziaria degli Stati, la procedura di arresto in attesa di processo, La presentazione dell'atto d'accusa e delle accuse, la procedura preliminare all'udienza. A sua volta si tratterà tutto ciò che riguarda il Processo, vale a dire la presentazione del caso, le norme sulle prove, la delibera, la determinazione della pena, e la procedura di appello o la revisione del processo. Inoltre, questo capitolo mirerà a definire e descrivere le modalità di partecipazione delle vittime all'intero procedimento dinanzi alla Corte Internazionale Penale. Le Corti Internazionali Penali sono state istituite in diversi contesti per indagare e punire crimini gravi; tuttavia, né il Tribunale Penale Internazionale per il Ruanda, né il Tribunale Penale Internazionale per l'ex Iugoslavia e attualmente il Tribunale Penale Internazionale, non sono dotati di forze di polizia che possa operare liberamente nel territorio degli Stati interessati, motivo per cui gli agenti internazionali sono spesso costretti a intervenire per impedire che gli stessi funzionari siano ostacolati, sia per la loro incapacità che per la loro riluttanza, da certe violazioni. Non essendo dotate di un'autorità di polizia, accade spesso che la loro vera funzione sia relegata dagli Stati e non vi sia più azione. È per questo che la sfida particolare nei confronti degli Stati che esplicitamente o tacitamente sono riluttanti a tali ricerche, è quello di trovare la combinazione tra coercizione legale ed estendere un qualche tipo di azione che permetta un'indagine adeguata. Occorre sottolineare che molti degli sviluppi giurisprudenziali e statutari derivanti dall'esperienza dei tribunali per l'ex Iugoslavia e il Ruanda sono stati inseriti nello Statuto e nelle regole della Corte Internazionale Penale. Nella pratica, tuttavia, esistono differenze importanti che spesso riflettono i diversi contesti di ciascuna situazione. È importante notare che l'innovazione apportata dallo Statuto che è rilevante per le vittime può essere analizzata su tre aspetti specifici: 1. La Protezione, che è stata trattata nel capitolo precedente, 2. La Partecipazione, che sarà trattata nel presente capitolo, e 3. La riparazione o Risarcimento che sarà trattata nel capitolo III. D'altro canto, nonostante il fatto che, in questo secolo, il movimento per i diritti umani abbia significato per molte persone una lotta contro l'impunità, è stato anche espresso in modo contraddittorio, poiché, mentre ha rafforzato la responsabilità penale di coloro che li hanno violati, ha significato anche l'emanazione di molte leggi di amnistia opposte che potrebbero ostacolare tale responsabilità . In relazione alla conclusione del capitolo sui rimedi efficaci, numerose organizzazioni per i diritti umani e autorità giudiziarie sono giunte alla conclusione che gli Stati sono responsabili di indagare, perseguire e punire penalmente le persone che commettono crimini di guerra, crimini contro l'umanità e genocidio, nell'ambito delle molteplici violazioni dei diritti umani che possono verificarsi. Di conseguenza, il fatto che uno Stato venga meno ai propri doveri implica una violazione del diritto internazionale dei Diritti Umani. Inoltre, questo movimento ha portato come conseguenza l’aumento della lotta contro l'impunità, in quanto la responsabilità è considerata una caratteristica importante nella risoluzione dei conflitti
Cap IV: Questo capitolo svilupperà il diritto internazionalmente riconosciuto al risarcimento e le forme di risarcimento previste dal diritto penale internazionale a favore delle vittime di crimini atroci su base individuale e collettivamente, spiegando a tal fine che per risarcimento si deve intendere la giurisprudenza e i principi elaborati dalla Corte penale internazionale e da altri organismi che hanno affrontato questo concetto. A sua volta si spiegherà il fondo fiduciario a favore delle vittime, modello sussidiario al risarcimento diretto che si decreta contro l'autore di crimini atroci, ma che segna una pietra miliare nel diritto penale internazionale moderno e dimostra con la sua adozione una posizione di Stati di compassione e di solidarietà verso le persone che hanno sofferto sofferenze indicibili. Nel corso di questo capitolo si farà inoltre riferimento alle sentenze della Corte penale internazionale e al modo in cui si sono svolte le varie riparazioni ordinate a favore delle vittime.
Cap V: Dopo aver spiegato come per il diritto internazionale, le vittime possono contare su diritti unici e obblighi a carico degli Stati e dei Tribunali Internacionali dei Deritti Umani e Penali Internacionali, Carte Fondamentali delle Vittime; che esistono principi che guidano i procedimenti nel diritto penale internazionale e che, in particolare ce ne sono di fondamentali per le vittime, le persone indagate e / o accusate e in generale per garantire un processo giusto ed equo; Che il diritto internazionale moderno, attraverso la Corte Penale Internazionale, riflette nelle sue procedure i diritti delle vittime di partecipare al processo e di ricevere un'adeguata riparazione individuale e collettiva, questo è il consolidamento della giurisprudenza delle corti internazionali per i diritti umani a favore delle vittime. A sua volta è spiegato come questa riparazione è stabilita e come le vittime possono accedere al ripristino o alla riparazione dei loro diritti direttamente o attraverso un fondo fiduciario proprio della Corte Penale Internazionale. Il presente capitolo ha lo scopo di riaffermare gli interessi e gli obiettivi comuni dell'Umanità di giustizia contro i perpetratori di crimini atroci, cioè perseguire, giudicare e condannare i responsabili. Vale a dire riaffermare il valore della non impunità di fronte a crimini gravi. Secondo il fatto che amnistie e indulti, perdoni amnesici, etc. possono essere riproposti nel mondo nel quadro della giustizia di transizione non autentica o difettosa. Che cercheranno di sottrarre la persona responsabile dalle conseguenze criminali stabilite a livello internazionale.. Ecco perché è stato discusso nel capitolo II di questa tesi, oltre all'importanza del concetto della Quarta Istanza a favore delle vittime e della cosa giudicata fraudolenta per l'attivazione della giurisdizione della Corte penale internazionale. In questo capitolo si cercherà di trattare l'impegno del l'intera comunità internazionale per la repressione penale dei crimini più gravi di rilevanza internazionale, la messa al bando dell'impunità nel diritto penale internazionale, l'esigenza di una pena privativa della libertà per crimini atroci per il diritto penale internazionale, il principio del diritto alla giustizia per il diritto penale internazionale, i parametri per l'imposizione di pene detentive per il diritto penale internazionale, il divieto di amnistia o indulto per crimini atroci e la giurisprudenza internazionale dei tribunali per i diritti dell'uomo che sancisce la pena detentiva per crimini atroci.
Cap VI: Nell'accordo concluso tra lo Stato della Colombia e il gruppo delle Farc, è stata istituita una giustizia transizionale, che in ogni caso sostituisce la giurisdizione penale della Colombia, le pene previste e le rispettive procedure, denominata “Giurisdizione per la pace e/o Sistema Integrale di Verità, Giustizia, Riparazione e Non Ripetizione, di seguito il SIVJRNR. La presente analisi comparativa sarà effettuata esclusivamente tra le norme internazionali del diritto penale internazionale e del diritto internazionale dei diritti dell'uomo e la giurisprudenza dei loro tribunali trattati nei capitoli precedenti, rispetto all'accordo concluso tra le parti, lo Stato della Colombia e il gruppo delle Farc, denominato: accordo 5, sulle Vittime del Conflitto: “Sistema Integrale di Verità, Giustizia, Riparazione e Non Ripetizione”. Questo perché tale accordo avrà un impatto diretto sulla legislazione nazionale della Colombia per la sua attuazione. Tuttavia, non mi soffermerò sul modo in cui è stato attuato a livello interno. Tale accordo tra il gruppo insurrezionale e lo Stato annunciava che il risarcimento delle vittime è al centro dell'Accordo tra il Governo Nazionale e le FARC-EP. In tal senso, in seno al Tavolo delle Trattative dell'Avana, si è discusso e raggiunto un accordo sul punto 5 dell'Agenda “Vittime” che comprende i seguenti punti: 1. Diritti umani delle vittime e 2. Verità, cercando di dare contenuti che soddisfino le rivendicazioni di coloro che sono stati colpiti dal lungo confronto sulla cui soluzione politica oggi, mediante questi nuovi consensi e importanti misure e accordi di disarmo, si è compiuto un passo fondamentale verso la costruzione di una pace stabile e duratura e la fine di una guerra di più di mezzo secolo che ha dissanguato il paese” Con il presente capitolo e sulla base dei precedenti si intende dimostrare che l'accordo concluso tra le parti non è conforme a quanto stabilito a livello di diritto penale internazionale e di diritto internazionale dei diritti umani.

American jurisprudence currently applies two incompatible validity standards to determine which laws are enforceable. The natural law tradition evaluates validity by an uncertain standard of divine law, and its methodology relies on contradictory views of human reason. Legal positivism, on the other hand, relies on a methodology that commits the analytic fallacy, separates law from its application, and produces an incomplete model of law. These incompatible standards have created a schism in American jurisprudence that impairs the delivery of justice. This dissertation therefore formulates a new standard for legal validity. This new standard rejects the uncertainties and inconsistencies inherent in natural law theory. It also rejects the narrow linguistic methodology of legal positivism. In their stead, this dissertation adopts a pragmatic methodology that develops a standard for legal validity based on actual legal experience. This approach focuses on the operations of law and its effects upon ongoing human activities, and it evaluates legal principles by applying the experimental method to the social consequences they produce. Because legal history provides a long record of past experimentation with legal principles, legal history is an essential feature of this method. This new validity standard contains three principles. The principle of reason requires legal systems to respect every subject as a rational creature with a free will. The principle of reason also requires procedural due process to protect against the punishment of the innocent and the tyranny of the majority. Legal systems that respect their subjects' status as rational creatures with free wills permit their subjects to orient their own behavior. The principle of reason therefore requires substantive due process to ensure that laws provide dependable guideposts to individuals in orienting their behavior. The principle of consent recognizes that the legitimacy of law derives from the consent of those subject to its power. Common law custom, the doctrine of stare decisis, and legislation sanctioned by the subjects' legitimate representatives all evidence consent. The principle of autonomy establishes the authority of law. Laws must wield supremacy over political rulers, and political rulers must be subject to the same laws as other citizens. Political rulers may not arbitrarily alter the law to accord to their will. Legal history demonstrates that, in the absence of a validity standard based on these principles, legal systems will not treat their subjects as ends in themselves. They will inevitably treat their subjects as mere means to other ends. Once laws do this, men have no rest from evil.