Dissertationen zum Thema „Lombok (Indonesia)“

Entrepreneurship has been suggested as an ideal means to stimulate host community participation in tourism development, particularly in developing countries (Hampton, 2005; Tosun, 2006). The growing literature on entrepreneurship and tourism includes relatively few studies that empirically explore and identify the entrepreneurial process in tourism. While stimulating the emergence of indigenous tourism entrepreneurs requires an understanding of the entrepreneurial process, the entrepreneurial process in tourism remains unclear, due to the lack of research on the phenomenon (Koh, 2006). The current study, therefore, sought to provide insights into entrepreneurial process in the tourism industry, the context in which the process occurs, and the entrepreneurial strategies that support the process, especially from an indigenous entrepreneur’s perspective. The study was conducted in five tourist destinations on Lombok Island, Indonesia. Twenty-eight host community members, twenty-one owner-managers of small tourism enterprises and seven other tourism stakeholders, were selected as research participants, and were engaged in the crystallisation process throughout the study. Observation was made in the twenty-one enterprises.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Griffith Business School
Griffith Business School
Full Text

Deforestation is a serious problem in Indonesia as a result of forest concessions that were granted by the government to private companies. The forest destruction was also caused by the encroachment by villagers during the political chaos and lack of law enforcement following the collapse of the New Order regime in 1998. In Lombok, villagers entered forests around their village, logged the trees and occupied the forests to plant fruit trees. As a response to this encroachment, the Indonesian government encouraged local participation by involving communities in forest management, which eventually developed into a community forestry management scheme. However, improper management by the forest farmers has generated negative externalities, primarily a reduction in the quantity and quality of water supply produced from the forest. To address the negative externalities problem, the local government in West Lombok developed a system of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES). Importantly, the PES program in West Lombok was integrated with the Community Forestry program, designed for forest conservation and poverty alleviation. This study investigates the impact of the integrated Community Forestry and PES programs on local forest conservation and socio-economic improvement. The study utilises “participatory econometrics” as a mixed quantitative and qualitative research method. The research included in-depth interviews, field visits, surveys, a focus group discussion and aerial photo analysis. This thesis found that the PES program in West Lombok is a hybrid system that combines Coasean and Pigouvian theory. In conjunction with the Community Forestry program, the PES program could produce a sustainable outcome in the long term. This is confirmed by empirical evidence, as integrated PES and the Community Forestry program accommodates local needs, and can be used as a tool for forest conservation and the improvement of socio-economic conditions in the long term. Keywords: Community forestry, Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES), Forest conservation, Poverty alleviation.

Bibliography: leaves 146-153. This thesis analyses factors influencing farmers use of groundwater pump irrigation in Lombok, Indonesia. It aims to identify the determinants of the speed of technology adoption, to identify factors affecting the levels of water use and to estimate the state of water use by comparing the actual water use to the estimated optimal water use.

Rabies, a zoonotic disease, is maintained in the domestic dog population in Indonesia and has caused human fatalities since its introduction to this country in the 1880s. Although rabies control strategies have been implemented on rabies-infected islands, this disease is still spreading to other parts of Indonesia, with newly infected islands as recent as 2012. Live dog movement on fishing or cargo boats is believed to have facilitated the introduction of rabies virus into previously rabies-free islands in Indonesia, such as to Bali and Flores. Until today, of the total 33 provinces, only nine provinces remain rabies-free including Lombok Island in West Nusa Tenggara (NTB) Province. This research was conducted from 2011 to 2013 to investigate pathways for rabies entry to Lombok Island via dog movement and to assess the probability of rabies entry and exposure to the susceptible dog population on Lombok. Further, this research aimed to provide knowledge of the pathways and probability of rabies entry to Lombok in order to inform development of quarantine and surveillance strategies to prevent rabies entry and establishment on Lombok. Pathways for rabies entry to Lombok were first defined based on the literature and then refined and prioritised based on expert opinion. After this process, two pathways of release of a rabiesinfected dog were identified: boat and ferry pathways. Scenario trees were developed for each pathway to describe the release of a rabies-infected dog to Lombok, as well as scenario trees to describe the exposure of a rabies-infected dog to the susceptible dog population on Lombok. Four surveys were conducted on Bali and Lombok islands to obtain data used to refine the pathways and to inform the release and exposure models. The first survey obtained data on dog numbers and dog management practices of dog owning households belonging to different ethnic groups at an urban site and a rural site on Lombok. A total of 400 households were interviewed, 300 at the urban site and 100 at the rural site. The majority of the interviewed households belonged to Balinese ethnic group. Sasakese households owning dogs were more frequent at the rural site compared to the urban site. Owning dogs born on Lombok was common (96% households), however, 4% of households reported owning dogs obtained from outside Lombok (Bali and Java). The latter was more common at the urban site and among Balinese ethnic group. All households that reported imported dogs mentionedtransporting the dog/s in a vehicle by ferry from Padang Bai harbour Bali to Lembar harbour Lombok. All these households also reported that the imported dogs did not have the documentation required by the quarantine agency and 11 reported that the imported dogs had been vaccinated but were not able to identify the type of vaccination. The dog owning households kept their dogs either fully restricted, semifree roaming or free-roaming but full restriction was reported only at the urban site. Dog bite cases were reported to be higher at the urban site. For the second survey, to investigate dog transportation on boats docking on Lombok, interviews were conducted with captains of boats that originated from other parts of Indonesia and of local Lombok boats at seven informal ports (no quarantine post). Over three consecutive days at each port, a total of 117 captains of outside boats and 52 captains of local boats were interviewed. This survey found that dogs are not common on boats. All of the captains interviewed, except one captain from Bali, reported never having a dog on board their boat. More than half (61.5%) of the captains of outside boats knew that rabies is transmitted to people through dog bites compared to only 7.7% of captains of local boats. Dog observation was also conducted during the survey visits to these ports to document the presence of dogs on boats, and the presence of dogs and interactions between people and dogs at the port area. No dogs were seen on boats, which confirmed the finding of the boat captain survey. To further investigate the role of illegal dog movement through ferry route, the thirdsurvey interviewed people travelling with a vehicle to Lombok by ferry from Padang Bai Bali. Interviews were conducted at Padang Bai harbour over ten days and 158 people were interviewed. The people interviewed consisted of Lombok residents (51.3%) and non-residents (48.7%); 10.8 % of which reported experience bringing dogs to Lombok. All of the 21 imported dogs were pedigree dogs; majority were male; and all had originated from Bali, Jakarta or West Java. Although these dogs were transported in several types of vehicles, the majority had been transported in a truck. Transportation for most of these dogs (14) was done at the request of dog owners living in Lombok and payment provided by the dog owners. Only two dogs werereported to have been vaccinated against rabies. None of the people who had transported these imported dogs reported the dogs undergoing quarantine inspection at either Padang Bai harbour or Lembar harbour Lombok. A fourth survey was undertaken to estimate the number of unowned dogs at the urban and rural sites on Lombok where the household survey was conducted. A photographic-recapture method was employed and the number of unowned dog was estimated using a Chapman estimate from Beck (1973). A higher number of unowned dogs was observed at the urban site than at the rural site. Information obtained from the surveys was incorporated into the risk assessment models to quantify the probability of that one rabies-infected dog is released at Lombok via boat and ferry pathway and the probability of a susceptible dog at the informal port, urban site and rural site becoming infected with rabies virus after the release of a rabies-infected dog via the boat and ferry pathway. Data from published literature and expert opinion were also utilised. Monte Carlo stochastic simulation modelling was performed with @Risk 6.0 (Palisade Corporation, USA). Each simulation consisted of 5,000 iterations sampled using the Latin hypercube method with a fixed random seed of one. Sensitivity analysis was also conducted to identify which input parameters were the most influential to the overall outputs of the release and exposure assessment models. This was performed using the @Risk 6.0 Advanced Sensitivity Analysis (Palisade Corporation, USA). Based on the results of this study, the probability of rabies being introduced into Lombok via both boat and ferry pathways was very low. However, these estimates were not negligible and to estimate the overall risk of virus introduction into Lombok for a specific period of time, the total number of boats, ferries and passengers in eachferry coming into Lombok should be considered. The sensitivity analyses for the release assessments indicate that the prevalence of rabies in Bali has a significant influence on the probability of rabies virus being introduced into Lombok. The presence of dogs on boats travelling to Lombok and the probability of ferry passengers bringing dogs to Lombok were also influential parameters. The exposure assessments suggest that the overall median probability of a rabid dog released in Lombok exposing and infecting a susceptible dog in Lombok was low. This probability was similar for a rabid dog being released at an informal Lombok port and for a rabid dog released by a person travelling in a ferry that resided in rural/urban Lombok. These results suggest that the probability of exposure is not negligible. The probability of the rabid dog confinement was an influential parameter on the probability of susceptible dogs in Lombok being exposed. These findings have provided information on pathways and probability forto Lombok and for rabies exposure to the susceptible dog population on Lombok. The practice of illegal dog movement via the ferry route can now be addressed to prevent rabies entry to Lombok, through rabies control at source (that is, on rabies-infected islands); improvement of performance of the quarantine agency ; and through education about rabies for the general public and dog owners as well as for animal health and public health officials. Preventing establishment in the event of rabies incursion through early disease detection and preparedness planning is also important. Early disease detection includes animal disease surveillance and monitoring the level of human dog bite cases. Preparedness can include responsible dog ownership that incorporates dog registration and identification, dog vaccination, neutering and confinement; dog population control through a better waste collection and disposal system by government agencies to reduce food sources for roaming dogs; and dog rabies vaccination for Lombok. In particular vaccination in advance of an incursion deserves serious consideration because it can create a barrier to prevent rabies transmission to people.

ABSTRACT Seagrass beds, mangrove forests and coral reefs as a part of marine environments play an important role in the coastal regions. These environments support the coastal communities by providing resources such as food and income. For many years, marine environments have been facing destruction the majority of which is caused by human impact. The lack of knowledge of how to use and manage the marine resources wisely and sustainably is one reason why marine environments are still facing degradation. Primary school children who live in two coastal villages in Lombok Island, Indonesia were questioned about their conceptual understanding of their local marine environments and their ideas about sustainability in these environments. Using an interpretive methodology framework, children and their teachers from Grades 5 and 6 in two primary schools in coastal villages, and elders in the villages were studied and. The data gathered from the children through questionnaires and interviews, and from teachers and elders through interviews. Quantitative and qualitative analysis was used to analyse this data. The children's experiences in their marine environment appear to have strong connection with their knowledge. Their knowledge also developed by interaction with the people in the communities. Children value their local marine environment as a place that provides food for them and their parents teach them to respect it. Long traditions such as dumping waste in the beach or sea has an impact on children from fishing families and creates a contradiction between the positive values they have and negative attitudes they act on. The children are not taught environmental education in the schools since it is not a compulsory subject and teachers lack knowledge about the marine environment. Teachers and elders feel the importance of teaching about the marine environment to their children to give them the knowledge and ability to use the marine resources in sustainable way. For children who are a part of coastal communities, learning about their local marine environment should be made a priority to so they have basic knowledge and understanding in using the marine environment in sustainable ways. Marine environmental education should not only educate children in formal school but also educate people in the communities. The coastal communities as a whole should be working together to achieve the aims of education and conservation. Additionally, the school as a whole needs to support the implementation of marine environmental education.

付記する学位プログラム名: グローバル生存学大学院連携プログラム
Kyoto University (京都大学)
0048
新制・課程博士
博士(工学)
甲第21058号
工博第4422号
新制||工||1687(附属図書館)
京都大学大学院工学研究科社会基盤工学専攻
(主査)教授 寶 馨, 教授 堀 智晴, 准教授 佐山 敬洋
学位規則第4条第1項該当

This Master’s thesis focuses on educational challenges in a small island community, that is Gili Asahan village in Lombok, Indonesia. The idea for this study emerged from a voluntary organization called Kelas Inspirasi, which has an initiative to send volunteer teachers to overcome the lack of teaching staff on the island. The challenges found during the case study did not concern only the lack of teacher’s presence but also teaching in the multi-grade class setting as well as challenges in school’s facilities and infrastructure and furthermore, the influence of the rural community on schooling. After the researcher discovered the educational challenges of in this small island community, she set out to find possible solutions to overcome these issues. The research is based on a case study. The researcher observed the location in its natural setting collecting the data of all daily activities inside and outside the classroom, making field notes. Hence, she was both a participant researcher and a voluntary teacher of a multi-grade class in the local primary school. The data was analyzed through explanation building by reflecting on the theoretical proposition as a connection link to the real event. Through the iterative process, the researcher was trying to compare findings and propositions, integrating the context and adding additional details until she gets the holistic and comprehensive analysis to understand the issue. According to the findings, in this kind of remote and isolated islands, multi-grade classes are a necessity. The sparse population and difficult geographic conditions lead to difficulties in hiring more than one teacher. In this village, there were only 20 students enrolled in the primary school with grades 1, 2, and 4. The teacher-researcher was not prepared to teach in the multi-grade setting, so managing the classroom became oftentimes very challenging. Students were not properly engaged in the schooling process, they experienced neither sense of belonging nor autonomy in the classroom. Understandably, this led to students’ low study motivation as they became passive receivers, with the unfortunate outcome of future failure in schooling. While, the role of the community in the formal schooling process is not active and encouraging, the school merely becomes a place to entrust the children when parents go to work. The researcher argues that in spite of some disadvantages, multi-grade classes have a potential to support Education for All, even in remote and isolated locations. However, teachers’ preparation in the multi-grade settings should start already in teacher training. The knowledge of multi-grade teaching could wane mismanagement in the classroom environment, overcome the limited resources, and maximize teacher’s presence to support active learners. The cooperation between community and school should be addressed to promote the “pedagogy of place” concept where teachers could design lessons according to children’s daily life in small island communities.

La caldera du volcan Rinjani contient un lac d’un volume de 1 km³ qui est probablement le plus grand lac volcanique au monde présentant une anomalie thermique nette. Ce lac présente une composition neutre chlorure sulfate bicarbonate inhabituelle pour les lacs volcaniques. Sa TDS (2600 mg/l) et conductivité (3500µs/cm) élevées indiquent un apport de fluides hydrothermaux très important. Enfin, son alcalinité élevée (520 mg/l), indique un apport important de dioxyde de carbone dans le lac.

Les sources thermales situées autour du Gunung Baru (cône volcanique situé dans la caldera) ont une composition chimique en éléments majeurs et une composition isotopique proche de celles du lac volcanique indiquant qu’elles sont essentiellement le résultat du recyclage du lac par le système hydrothermal. Les variations de compositions entre les différentes sources ont permis de montrer que leurs compositions est le résultat du mélange entre un fluide hydrothermal profond de composition neutre chlorure, dont la température a été estimée à 270°C, et d’un fluide plus superficiel riche en magnésium et en sulfate.

Le flux de dioxyde de carbone à la surface du lac a été estimé à l’aide de la méthode de la chambre d’accumulation et par calcul à environ 2300 t/j, ce qui représente un apport significatif de gaz. Cependant, comme le lac présente une structure polymictique, le risque d’accumulation de dioxyde de carbone en profondeur et donc d’éruption limnique peut être exclus.

Pour la première fois dans cette thèse, le modèle d’estimation des flux thermiques émis par les lacs volcaniques mis au point par Stevenson (1992) a été contraint par des mesures des paramètres météorologiques mesurés en continu, ce qui a permis de valider le modèle. De plus, nous avons pu montrer que l’essentiel des variations de températures des lacs volcaniques est dû à des variations météorologiques. En utilisant le flux thermique plutôt que la température, il est dès lors possible d’avoir accès à des variations de l’activité volcanique.

Le flux thermique estimé pour le lac du Rinjani est de 1700 MW, ce qui représente le flux le plus élevé jamais mesuré sur un lac volcanique aérien. Ce flux thermique est aussi plus élevé que le flux thermique mesuré sur des lacs de lave à 800°C. Ce paradoxe apparent s’explique par la plus grande dimension des lacs volcaniques, la capacité calorifique de l’eau quatre fois plus importante que celle du magma et la viscosité de l’eau 1 million de fois inférieure, ce qui fait de l’eau un excellent fluide caloporteur pour transporter les calories vers la surface.

Doctorat en Sciences
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

This study was designed to evaluate various sources of disease data to determine those diseases affecting livestock (cattle, chickens, goats and pigs) on the islands of Bali and Lombok, Indonesia. A retrospective study was conducted comparing data collected from eight Poskeswans (Animal Health Posts), the Provincial Government Livestock Service (PGLS), and two laboratories (the provincial Disease Investigation Centre (DIC) in Bali and a smaller type B laboratory in Lombok). An abattoir survey was undertaken to identify the subclinical and parasitic diseases of cattle and pigs. Farmers from two villages were interviewed to determine routine management and husbandry procedures adopted. The relative importance of diseases in each of the data sources was determined by calculating proportional disease rates. Parasitic infections (helminthiasis, fascioliasis and coccidiosis) were the most common diseases of cattle, diagnosed in 21.8% of animals examined by field veterinarians, 18.3% of all submissions to the DIC and 9.7% of specimens submitted to the type B laboratory. Over half (57.4%) of the cattle examined at the abattoir were infected with gastrointestinal parasites, and cattle infected with Fasciola spp. were 2.7 times more likely to be in poor body condition than non-infected animals. Gastrointestinal parasites were also identified as major diseases in pigs and goats being diagnosed in 26.3% and 69.1% of submissions to the DIC, respectively. Over half (55%) of pigs examined at the abattoir showed previous evidence of infection with Ascaris suum and 39.7% had current parasitic infections. Although parasitic diseases were frequently diagnosed in cattle, pigs and goats, infectious diseases, such as Newcastle disease and infectious bursal disease, were diagnosed more commonly in chickens. Similarly the diseases recorded by the PGLS were primarily infectious in nature, and included diseases with the potential for high morbidity and mortality such as haemorrhagic septicaemia, bovine ephemeral fever and Newcastle disease. These diseases were less frequently reported in the field than other clinical and subclinical diseases. Gastrointestinal parasitism was not included in the diseases reported by the PGLS. Diseases diagnosed by the DIG generally required more technical input, such as involving serology, microbiology or detection of histopathological changes, than those identified by the staff of the type B laboratory. Many of the diseases commonly diagnosed by the type B laboratory were based on the presenting clinical signs described by the submitter. Diagnoses made by field veterinarians primarily relied on the presenting clinical signs, and those made at the abattoir were made based on the presence of pathognomonic pathological lesions or the detection of parasites. The livestock management and husbandry practices adopted by farmers in a village in Bali were different to those from a village in Lombok. Farmers from Bali were more likely to adopt disease control procedures and use the service of veterinarians than farmers from Lombok. More farmers from Bali reported sick goats and pigs, while sick cattle and chickens were more common in Lombok. Most clinical signs recognised by farmers were non-specific and the specific diseases affecting livestock in the villages could not be identified. It is concluded that data which is currently available, and data which can be easily collected from abattoirs, can be used to study the epidemiology of livestock diseases in Indonesia; however the accuracy of the diagnoses and the biases in the data sources must be carefully evaluated. Inclusion of data on the population at risk and host characteristics would significantly improve the value of this data. Parasitic diseases were recognised as important problems of livestock in Bali and Lombok, and these diseases are likely to have a greater impact on the animals’ productivity than are infectious diseases.

Lombok is an island in Indonesia located next to, and slightly smaller than Bali. The tropical island has the potential tobecome “the next Bali” in terms of tourism and is like many other developing countries, suffering from inadequate solid waste management, as of 2020 only managing 20% of its waste. The aim of this report is to map the current situation regarding the solid waste management system, present business opportunities within plastic recycling, present challenges and recommend future steps. A literature review is conducted to give a better understanding of waste treatment methods, waste management in developing countries, the demand of recycled plastics, and foreign direct investments in Indonesia. To map the current waste management situation, a field study is conducted with multiple visits to waste management facilities, and interviews with members of Lombok’s Zero Waste Program. The different aspects of Lombok’s waste management supply chain are explained and other important factors regarding the situation. The mapping is sufficient to serve as an overview and background information for organizations within the field, potential investors, further research, and for our recommendations. The report also contains a case study of a recycling business and a case study of Lombok’s largest landfill. Plastic recycling businesses are in need of expansion and financing from both the public and private sectors. An important finding is that profitable plastic recycling businesses already exist on Lombok, plastic recycling is otherwise often seen as a cost burden. Business and investment opportunities in plastic recycling on Lombok are therefore presented to highlight the fact that plastic recycling can be profitable and economically sustainable. Recommendations to increase the efficiency of current recycling procedures are also presented. If Lombok is going to be able to manage all of its waste, it needs more facilities, and there are many choices of waste treatment methods. Our recommendations for the near future are the following: build a new landfill with proper treatment techniques and an incineration plant to reduce the amount of waste being dumped on landfills, and continue to develop infrastructure for composting and plastic recycling. Composting and plastic recycling are the most sustainable alternatives in the long term, with the aim to reduce the amount of waste being dumped on the landfill or incinerated. Awareness about waste management and financing are two of the major challenges to achieve the short and long term recommendations.
Lombok är en ö i Indonesien belägen bredvid och något mindre än Bali. Den tropiska ön har potential att bli “nästaBali” när det gäller turism och lider av otillräcklig avfallshantering likt många andra utvecklingsländer. I dagsläget, år 2020, hanterar man endast 20% av mängden avfall. Syftet med denna rapport är att kartlägga den nuvarande avfallshanteringen, rekommendera framtida steg och presentera affärsmöjligheter inom plaståtervinning. En litteraturstudie genomförs för att ge förståelse för de vanligaste avfallshanterings-metoderna, avfallshantering i utvecklingsländer, efterfrågan på återvunnen plast och utländska direktinvesteringar i Indonesien. För att kartlägga avfallshanteringen genomförs en fältstudie med besök på flera avfallshanteringsanläggningar och intervjuer med medlemmarna i Lomboks Zero Waste Program. De olika delarna av Lomboks avfallshantering presenteras samt andra relevanta faktorer. Kartläggningen är tillräcklig för att användas av organisationer inom avfallshantering, potentiella investerare, vidare forskning samt för rapportens rekommendationer. Rapporten innehåller också en fallstudie av ett återvinningsföretag och en fallstudie av Lomboks största soptipp. Det finns ett behov och marknad för plaståtervinning på ön, där det krävs ytterligare finansiering från offentlig och privat sektor. En viktigt upptäckt är att det redan finns lönsamma företag inom plaståtervinning på Lombok, i kontrast till att plaståtervinning annars ofta ses som en kostnad. Därför presenteras affärs- och investeringsmöjligheter inom plaståtervinning på Lombok för att lyfta fram att det kan vara lönsamt och ekonomiskt hållbart. Rekommendationer för att öka effektiviteten i den nuvarande återvinningen presenteras också. För att Lombok ska kunna hantera allt producerat avfall behövs fler avfallsanläggningar, där det finns olika tekniker att välja mellan. Våra rekommendationer på kort sikt är följande: byggnation av en ny soptipp med ordentligt reningssystem för lakvatten och gasinsamling, en förbränningsanläggning för att minska mängden avfall som deponeras på soptippen och att fortsätta utveckla infrastruktur för kompostering och plaståtervinning. Kompostering och plaståtervinning är de mest hållbara alternativen på lång sikt, med målet att minska avfallsvolymen på soptippar eller det avfall som förbränns. Medvetenhet om avfall och finansiering är två stora utmaningar för att nå de kort- och långsiktiga rekommendationerna.

[Abstract]: Indonesia decentralized its education system in January 2001 requiring all schools to become self managing at their local level. Training was put in place to assist schools with tasks that would facilitate this process such as writing School Development Plans and establishing the newly mandated School Committees. However no specific plans emerged to provide schools with training in educational leadership. Understandingand practising leadership goes hand in hand with understanding the nuances of decentralization. A different style of leadership is required to make sense of decentralization, a style of leadership that does not rely upon top-down authority but instead shares leadership across the school community and encourages leadership to emanate from below. In 2004 a leadership training project was undertaken in three rural school communities in Central Lombok. Its purpose was to consider the emergence of new leadership practices when schools are given the opportunity to be involved in leadership training across a six month period. The leadership training project was attached to a current Aid project to gauge the appropriateness of including a leadership training program in future Aid projects. Within Indonesia Aid projects from a range of international donors are a frequent source of enhancing physical and teaching and learning environments in schools. The leadership training project commenced with a two day live in workshop followed by six months in-school experience, which involved school and individual projects to practise leadership. The design included six-weekly site visits and all participants maintained a weekly reflective journal. The data collected was presented in the form of case studies of each of the three schools, which were subsequently used to inform a Report presented tothe Indonesian Ministry of National Education. Findings presented in this Report affirm that a leadership training program of this nature does provide a valuable way forward through training in school leadership practices that allow school communities to effectively work within a school based management environment. This Report recommended that the trialled leadership training program would be a valuable inclusion in future educational AID projects throughout Indonesia.ii

This thesis explores the question of why health development, indicated by a reduction in maternal and infant mortality rates, has been relatively slow in the district of East Lombok, in the province of Nusa Tenggara Barat, Indonesia. It describes the political, economic, social and cultural character of Sasak village life, and the historical and wider politico-economic context in which it is embedded. The thesis fulfils the requirements of the emerging field of critical medical anthropology, paying attention not only to culture, but also to political economy; not only at the local (or micro) level, but also at the macro and intermediary levels. The objective of part one is to offer a broad analysis which demonstrates the local, regional and national political and economic constraints upon reducing maternal and infant mortality rates in rural East Lombok. Part two critically examines international and national health development discourses, which, it is argued, depoliticise the issue of health inequalities, and represent local people as sole cause of their poor health status. It also discusses the political effects of the process of medicalisation. This thesis is based on ethnographic research, the focus of which is the interface between rural Sasak women and local government health staff, who deliver medical interventions through the national family planning and primary health care programmes. At the local level economic, political, social and cultural factors determine the everyday decisions women make about where and when to seek preventative and curative treatment for themselves and their infants. It is at this local level that the disjuncture between Sasak theories of illness causation and healing practices, and those of biomedicine which inform the policies and interventions of government health development planners, are revealed. Similarly, it is at this level that the disjuncture between the planned and the actual quality and quantity of health interventions delivered can be observed. Part three of the thesis describes the specific effects of these disjunctures in limiting the impact of health development interventions in reducing maternal and infant mortality in rural East Lombok.

Despite the contribution that agriculture makes to the Indonesian Gross Domestic Product, the income of small subsistence farmers continues to fall. While many development activities and policies have been implemented to reduce the gap in income between farmers and non-farmers, the situation remains unchanged. In part this is because the majority of research has focused on improving production rather than addressing the social and economic aspects of farming and its supply chains. Very few approaches have adopted a holistic systems approach. This study examines holistically the agri-food supply chains of dryland farmers of Lombok, in eastern Indonesia, using a pluralistic approach. The objective of this study was to investigate the utility of developing a pluralistic model which combined the benefits of SSM with hard systems approaches like statistical and technical efficiency analyses and test this approach on the agri-food supply chains of dryland farmers of Lombok, in eastern Indonesia.Agribusiness is a complex social system both to understand and to manage but is also driven heavily by the need to produce efficiently for a market. This means that solving problems within such systems requires the melding of both the qualitative and quantitative aspects in a pluralistic way. The research presented here combines an interpretative research approach the Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) with hard systems tools like descriptive and inferential statistical analyses, and technical efficiency analysis.The SSM analysis was successful in identifying a feasible pathway for change for the agri-food supply chains studied. The key benefits of adopting this approach was its ability to produce realistic and feasible solutions in a culturally acceptable way and to unconsciously help the supply chain members to understand, look at, think, analyse and solve their problems through collaborative action. It is however, a complex tool to use and there is a need to develop a simplified SSM approach which significantly reduces the sophisticated systems jargon and technical terms that have been developed by the SSM research community if it is to be adopted more widely for use in solving agri-food supply chain problems in developing countries.The farm productivity analysis found significant variations in the technical efficiency of the farms analyzed; from 47.6 to 94.5 per cent, indicating that there is still significant opportunity for improvements in production practices. Age and education were found to significantly affect farm-specific technical efficiency suggesting that programs that educated the rural young generally, but more specifically in new innovations and farm management practices, would show production efficiency benefits.An analysis of the marketing system revealed that a number of market intermediaries were involved in the marketing and distribution of agricultural commodities. Market intermediaries arrange for the collection, consolidation and subsequent transport of the product and to varying degrees, with the sorting, grading and packing of the product to better fulfill downstream customers’ needs. Quality at the farm gate was problematic, for much of the product is sold under the tebasan system where there are few incentives for quality and farmers face difficulties in disposing of product which fails to meet customers’ expectations. As the quality of the product deteriorates as it moves down the supply chain, the marketing margin increases to cover the increasing losses, and the uncertainty of price inherent in highly volatile commodity markets. In order to reduce risk, farmers and downstream market intermediaries prefer to transact with those exchange partners with whom they have developed long-term relationships. However, in the absence of reliable market information and the propensity for actors to sell to whichever market intermediary offers the highest price, little trust is evident in the exchange. As the geographic distance between actors increase, relationships down the supply chain become increasingly less personal and more businesslike.This study resulted in a new pluralistic model for analyzing the agribusiness supply chain of Lombok referred to as the Lombok Method (LM). This pluralistic approach was found to be a more effective way to analyse and design solutions than SSM alone for the following reasons. First, the inclusion of hard system analysis enhanced the robustness of the model produced which in turn means it can be validated and challenged. Secondly, hard systems approaches were used to verify the findings of the SSM and also provide feedback into the SSM. Finally, the SSM was able to bring the experience of the participants to the interpretation of the hard system analysis.While the model was successful in providing some solutions to the problems experienced in the supply chains, the research also highlighted the need to do further studies that 1) identify the nature and scale of market failure, 2) apply optimization techniques to supply chain systems and 3) identify a means of including external variables like climate in the model. There may also be a role for modeling the relationships between supply chain participants using structural equation modeling (SEM) or causal loop diagrams (CLD). With a focus on SSM there is a need to develop a simplified approach for use in developing countries and establishing standards for the conduct of human interaction in the SSM process.

En tant qu'événement parmi les plus puissants de l'histoire éruptive récente de Lombok, les matériaux volcaniques expulsés par le volcan Samalas en 1257 couvrent toute l'île de Lombok et sont largement répandus dans sa partie est. Près de 800 ans après l'éruption, l'impact géomorphologique de cette éruption sur l'île reste inconnu, alors que ses conséquences climatiques et sociétales globales sont désomais mieux comprises. Une combinaison des informations stratigraphiques, des topographies actuelles, des mesures géophysiques, des sources écrites locales, analyse de laboratoire et informatique ont été utilisées pour obtenir des informations détaillées sur les impacts géomorphologiques de l'éruption du volcan Samalas sur la zone côtière le long du détroit d' Alas, Nusa Tenggara Ouest, Indonésie. Cette étude fournit de nouvelles informations relatives à l'impact géomorphologique d'une éruption volcanique majeure dans des zones côtières, dans ce cas-ci, dans la partie est de Lombok, ainsi que sur la côte ouest de Sumbawa. En premier lieu, les résultats de l'étude montrent que le paysage de la partie est de Lombok est encore évolué jusqu'à présent. Le volume de matière volcanique de l'éruption des Samalas reste à environ 14% du volume initial. Deuxièmement, la découverte de Babad Suwung fournit une description supplémentaire de l'éruption des Samalas sur l'île de Sumbawa et pourraient être la plus ancienne observation visuelle de déferlantes pyroclastiques après celles de Pline Ie Jeune en 79 pour le Vésuve. Enfin, l'éruption du volcan Samalas en 1257 a prouvé avoir déclenché un tsunami mineur qui a frappé l'île de Belang, sur la côte ouest de Sumbawa
As the most powerful event in Lombok’s recent eruptive history, volcanic materials thatwere expelled by the Samalas volcano in 1257 CE covered the entire of Lombok Islandand are widespread in its eastern part. Almost 800 years after the eruption, the geomorphological impact of this eruption on the island of Lombok remains unknown,whereas its overall climatic and societal consequences are now better understood. Acombination of stratigraphic information, present-day topography, geophysical measurement with two-dimensional resistivity profiling technique, local written sources,as well as laboratory and computational analysis, were used to obtain detailed information concerning geomorphic impacts of the 1257 CE eruption of Samalas volcano on the coastal area along the Alas Strait in West Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia. This study provides new information related to the geomorphic impact of amajor eruption volcanic in coastal areas, in this case, on the eastern part of Lombok and the western coast of Sumbawa. In the first place, the study result shows that since the 1257 CE eruption, the landscape on the eastern part of Lombok is still evolved untilthe present time. The volume of the 1257 CE volcanic material remains about 14% from the initial volume. Secondly, the discovery of Babad Suwung provides additional explanation of Samalas eruption and may become the oldest visual observation of pyroclastic surges and volcanic fallout, following those by Pliny the Younger in 79 CE. Finally, the 1257 CE eruption of Samalas volcano has proven triggered a minor tsunami that hit Belang Island, on the west coast of Sumbawa

Indonesia signed CEDAW 1980 and ratified it in 1984 making it one of the first countries in South East Asia to do so. Despite legislation and governmental efforts women are still discriminated against in areas such as access to education, resources and credit. Income generation and women´s empowerment have been recognized on an international level as important strategies to enhance gender equality and in the process of alleviating poverty. By using the method of the focus group interview this study examines the process of empowerment for a group of women who take part in an income generation program in South Lombok, organized by a local NGO which uses the CAF methodology of self funded communities. Using Jo Rowlands (1997) empowerment model to analyze the collected data the study identifies encouraging and inhibiting factors to the empowerment process and the changes the process have generated. The study finds that the income generation program provides an important motivation for the women to join and the women experience some empowering impacts due to access to resources. However, it is the educational aspects of the program as well as the social support system that the self-help groups provide that contain the most empowering elements.

Since the emergence of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 in 2003, Indonesia has suffered large losses in the poultry sector and the highest number of H5N1-related human deaths to date. Despite government and internationally led disease control and eradication efforts, the virus remains entrenched throughout many parts of the country. Live bird markets (LBMs) have been implicated in a number of avian H5N1 outbreaks and are considered a high-risk interface due to mixing of large numbers of diverse poultry species with unknown disease status. Despite this, little is known about the role that markets play in the epidemiology of HPAI viruses. To investigate the scale and trends of poultry movement, marketing and management in Indonesian LBMs, a socio-epidemiological study combining qualitative and quantitative approaches and methodology was designed and implemented. A cross-sectional survey of 547 poultry traders and customers, conducted at 17 LBMs on the neighbouring islands of Bali and Lombok, revealed a high proportion of traders with limited knowledge of HPAI and biosecurity engaging in practices conducive to circulation and spread of the virus. Observational studies revealed that many markets lacked basic infrastructure for crucial cleaning and disinfection activities and had poorly implemented, or no, biosecurity. Social network analysis of movement events revealed differences in movement patterns of live poultry in Bali and Lombok that may influence the potential for markets to become infected or facilitate the spread of infection. In addition, a qualitative risk assessment of bird-to-bird transmission of HPAI H5N1 also revealed differences in potential risk between markets, with several identified as having a very high risk of becoming infected. The findings of this study enabled rating of each of the 17 LBMs in terms of transmission potential and potential spread of HPAI viruses, which will allow authorities to focus efforts where limited resources would have the greatest impact, of vital importance in low resource settings.

This thesis examines the effectiveness of tourism as an agent of rural development, focusing on culture and nature-based destinations in the 'developing world'. The village of Desa Senaru at Gunung Rinjani National Park in Lombok Island, Indonesia, served as a case study. Conservation agencies frequently support tourism development as a sustainable alternative to more extractive resource uses. Integrated conservation models, in particular, present 'eco'tourism as an effective instrument to enhance rural livelihoods while protecting the environment. Alongside international aid agencies, the World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) also promotes the sector for its poverty reduction potential in 'third world' countries. Rural communities hold concomitant expectations of tourism's socio-cultural development potential. Furthermore, 'eco'tourism functions as a growing niche market for the globally expanding tourism industry and local entrepreneurs. As such it fits well into the economic rationale that underpins neo-liberal market strategies. With such a diversity of interests at stake, the question "What kind of business is tourism?" has become more complex, critical and pertinent than ever before. Informed by development theories and the sociology of tourism, this analysis focuses on the multiple dichotomies that characterise 'third world' tourism. In the case of tourism development in Desa Senaru, several paradoxical outcomes have been identified. The most profound of these is the 'social justice paradox' that describes the way tourism costs and benefits are distributed within a heterogeneous community of native residents and migrant settlers. While most of the case study's tourism attractions are part of the cultural heritage of the wetu telu Sasak hamlets, these derive few economic benefits and struggle to access the new development opportunities 'eco'tourism offers. Filtered and directed by historical political relations, several key barriers to a meaningful participation of these native people in the 'business of tourism' have been identified. These include the prevailing conditions of education, culture, ethnicity, socio-economy, location, mobility, skills and knowledge. Expectations of 'eco'tourism as a 'soft' industry analysed vis-à-vis the global biosphere effects of air transport highlight the 'eco-paradox' of international tourism. The cleavage between the poverty-focused aid policies of the New Zealand Government and an integrated conservation project, whose benefits local elites have largely captured, illustrates the 'project paradox' of rural tourism development programmes. In the 'development paradox' of cultural tourism, symbolic constructs of 'otherness' (such as 'aesthetic poverty') contrast with various development agendas; in their search for the 'real' traditional village, for example, the tourists reject all signifiers of material progress and modernity. Their curious gaze at the spiritual practices and everyday life world of the wetu telu villagers manifests opposite a recent history of state-sanctioned religious discrimination. Taken together, these paradoxical local outcomes emphasize the significance of power relations and political dimensions within the globally expanding 'business of tourism'. Ethical considerations are an important aspect of this study as they contribute towards an 'ethic of development' that, so far, has found little theoretical resonance amongst scholars of tourism studies. To operationalise the ethical concerns raised, the thesis posits a model of a holistic approach to development. This recognises tourism as a complex open system.

Incentives to manage ecosystem services have been heralded as important mechanisms to increase efficiency in biodiversity conservation and to facilitate greater equity in the distribution of natural resources. These interventions aim to control the use of natural resources by altering resource users’ land-use decisions and environmental behaviours. There is relatively little evidence, however, about the perceived benefits and societal values of incentives, and the institutional effectiveness of incentives to alter land-use behaviours to increase compliance. It is also unclear how incentive-based management institutions align with the local biophysical, social, economic, and political dimensions of the social-ecological systems (SES) in which they are implemented. The thesis examines the ways in which incentives are used to manage ecosystem services and their institutional effectiveness to alter landowner environmental behaviours in the complex reality of the world It is important to understand the drivers of land-use decisions and environmental behaviours to implement institutions that can address natural resource issues within specific contexts. This thesis contributes to the discourse surrounding the use of incentive-based management that aim to provide motivation for compliant land-use decisions. The research highlights the need to understand the contextual nature of societal values and institutional processes that drive behaviours and determine the ‘fit’ of natural resource governance mechanisms. The recognition of these values and processes enables sufficient ‘incentive effects’ to be provided that can motivate pro-environmental behaviours. The thesis also illustrates the reality of how incentive-based institutions can function on the ground makes it difficult to clearly attribute outcomes to theoretical assumptions on which incentive-based institutions are designed. Case studies from Lombok, Indonesia and Alta Floresta, Mato Grosso, Brazil were used to illustrate the significance of local participation in decision-making, incentive design, and landowner perception of the benefits of behaviours on compliance outcomes, equity in benefit distribution, and efficient conservation management. A mixed methods approach was used to compare different incentives, which included legal sanctions, religious beliefs, social norms, and economic rewards. The thesis examines institutional function, ‘fit’, and landowner perceptions that can influence compliant pro-environmental behaviours. Spatial analysis, semi-structured questionnaires, key informant interviews, and focus groups were conducted to determine the impact of religious, economic, and customary law incentives on land-use decisions in communities on Lombok. Spatial analysis was used to examine the impact of sanctions in the legal reforms of the Forest Code, Brazil’s forest conservation legislation, on farmer land-use decisions in Alta Floresta. Abstract -ii- This thesis finds that ‘incentive effects’ are strongly determined by landowner perceptions of the social and economic cost-effectiveness of compliant behaviour, and the ‘fit’ of incentive-based management to SES’s contexts and dynamics. Institutional ‘fit’ was greater when procedural justice was perceived to be higher. That was driven by stakeholder participation in decision-making, closer links to existing institutions and social norms, and higher community autonomy over incentives. Positive incentives, like religious values and customary laws, were used to generate collective action for pro-environmental behaviours at local levels on Lombok, Indonesia. This generated greater community cooperation when collective action was built on existing social norms, socio-cultural institutions, and ecological dimensions. Incentives for collective action had less impact when they were imposed by external organisations, did not align to the local SES dimensions, and were only focused on increasing efficiency to control natural resource use. When negative incentives, such as legal sanctions and economic fines, were used to increase compliance with pro-environmental behaviours to protect riparian forests in Alta Floresta, they were found to, in fact, reduce overall compliance. The cost of sanctions and the option to offset illegal deforestation were perceived to be lower than the benefit of non-compliant behaviours like continued deforestation. The ‘incentive effects’ of these sanctions had limited impact to alter environmental behaviours of landowners. The findings of this study have implications for policies that use incentives as mechanisms to alter land-use behaviour. These findings also have clear relevance for PES and incentive-based design. They move PES beyond its theoretical application to meet the realities of the ‘messy’ world in which they are applied. The application of incentives is highly context specific to the SES in which incentives aim to function. This approach includes a need for the understanding of local perceptions of equity and cost-efficiency, and the impact of SES subsystem dynamics. A more integrated SES approach to understand the required incentives of land-use behaviours can enable a greater ‘fit’ of incentive-based institutions to local contexts, which may address environmental issues that can lead to a more sustainable use and equitable distribution of natural resources.

Ce travail se concentre sur une région clef de la circulation océanique globale avec le passage des eaux du Pacifique tropical dans l’Océan Indien à travers l’archipel indonésien, l’ « Indonesian throughflow (ITF) ». Cette région a été l’objet d’une coopération internationale d’envergure, INSTANT1, entre l’Indonésie, la France, les Pays-Bas, les USA et l’Australie. Une quantité importante de nouvelles données de courant, de température et de salinité ont été recueillies à cette occasion pendant les campagnes océanographiques auxquelles j’ai participé. Ma thèse analyse ces données pour étudier la variabilité spatiale et temporelle des « Indonesian Throughflow Water (ITW) », à leur sortie dans l’Océan Indien. Les données sont analysées en utilisant les sorties du modèle ORCA du LOCEAN afin de compléter les lacunes temporelles et spatiales inévitables des mesures. Il est démontré dans une première partie l’importance des eaux peu salées et plus chaude de la mer de Java qui modifient les eaux superficielles provenant du détroit de Makassar. Les caractéristiques de ces eaux affectent ensuite les eaux plus profondes par mélanges verticaux dus aux fortes marées dans la région au cours de la progression de l’ITF vers l’est de la Mer de Florès aux détroits de sortie vers l’Océan Indien. L’ITW apparaît le plus chaud et le moins salé dans la thermocline depuis la période de transition, avril-juin jusqu’à la mousson de sud-est, juillet-septembre. La deuxième partie s’intéresse au plateau continental australien, le Sahul, où il est montré que l’apport d’eau salée provenant de l’Océan Indien pendant la mousson de nord ouest contribue pour 12% du transport total à Timor dans les premier 318m, en moyenne annuelle et peut représenter 40% du transport de l’ITF à travers le passage pendant la mousson de nord ouest. La troisième partie tente d’expliquer la présence d’un courant profond au dessus du seuil du passage de Timor par la propagation d’ondes de Kelvin excitées dans l’Océan tropical Indien par des coups de vent d’ouest et piégées le long de la côte indonésienne. Ces ondes se propagent vers le sud et pénètrent dans les mers indonésiennes à travers les détroits ouverts sur l’Océan Indien et seule la partie profonde de ces ondes atteignent le seuil du passage de Timor. Ce courant en va-et-vient intéresse les eaux profondes et a une moyenne non nulle vers le bassin de Timor dont la topographie interdit la sortie vers les mers indonésiennes. Un courant vertical doit donc exister, produit par des mélanges verticaux.

Discusses factors which affect the increase of small holdings output in and effort to increase the farmers income.
Thesis (M.App.Sc.(Agriculture)) -- University of Adelaide, Dept. of Business and Extension Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences Faculty, 1993

Climate change and increasing variability will have especially profound adverse impacts upon the lives of rural communities in developing countries. However, households have differing asset bases and livelihood strategies, and therefore may have variable levels of vulnerability. Designing appropriate climate adaptation strategies must take these differences into account. This study examined the heterogeneity of vulnerability amongst rural communities in Lombok, Indonesia, and considers implications for climate adaptation policy interventions. Three villages, with differing natural resource bases, were selected as case studies: forest, rain-fed agriculture, and coastal fisheries and aquaculture. Based on a questionnaire survey (n=250), a household typology was generated. Cannon's (2008) vulnerability framework was applied to analyse the factors driving vulnerability for each household type in the villages. Interviews (n=72) with individuals from different household types were also employed to determine their perceptions about vulnerability and adaptation preferences. Participatory focus group discussions and social network mapping were also utilised to triangulate causes of vulnerability and dependencies between household types. Three main key conclusions emerged. First, although climate variability contributes to increased livelihood vulnerability, the degradation of traditional institutions through modernisation and social change was considered to be a more serious problem. In particular, traditional institutions are an important source of adaptive capacity for poorer households. Second, community structures are complex, with different household types depending on one another for support. Social cohesion and mutual assistance are important for maintaining livelihood activities both in difficult times and during normal daily situations. Third, current development programs do not account for this variability of household types, their adaptation needs or the linkages between them. As a result, wealthier households benefit more than poorer ones, and there is little evidence of 'trickle down' benefits from rich to poor. This inequality could potentially lead to maladaptation. These patterns were similar across all case study villages. However, the dynamic interactions among households types differed based on the strength of social cohesion and local institutions. Therefore adaptation policies must be better designed and be more egalitarian. Specifically they must restore and maintain traditional institutions and social capital. The 'vulnerability components framework' from Cannon (2008) was used to identify necessary intervention points for different household types. These components are interlinked to each other and enable understanding of what causes some people to be more at risk of a hazard than others.

In Lombok (Indonesia), annual cropping patterns in irrigated areas are divided into three cropping cycles of four months each. In better irrigation schemes, there are normally two irrigated flooded-rice crops, i.e. wet season and dry season lowland rice crops in sequence, followed by one non-rice crop cycle during the driest months (this is referred to as the twice-rice system). In less developed irrigation schemes, one lowland rice crop is normally grown during the rainy season, followed during the driest months by two cycles of non-rice crops, or a non-rice crop and a fallow (this is referred to as the once-rice system). In rainfed areas, especially in the vertisol soil areas, there are upland rice systems in the highland or hillsides, and “Gora” (dry seeded-flooded) rice systems in the lowland. In this area, rice is grown only once a year during the rainy season of the monsoon. Farmers in Lombok do not normally fertilise the non-rice crops such as soybean and mungbean grown following rice, and application rates of fertiliser to rice have fallen since the economic crisis in 1998. Therefore phosphorus (P) deficiency may be expected, which may explain the very low yields of soybean and mungbean achieved by farmers in Lombok. With low P, arbuscular mycorrhizas (AM) might be expected to play an important role in plant nutrition, but inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) increased root colonisation and yield of these crops in a recent field experiment in Lombok. There had been no survey of AMF populations in rice-based systems in Lombok prior to the work reported here, and little such work anywhere internationally. Therefore, an extensive survey was conducted in Lombok on the two main soil types with rice-based systems. Another field survey was conducted in the Riverina rice-growing area (Australia), as a comparative study to the Lombok survey. In Lombok, rice systems with longer total annual flooding duration had lower populations compared with upland or Gora rice systems. It was therefore suggested that the lower colonisation level in flooded rice was due to the flooded conditions, as well as soil chemical properties associated with flooded conditions, rather than the rice plant itself. There are options for improving AMF population for better growth of non-rice rotation crops, or even for rice crop in Lombok as fertilisers become less affordable and their use on flooded rice is declining. The easiest option is to inoculate AM fungi in the nursery or to make nursery beds in a paddock previously cropped with AMF-stimulating species, such as soybean, to start infection on rice seedlings, which should be better with a dry nursery. The second option is to modify the technique of growing rice, such as applying the SRI (System of Rice Intensification) principles, in which rice is grown without flooded conditions but intermittent short flooded and upland conditions. This will keep the soil in an aerobic condition much of the time and should facilitate the development of beneficial microbial populations and activities in the soil, such as AMF and nitrogen fixers. The SRI method has been reported to increase rice yield dramatically, even in soil with low fertility levels.
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

In Lombok Island (Indonesia), the ratio of land area to population is already low, and is likely to decrease because of the increasing size of the human population. The management of land resources is, therefore, important, to ensure the wise and sustainable use of the available land in meeting population demands, especially for food. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have been used successfully in resource management, and this area of their application has been a major driver in the development of GIS. Because agrosystems need to be tuned to the specific characteristics of regional environments, regionalisation is one way to improve agricultural production and the management of agrotechnology development. The identification of potential areas for growing soybean, peanut and common bean was conducted based on two tools: GIS analysis and the 30 group regionalisation. Both techniques have advantages and disadvantages. Using GIS, exact mapping of the potential category of each grid cell can be done, but it cannot be used to estimate the total humid periods and suitable planting times in a year. Using a regionalisation, these can be done, but only when purposes is suggested as more widely applicable than using GIS analysis. Both techniques have a role to play. Based on an initial validation of the techniques employed and the results obtained, further work is suggested, either for the optimum application of the results presently obtained or for the improvement of the techniques of analysis and thence the production of results for future use.
Master of Science (Hons)

Bibliography: leaves 259-271. This study examines the impact of forest degradation on the social structure of a community, especially on gender roles. The study was conducted in 1996-1997 in Sempur and Timbenuh, two dusun in East Lombok, where the forest is their main source of livelihood. Both dusun experienced rapid social change caused by competition for access to forest resources, government monoculture policy (cinnamon) and the declaration of the forest as a protected area. As forest resources became less available, men in Sempur were forced to migrate to look for work or walk long distances and women tended to replace men's roles. Sempur is compared to Timbenuh where people had easier access to forest resources.

In Lombok (Indonesia), annual cropping patterns in irrigated areas are divided into three cropping cycles of four months each. In better irrigation schemes, there are normally two irrigated flooded-rice crops, i.e. wet season and dry season lowland rice crops in sequence, followed by one non-rice crop cycle during the driest months (this is referred to as the twice-rice system). In less developed irrigation schemes, one lowland rice crop is normally grown during the rainy season, followed during the driest months by two cycles of non-rice crops, or a non-rice crop and a fallow (this is referred to as the once-rice system). In rainfed areas, especially in the vertisol soil areas, there are upland rice systems in the highland or hillsides, and “Gora” (dry seeded-flooded) rice systems in the lowland. In this area, rice is grown only once a year during the rainy season of the monsoon. Farmers in Lombok do not normally fertilise the non-rice crops such as soybean and mungbean grown following rice, and application rates of fertiliser to rice have fallen since the economic crisis in 1998. Therefore phosphorus (P) deficiency may be expected, which may explain the very low yields of soybean and mungbean achieved by farmers in Lombok. With low P, arbuscular mycorrhizas (AM) might be expected to play an important role in plant nutrition, but inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) increased root colonisation and yield of these crops in a recent field experiment in Lombok. There had been no survey of AMF populations in rice-based systems in Lombok prior to the work reported here, and little such work anywhere internationally. Therefore, an extensive survey was conducted in Lombok on the two main soil types with rice-based systems. Another field survey was conducted in the Riverina rice-growing area (Australia), as a comparative study to the Lombok survey. In Lombok, rice systems with longer total annual flooding duration had lower populations compared with upland or Gora rice systems. It was therefore suggested that the lower colonisation level in flooded rice was due to the flooded conditions, as well as soil chemical properties associated with flooded conditions, rather than the rice plant itself. There are options for improving AMF population for better growth of non-rice rotation crops, or even for rice crop in Lombok as fertilisers become less affordable and their use on flooded rice is declining. The easiest option is to inoculate AM fungi in the nursery or to make nursery beds in a paddock previously cropped with AMF-stimulating species, such as soybean, to start infection on rice seedlings, which should be better with a dry nursery. The second option is to modify the technique of growing rice, such as applying the SRI (System of Rice Intensification) principles, in which rice is grown without flooded conditions but intermittent short flooded and upland conditions. This will keep the soil in an aerobic condition much of the time and should facilitate the development of beneficial microbial populations and activities in the soil, such as AMF and nitrogen fixers. The SRI method has been reported to increase rice yield dramatically, even in soil with low fertility levels.

In Lombok Island (Indonesia), the ratio of land area to population is already low, and is likely to decrease because of the increasing size of the human population. The management of land resources is, therefore, important, to ensure the wise and sustainable use of the available land in meeting population demands, especially for food. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have been used successfully in resource management, and this area of their application has been a major driver in the development of GIS. Because agrosystems need to be tuned to the specific characteristics of regional environments, regionalisation is one way to improve agricultural production and the management of agrotechnology development. The identification of potential areas for growing soybean, peanut and common bean was conducted based on two tools: GIS analysis and the 30 group regionalisation. Both techniques have advantages and disadvantages. Using GIS, exact mapping of the potential category of each grid cell can be done, but it cannot be used to estimate the total humid periods and suitable planting times in a year. Using a regionalisation, these can be done, but only when purposes is suggested as more widely applicable than using GIS analysis. Both techniques have a role to play. Based on an initial validation of the techniques employed and the results obtained, further work is suggested, either for the optimum application of the results presently obtained or for the improvement of the techniques of analysis and thence the production of results for future use.

À Lombok, île rurale indonésienne, la communauté sasak a longtemps pratiqué un islam syncrétique et tolérant. Depuis le 20e siècle cependant, les différents revirements politiques qui ont animé l’île ont eu l’effet d’encourager un islam plus orthodoxe et de réaffirmer les valeurs traditionnelles sasaks. Aujourd’hui, cette dynamique avive l’identité religieuse des Sasaks et réitère le rôle des femmes en tant qu’épouses et mères de famille, responsables de la maisonnée. Parallèlement, le développement rapide du tourisme, encouragé par l’état indonésien, oblige une reconfiguration du travail des femmes. Ces dernières sont de plus en plus nombreuses à occuper des postes dans les infrastructures touristiques, emplois qui sont localement associés à la modernité, mais aussi aux inconduites des voyageurs. En confrontant leur rôle au sein de la maisonnée et les conventions de leur modestie, cette nouvelle économie place les femmes au centre d’un réseau de mouvance identitaire où s’affrontent des idéaux locaux et nationaux. Comment ces femmes arrivent-elles à coordonner ces rôles en apparence contradictoires ? Quel en est l’impact sur leur quotidien et leur identité, leur rôle genré ? L’objectif principal de cette recherche consiste à investiguer, au moyen d’un terrain ethnographique, la complexité des rapports qu’entretiennent les femmes sasaks avec les emplois du domaine touristique. En se concentrant sur les dynamiques de la parenté et des relations de genre sasaks, cette recherche éclaire à la fois les obstacles quotidiens et les enjeux identitaires que vivent les travailleuses sasaks lorsqu’elles contractent un emploi dans l’industrie touristique. Ultimement, ce mémoire réactualise la pertinence d’investiguer la parenté dans l’étude des changements sociaux et met en lumière la complexité des rapports identitaires que peuvent vivre les populations visées par le tourisme international.
In Lombok, a rural Indonesian island, the Sasak community has long practised a syncretic and tolerant Islam. However, since the 20th century, various political shifts affected the island which had the effect of encouraging a more orthodox Islam and reaffirming traditional sasak values. Nowadays, this dynamic reiterates the role of women as wives and mothers, household keepers, as a key element for their religious identity. In parallel, a fast-growing international tourism, encouraged by the Indonesian state, is forcing a reorganization of women’s work. Women mostly work as clerks in hotels and restaurants which locally are jobs associated with modernity, but also with the travellers’ misbehaviour. As they work outside the household, their purity and their performance as wives and mothers are compromised. Therefore, women are placed in an awkward position: as their jobs align with national ideals they are also confronting local values. How do these women manage to play these seemingly contradictory roles? What is the impact on their daily activities and their identity, their gender role? The main objective of this research is to investigate, through an ethnographic fieldwork, the reality of Sasak women who engage in the tourism industry. By focusing on kinship dynamics and gender relations, this research highlights both the day-to-day obstacles and identity issues that Sasak women workers experience as they work. Ultimately, this research updates the relevance of investigating kinship in the study of social changes and highlights the complexity of identity crisis that can experience a community targeted by international tourism.