Zeitschriftenartikel zum Thema „Industrial management – encyclopedias“

The article considers directions of the agrarian modernization as presented in the four editions of the Soviet agricultural encyclopedia from the mid-1920s to the mid-1950s. On the basis of some historical examples and theoretical concepts, the author explains the scientific, ideological and political significance of encyclopedias in the formation of social knowledge and ideology; shows how during the Stalinist period, the Soviet agricultural encyclopedias passed through several successive great leaps in the representation of agrarian knowledge under the accelerated Soviet modernization; stresses the manipulative way of managing agrarian knowledge and human capital in agriculture - on behalf of the leader and ruling party. The article describes the transition from the first Soviet encyclopedia of the 1920s, which focused on the modernization of peasant Russia, to the encyclopedia of the early 1930s, which denied the importance of the peasantry and praised the projects of large-scale industrial-agricultural production; many authors of the first peasant encyclopedia were repressed. The encyclopedia of the late 1930s reflects the fight against the authors of the previous encyclopedia of the great leap and the purges in the name of the ideology of the planning-management approach in the further modernization of Soviet agriculture. The encyclopedia of the late 1940s - early 1950s reflects the victory of the technocratic-bureaucratic worldview and personnel approach to the agrarian sphere, which prevailed in the agriculture of the USSR until the very end of the Soviet era. The author focuses on the influence of the subjective factor (political leaders, editors-in-chief and anonymous authors) on the ideology, topics and style of encyclopedic articles. In conclusion, the author notes that the strong ideological control and volatile political situation distorted knowledge in the Soviet agrarian encyclopedias, which negatively affected the quality of rural human capital and largely predetermined the stagnation of rural development in the late USSR.

Japanese manga author Mizuki Shigeru is often regarded as a popularizer of traditional monster imagery. He created not only entertaining comics, but also popular science illustrated catalogs and encyclopedias, becoming the largest researcher and collector of Japanese folklore after ethnographer Yanagita Kunio. For his educational activities, he was awarded a number of awards and prizes. Preserving the images of Japanese monsters became a fundamental goal for him, in this article I will demonstrate how Mizuki Shigeru creates images of his manga characters based on picture books of the Edo period and ethnographic materials. At the same time, little attention is paid to the side of his work in which the influence of European fine art culture can be traced. This article aims to show the diverse imagery flourished Mizuki Shigeru’s comics, including images from American comics and paintings by European artists from the Renaissance to Surrealism. I will also try to turn to his graphic narratives in order to take a closer look at his strategy and to understand what is the specifics of Japanese graphic narrative.

The problems of optimizing the activities of the institutions of the National Academy of Sciences those have become relevant for the last decade are considered in the article in the context of the necessity to reform Ukrainian academic science. It concerns the existential fateful trials and challenges faced by the Ukrainian people as a result of a large-scale Russian military aggression, and therefore it is about the need for effective use of technical and economic resources and the intellectual base of the country, increasing the significance of science in the security and defense system of the state, strengthening the innovative component of the scientific potential of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. The visible successes of the institutions of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine both in the field of theories and in the sphere of applied research and technologies are emphasized in the study. Attention is also paid to the fact that a significant share of domestic scientific achievements and inventions belong to the researchers of the institutes of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. The investigations of academic institutes in humanities are considered as of a national importance. They have become basic scientific centers of Ukraine for researching the problems of Linguistics, Art Studies, Ethnology and Literary Criticism; the development and formation of the essential principles of the normative framework for the functioning of the Ukrainian language as a state one; the study of issues of the development of the theory and history of the Ukrainian language; compiling a dictionary fund and creation of reference and published works. Humanitarian academic institutes have the merit of preparing and publishing a powerful corpus of stories of folk and professional culture, publishing multi-volume encyclopedias and dictionaries those represent the high artistic and aesthetic potential of the cultural and artistic heritage of the Ukrainian people. At the same time, it is emphasized in the article on the phenomenon of appearance of numerous published works. Their authors seek to devalue domestic science, nullify its achievements, and cast doubt on the question of its very future functioning within the framework of the National Academy of Sciences. The authoress of the submitted article refutes these attempts as short-sighted, baseless and detrimental to the civilizational progress of the state. The researcher notes that the national sciences of recognized world countries are an attribute of their civilizational development. Therefore, along with the search for ways to modernize academic science, its full integration into the world scientific space, Ukrainian society should take care of preservation of its personnel potential, financial support and strengthening of the scientific and technical base. The opinion that the Academy of Sciences should continue to reinforce its significance as the main arbiter in defining the development prospects of the state, intensify its defense capacity and security foundations, during the period of post-war reconstruction is grounded in the article.

The article presents an attempt to conduct a systematical study of the typology of female images in the works of Naki Isanbet, the Tatar scholar-encyclopedist, folklorist, critic, and classic of Tatar literature (1899–1992). Published and unpublished sources were used as the research material. Fiction, journalistic, and scientific texts of N. Isanbet have been analysed using the method of semantic analysis, historical and cultural, comparative methods. The author proves that the ideal of a woman of the Enlightenment epoch, i.e. the “mother of the nation”, dominates in the legacy of the scholar who was the classic of the Tatar literature as well. The images of a devoted spouse, a wise mother, a “mother of the nation” can be encountered in his works. The writer defends the ideas of equality of women and men, women’s active participation in public life, etc. in his works of fiction written in various genres throughout the twentieth century. The poetics of female images depends on the requirements of the genre. When developing the images, the writer relies on the traditions of the Tatar folklore and oriental poetry. In his creative legacy, the encyclopedic scholar immortalised dozens of names of the female contemporaries who made a significant contribution to the history of the Tatar people – teachers, actresses, writers, translators, public figures, etc.

The Pancasila Student Profile certainly needs to be actualized in students so that they can have the ability, achievement, and noble character. This study aims to determine the development of an encyclopedia learning medium for Pancasila and citizenship education based on interactive multimedia to increase the profile of Pancasila students at Korpri Karawang High School. The type of research used is a research and development approach with the ADDIE model; this research uses a mixed-methods approach—data collection techniques using a questionnaire. The data analysis techniques used are deductive analysis, inductive analysis, reliability tests, validity tests, reliability tests, normality tests, homogeneity tests, the mean test of two independent samples, and hypothesis testing. The results showed that the valuation of the civic education Encyclopedia learning media validation instrument showed that the instrument used was feasible at 80%. There is a significant difference in the increase in the profile of Pancasila students in class X at Korpri Karawang High School after being given civic education encyclopedia learning media. A comparative sample test related to the experimental class with the paired sample test obtained a significance result of 0.000, meaning that H0: μc = μk is rejected because 0.000 0.05 and H1: μc μk is accepted. This research recommends that in the learning process, it is hoped that teachers can utilize technology by using civic education encyclopedia learning media products that can be implemented with students during the learning process.

The Palitra-L Publishing House translated the Great Visual Encyclopedia into Georgian and published it, in the presentation of which we read that "part of the terms and definitions have been changed with new ones, the meaning of some has increased. It is possible to check the meaning of a specific word by checking relevant illustration" – say the authors of the book, who gathered specialists in terminology, linguists, scientists when creating the encyclopedia. It would be better if the publishing house had invited the relevant specialists of the field as well. The part of the Georgian translation of the encyclopedia that I consider in the article (Book 4, Chapters XVII and XVIII) does not seem to have been reviewed by the appropriate specialists of the field and technical terminology. Moreover, the terms and definitions used in the illustrations are not related and completely inconsistent with their functional purpose. Chapter XVII, Trucks, considered: dumping truck; cranes; container, etc. Chapter XVIII, Robust Mechanisms, considered: bulldozer; wheeled loader; hydraulic excavator; scraper; grader; land roller, etc. Obviously, the question arises as to the meaning of the term Robust and why it does not combine a particular mechanism, even trucks. Most of the concepts, terms and definitions used in the translation differ from the concepts and terms adopted and established in Georgian technical terminology, and their inconsistency is obvious. Also, captions for illustrations are often grammatically and meaningfully incorrect and absurd. For example, according to the Georgian translation of the encyclopedia, the blade -"lapoti" in the bulldozer is a "metal concave device", and in the scraper – "bowl, ladle, hopper". In fact, the bulldozer is equipped with dozer blade, while the scraper is equipped with a bucket, and the term blade – "lapoti" is not found at all in Georgian technical terminology. For example, "hook – a piece of hard metal", as well as "gooseneck connection" and others. The fact that hook is not a piece of metal does not require any special education, as for the "gooseneck connection" – it is a complete curious thing. I would recommend translators of the above discussed sections of the encyclopedia to use the explanatory dictionary of “Hoist transport, road construction machines and equipment" published by us as well as the existing Georgian technical terminological dictionaries.

The article discusses the problem of preparing a block of articles about the regions for the encyclopedia Literary Museums of Russia, which is being developed by the Vladimir Dahl Russian State Literary Museum with the support of the Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation. The process of preparation for the work is described: existing studies on this topic are analyzed, their deficiencies are revealed. The author develops and demonstrates the structure of an encyclopedia article about a region, which implies an integrated approach, and highlights its main parts with brief characteristics of their content. The features of work on each part of the article are considered: existing sources are described, and troublesome places are indicated. The article analyzes the sources of statistical data, including the existing system of statistical observation, and identifies their gaps, shortcomings and weaknesses that make it difficult to conduct a complete and comprehensive analysis and don’t allow to fully identify the total number of museums; the decisions taken in this regard are described. It is revealed how the general population of literary museums was formed (museums recorded in the dictionary of the encyclopedia, as well as identified in the course of work). The territorial distribution (present condition) and the main quantitative parameters of museums of this profile by regions of the country are presented, taking into account all possible museums of this profile group by type of owner (state and non-state). The most developed regional networks of literary museums are identified, and a rating of regions is compiled indicating the number of museums; regions where there is no network of literary museums are designated. The total number of museums of this profile is revealed, the data are compared with 2016.

Поводом для данной статьи стал выход в свет трехтомного издания «Энциклопедия осетинской Нартиады» (2022-2023). Энциклопедия является, с одной стороны, фундаментальным и скрупулезным обобщением материалов осетинского Нартовского эпоса, а с другой – всесторонним и глубоким научным анализом этого уникального эпического памятника мирового значения. В статье рассматриваются как структура энциклопедии с ее основными характеристиками, так и конкретные достижения, отражающие годы исследований многих поколений российских и зарубежных ученых, в том числе и современных. Внимательное изучение издания приводит к выводу, что этот коллективный труд не только продвигает далеко вперед научное нартоведение, но, благодаря исследовательским подходам, примененным в анализе собранного в энциклопедии обширнейшего материала, значительно расширяет ресурсы и перспективы изучения фольклора как такового. Издание, предоставляющее комплексную и самую разноплановую информацию о нартовском эпосе, в то же время укрепляет и развивает концептуальную базу этого научного направления, что, безусловно, может стать стимулом для дальнейших научных изысканий. Особенно подчеркивается тот факт, что авторы не только не игнорируют вопросы, ставшие дискуссионными в течение последних лет, но на основе анализа источников глубоко и детально погружаются в их разбор. Преимущественно это проблемы формирования циклов Нартиады, ее национальных версий, связи эпоса с процессами этногенеза народов Кавказа, хронологии и этапов развития нартовского эпоса, разнообразных теорий происхождения его древнего ядра. Помимо прочего, рассматриваются разные аспекты значения данного труда. The reason for this article was the publication of the three–volume edition "Encyclopedia of the Ossetian Nartiada" (2022-2023). The encyclopedia is, on the one hand, a fundamental and scrupulous generalization of the materials of the Ossetian Nart epic, and on the other hand, a comprehensive and in–depth scientific analysis of this unique epic monument of world significance. The article examines both the structure of the encyclopedia with its main characteristics and specific achievements reflecting the years of research of many generations of Russian and foreign scientists, including modern ones. A careful study of the publication leads to the conclusion that this collective work not only advances scientific narthology far ahead, but, thanks to the research approaches applied in the analysis of the vast material collected in the encyclopedia, significantly expands the resources and prospects for the study of folklore as such. The publication, which provides comprehensive and most diverse information about the Nart epic, at the same time strengthens and develops the conceptual base of this scientific direction, which, of course, can become an incentive for further scientific research. Particularly emphasized is the fact that the authors not only do not ignore the issues that have become debatable in recent years, but on the basis of an analysis of sources, they are deeply and in detail immersed in their analysis. Mostly, these are the problems of the formation of the Nartiada cycles, its national versions, the connection of the epic with the processes of the ethnogenesis of the peoples of the Caucasus, the chronology and stages of development of the Nart epic, various theories of the origin of its ancient core. Among other things, various aspects of the significance of this work are considered.

Purpose – How organizations’ pasts are presented to the public is crucial, because this presentation shapes corporate reputations. Increasingly, various actors contribute to the public remembering of organizations with new information and communication technologies (ICTs). The purpose of this paper is to investigate the online encyclopedia Wikipedia as a global memory place, where the pasts of organizations are communicatively co-constructed by actors of a loosely connected community. Design/methodology/approach – The authors analyze 1,459 edits of Wikipedia pages of ten organizations from various industries. Quantitative content analysis detects Wikipedia edits for their reputational relevance and reference to formal sources, such as corporate communication or newspapers. Furthermore, the authors investigate to which degree current corporate communication in form of 177 press releases has an influence on the remembering process in Wikipedia. Findings – The analysis shows how the continuous construction of collective memories bridges past formal corporate communication, news media, and other sources with the present, exposing, and suppressing relevant information concerning corporate reputation for large audiences. The analysis of press releases shows that current frames provided by corporate communication finds only little resonance in the ongoing remembering processes in Wikipedia. Originality/value – Conventional approaches toward remembering of organizations embrace an organization centric view, whereby corporate communication strategically leverages organizational pasts. This paper contributes to the understanding of the ongoing, networked, and collective co-construction of organizational pasts by various authors through ICTs.

The article poses and solves the problem of achieving coordinated interaction between the Center and the Regions as a single, organic and dynamic system of a sovereign independent state. Modern approaches of liberal and planned principles of overcoming bureaucratic and corrupt arbitrariness and urgent resuscitation with intensive revival of economic and vital activity of Ukraine, which is purposefully destroyed under external influence, are considered. The main provisions of the report of the President of France Emmanuel Macron in August 2019 on the Great Fracture in European and world civilization processes are revealed. The main ideas and directions of the Plan of the Great Reset and implementation of the fourth industrial revolution of June 2020 of the Davos World Economic Forum are presented. A meaningful chronology of the formation of the organizational mechanism for the introduction of inclusive capitalism and its management and staffing is given. The equivalence of the principles of homeostasis of economic and biological systems is considered by comparing the restoration of the viability of the global network economy and marine biological systems (on the example of a vampire octopus). Generalized signs of international and state terrorism in Ukraine. The necessity to change the Anglo-Saxon model of open market economy to socially oriented one using the doctrine of 3 "S": social forecasting, social planning and social management is substantiated. It is proposed to use the experience of the United States and Great Britain on social planning and the European financial model of people's capitalism. Based on the proposals of Emelyanov O.S. to enhance the role of the Center in cooperation with the Regions, it is recommended to develop National and Regional Human Development Programs. It is proposed to develop a Planning Code of Ukraine based on the provisions of the model of socially adequate management with encyclopedic criteria for their use at the national and regional levels of government.

Distance education is a hotly debated subject in the scientific and pedagogical environment of the newest period; in the methodological literature, issues of practical and theoretical nature are actively discussed (from the effectiveness of remote servers to ethical issues that arise during classes). As a positive experience, the article presents the materials of practical classes of the course “History of civilizations”, which is read by the author at St Petersburg State University of Industrial Technologies and Design, in a distance format as well. The material is built according to the problem-chronological principle, that allows students to consolidate what they have learned in lectures, supplement their knowledge using various visualization and illustration methods, thus deepening their understanding of the topic as a whole. An indirect appeal to historical sources is possible when analyzing monographic studies on the cultures of ancient ethnic groups, the 18-volume encyclopedia “Disappeared Civilizations”, and the content of the official websites of world museums that store the heritage of ancient civilizations. M.Montaigne in “Experiments” used the term ‘civilization’ (1581). Descartes in “Discourse on Methods” contrasted the concepts of “wild” and “civilized”; Herder was one of the first to connect civilization with the development of culture, pointing to the civilization of the East as the most ancient. In the 19th century, the concepts of “civilization” and “culture” were synonymous. In the 20th century, anthropological understanding of culture as a result of acquired behavioral skills began to be replaced by the concept of civilization. The article is devoted to a thematic review of individual historical monuments of a number of ancient civilizations, stored in various museums around the world, which can serve as illustrations for the educational discipline “History of Civilizations” in a distance format. The choice fell on some ancient “disappeared civilizations” that arose in various historical and geographical conditions.

『Oju-Yeonmunjangjeon-Sango(五洲衍文長箋散稿)』 by Lee Kyu-gyeong (李圭景, 1788~1856) is an encyclopedia of Joseon in the 19th century. It is highly evaluated for not only having a lot of content, but also for making good use of previous books. A symposium with the theme of 『Ohjuyeonmunjangjeonsango』 was held, and at this time Lee Kyu-gyeong's erudition was revealed and the level of Korean intellectual history in the 19th century was proved. Lee Kyu-gyeong's 『Shiga-Jumdeung(詩家點燈)』 is a book that criticizes Korean and Chinese poetry and sentences. Researchers do not use it as much as 『Oju-Yeonmunjangjeon-Sango』 because it is difficult to identify characters and it is not databased, but there is no disagreement that it has a lot of content like 『Oju-Yeonmunjangjeon-Sango』. 『Oju-Yeonmunjangjeon-Sango』 and 『Shiga-Jumdeung』 make us look forward to the value of another of Lee Kyu-kyung's books that have not been discovered yet. 『Oju-Yeonmunjangjeon-Sango』 says “It can be seen in detail in 『Oju- Pilju(五洲筆疇)』”, so 『Oju-Pilju』, which was obviously Lee Kyu-kyung's book but had not been seen before, was newly discovered. It is a hand-held book [袖珍本] similar in size to 『Shiga-Jumdeung』. There are 20 letters in 10 lines and a total of 72 pages. The condition of the book is very good, so it is easy to distinguish the letters. 『Oju-Pilju』 contains military operations, which are the core of war, walls for defense, pavilions to watch military camps, armor and weapons, carts carrying munitions, other things that could be weapons, military medicine, and amulets to defeat the enemy. In other words, it is a ‘book on military strategy(兵法書)’ with quite a bit of content. Through two prefaces written by Lee Kyu-gyeong, he emphasized that as a Confucian scholar, the purpose of separately writing the book on military strategy, 『Oju-Pilju』, was to achieve a peaceful era. Looking at the parts related to the walls, weapons, and carts that Lee Kyu-kyung said he put effort into in the preface, it is clear that he had a high level of knowledge about ‘strategy’. Through the review of 『Oju-Pilju』, it is possible to accurately grasp the level of Joseon books on military strategy in the 19th century.

From ancient days, there were many controversies over whether a bird called Jeogu(저구) in the Volume of Gwanjeo(관저편), the first part of “the Book of Odes(시경)”, is a ferocious raptor (osprey) or a friendly raptor (a sort of wild duck). Because the Jeogu(저구) in the first verse of this poem is a symbol of ‘an elegant lady’ who will be an excellent spouse of a noble man, so whether this Jeogu(저구) is viewed as a bird of osprey or a sort of duck is an important key to understand the true meaning of four phrases in the first chapter of the Volume of Gwanjeo(관저편). This paper attempts to identify the substance of the name Jeogu(저구) which has been confused or misunderstood over a long period of time, focusing on Three Books of Article Names - Wordbook of Things(재물보), Book of Article Names(물명고), Encyclopedia of Objects(광재물보) -, which emerged in the era when the study of names, objects, law, and numbers(명물도수) was prevalent in the late Joseon Dynasty. When examining Chinese classics, it is understood that the confusion regarding the substance of “Jeogu(저구)” originated from the annotation of “Mosijuso(모시주소)”. The views of Chinese scholars views on the substance of ‘Jeogu’ have been debated for a long time, largely divided into one theory called a raptor and another theory called a sort of duck. It is understood that Three Books of Article Names adopted a raptor theory, a duck theory or a theory of the same name for different birds, depending on the type of Three Books of Article Names or by the classification of headwords from each Book. From the viewpoint of today's standards, ‘Jeogu’ is an osprey[鶚], which is a raptor. If so, when interpreting the Book of Odes(시경), it is necessary to consider ‘摯而有別’ in Mojeon(모전) as 'it is fierce but it is good at discerning the mate (in terms of chastity). Also, it was revealed that Jing-gyeong-yi(징경이, fish hawk), which traditionally referred to as “Jeogu(저구)”, originally indicated to a class of ducks called ‘Mandarin ducks’, but in modern times it has been misinterpreted as an osprey. It is thought that the main cause of the constant confusion of the name of an object is usually misunderstanding and miswriting of the object. Due to the misunderstanding and miswriting, the confusion of objects has always been repeated or reproduced. Therefore, when encountering classics, it is necessary to pay attention to the above fact and to take a careful approach.

Behind the scant encyclopedic information about Sofron Stefan Mudryi, whose 100th birthday we are celebrating, Bishop of Ivano-Frankivsk of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, there appears a majestic figure of a builder - a builder of the Church, education, and culture. Today we sincerely wonder how this man concentrated so much intelligence - not for nothing that he was called Mudryi (Sofron means prudent in Greek), so many talents, so much faith, so much love, so much efficiency, so much patriotism. Sofron Mudryi is one of the famous Ukrainians in the diaspora who made a fateful decision in 1991, immediately after Ukraine gained independence. They exchanged their measured, orderly life abroad for hard work - they began to revive/rebuild a free Ukraine. For many, this man is a symbol of the Christianity of a Ukrainian and the Christianity of a Ukrainian.

In fact, humanity is on the path of self-destruction at biological, social, cultural, educational, and mental levels. Digitalization is associated with the development of human technogenic capabilities, tansformation of a person into “Homo Informaticus” or into a Centaur “Human is a Figure”, genetic transformation (Mutated Human). Principle  of the Declaration on Sustainable Development Strategy (Rio de Janeiro, ) is the concern for human efforts to achieve sustainable development. People have the right to a healthy and fruitful life in harmony with nature. The general object of ecopsychological research (Psychological ecology, Ecological approach to perception, Environmental psychology and others) is the psychological aspect of interactions in the “human – environment” system. Types of ecological consciousness are archaic, anthropocentric, ecocentric (Deryabo, Yasvin, ), and nature-centric (Panov, , ). Components of ecological consciousness are Cognitive, Affective, Behavioral, and Axiological. Factors that determine the type of ecological consciousness are the Fear of nature: archaic type; Struggle with nature: anthropocentric type; Concern for nature: ecocentric type; Harmony with nature: nature-centric type. “Nature“ is everything that exists; the total object of natural science, including ecology as part of biology and as an interdisciplinary approach; the totality of the natural conditions for the existence of mankind (Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary (). Three paradigms of ecological consciousness are Natural science, Ecological, Transcendental. Expanding Human Ecological Responsibility is the agent of individual and/or group development; the agent of development and co-evolution the Ecosystem «Humanity – Planet; the agent of the «Nature as a being»: a person, animate and inanimate Nature, the Planet and, in general, the Universe.

J. Lennart Berggren and Alexander Jones, Ptolemy's Geography: An Annotated Translation of the Theoretical Chapters. By Karin Tybjerg 194Natalia Lozovsky, ‘The Earth is Our Book’: Geographical Knowledge in the Latin West ca. 400–1000. By Evelyn Edson 196David Cantor (ed.), Reinventing Hippocrates. By Daniel Brownstein 197Peter Dear, Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500–1700. By John Henry 199Paolo Rossi, Logic and the Art of Memory: The Quest for a Universal Language. By John Henry 200Marie Boas Hall, Henry Oldenburg: Shaping the Royal Society. By Christoph Lüthy 201Richard L. Hills, James Watt, Volume 1: His Time in Scotland, 1736–1774. By David Philip Miller 203René Sigrist (ed.), H.-B. de Saussure (1740–1799): Un Regard sur la terre, Albert V. Carozzi and John K. Newman (eds.), Lectures on Physical Geography given in 1775 by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure at the Academy of Geneva/Cours de géographie physique donné en 1775 par Horace-Bénédict de Saussure à l'Académie de Genève and Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, Voyages dans les Alpes: Augmentés des Voyages en Valais, au Mont Cervin et autour du Mont Rose. By Martin Rudwick 206Anke te Heesen, The World in a Box: The Story of an Eighteenth-Century Picture Encyclopedia. By Richard Yeo 208David Boyd Haycock, William Stukeley: Science, Religion and Archaeology in Eighteenth-Century England. By Geoffrey Cantor 209Jessica Riskin, Science in the Age of Sensibility: The Sentimental Empiricists of the French Enlightenment. By Dorinda Outram 210Michel Chaouli, The Laboratory of Poetry: Chemistry and Poetics in the Work of Friedrich Schlegel. By David Knight 211George Levine, Dying to Know: Scientific Epistemology and Narrative in Victorian England. By Michael H. Whitworth 212Agustí Nieto-Galan, Colouring Textiles: A History of Natural Dyestuffs in Industrial Europe. By Ursula Klein 214Stuart McCook, States of Nature: Science, Agriculture, and Environment in the Spanish Caribbean, 1760–1940. By Piers J. Hale 215Paola Govoni, Un pubblico per la scienza: La divulgazione scientifica nell'Italia in formazione. By Pietro Corsi 216R. W. Home, A. M. Lucas, Sara Maroske, D. M. Sinkora and J. H. Voigt (eds.), Regardfully Yours: Selected Correspondence of Ferdinand von Mueller. Volume II: 1860–1875. By Jim Endersby 217Douglas R. Weiner, Models of Nature: Ecology, Conservation and Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia. With a New Afterword. By Piers J. Hale 219Helge Kragh, Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century. By Steven French 220Antony Kamm and Malcolm Baird, John Logie Baird: A Life. By Sean Johnston 221Robin L. Chazdon and T. C. Whitmore (eds.), Foundations of Tropical Forest Biology: Classic Papers with Commentaries. By Joel B. Hagen 223Stephen Jay Gould, I Have Landed: Splashes and Reflections in Natural History. By Peter J. Bowler 223Henry Harris, Things Come to Life: Spontaneous Generation Revisited. By Rainer Brömer 224Hélène Gispert (ed.), ‘Par la Science, pour la patrie’: L'Association française pour l'avancement des sciences (1872–1914), un projet politique pour une société savante. By Cristina Chimisso 225Henry Le Chatelier, Science et industrie: Les Débuts du taylorisme en France. By Robert Fox 227Margit Szöllösi-Janze (ed.), Science in the Third Reich. By Jonathan Harwood 227Vadim J. Birstein, The Perversion of Knowledge; The true Story of Soviet Science. By C. A. J. Chilvers 229Guy Hartcup, The Effect of Science on the Second World War. By David Edgerton 230Lillian Hoddeson and Vicki Daitch, True Genius: The Life and Science of John Bardeen, the Only Winner of Two Nobel Prizes in Physics. By Arne Hessenbruch 230Stephen B. Johnson, The Secret of Apollo: Systems Management in American and European Space Programs, John M. Logsdon (ed.), Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program. Volume V: Exploring the Cosmos and Douglas J. Mudgway, Uplink-Downlink: A History of the Deep Space Network 1957–1997. By Jon Agar 231Helen Ross and Cornelis Plug, The Mystery of the Moon Illusion: Exploring Size Perception. By Klaus Hentschel 233Matthew R. Edwards (ed.), Pushing Gravity: New Perspectives on Le Sage's Theory of Gravitation. By Friedrich Steinle 234Ernest B. Hook (ed.), Prematurity in Scientific Discovery: On Resistance and Neglect. By Alex Dolby 235John Waller, Fabulous Science: Fact and Fiction in the History of Scientific Discovery. By Alex Dolby 236Rosalind Williams, Retooling: A Historian Confronts Technological Change. By Keith Vernon 237Colin Divall and Andrew Scott, Making Histories in Transport Museums. By Anthony Coulls 238

RESUMENLa presente investigación ahonda en el tratamiento integral de fuentes geohistóricas textuales. Está basada en la recuperación, el análisis y la apertura de nuevas fórmulas de conocimiento científico abiertas y extensivas a la sociedad global. Entre 1850 y 1940 se elaboran en España más de cuatrocientas obras médicas (geografías o topografías médicas), bajo influencia de las teorías higienistas en el urbanismo y la sociedad en su conjunto, que constituyen unas fuentes de información y documentación enormemente valiosas, y relativamente poco estudiadas, para el conocimiento de los espacios, urbanos y rurales, de la época. El uso del método hipotético-deductivo, modelo de amplia utilización en las ciencias geográficas y las humanidades, ha establecido como hipótesis fundamental que el paisaje y el territorio, y la información contenida en las obras médico-geográficas “Datos médico-topográficos de Ciudad Rodrigo” (1899) y “Datos para la geografía médica de Ciudad Rodrigo” (1920), se utilizarán como base para el análisis de la información que, a escala geográfica, aporta esta tipología documental, estableciendo una metodología para la extracción de información geográfica contenida en documentación histórica. Con ello, se pretende optimizar el uso de fuentes secundarias de conocimiento sobre el territorio y la sociedad, teniendo en cuenta la variedad y cantidad de información que se puede extraer de ellos, abriendo, a la vez, una vía de investigación que liga la salubridad del territorio y las estrategias para abordar problemas territoriales desde la geografía humana e histórica. Palabras clave: fuentes geohistóricas, topografías médicas, higienismo urbano, naturalismo terapéuticoTopónimos: Ciudad Rodrigo (Salamanca)Periodo: siglos xix y xx ABSTRACT This research delves into the comprehensive treatment of textual geohistorical sources based on the recovery, analysis and opening of new formulas of scientific knowledge open and extensive to global society. Between 1850 and 1940, more than four hundred medical works (medical geographies or topographies) were produced in Spain under the influence of hygienist theories in urban planning and constituting society a source of valuable information and documentation relatively little studied for the knowledge of the urban and rural spaces of the time. The use of the hypothetical-deductive method, a model widely used in geographical sciences and humanities, has established as a fundamental hypothesis that landscape and the territory and the information contained in the Medical-geographical works “Medical-topographical Data of Ciudad Rodrigo” (1899) and “Data for the Medical Geography of Ciudad Rodrigo” (1920), will be used as a basis for the analysis of the information that, on a geographical scale, provides this documentary typology and proposes a methodology for the extraction of geographic information contained in historical documentation. With this, it is intended to optimize the use of secondary sources of knowledge about the territory and society considering the variety and amount of information that can be extracted from them and opening, at the same time, a path of research that links health of the territory and the strategies to the approach territorial problems from the human and historical geography. Keywords: geohistorical sources, medical topographies, urban hygiene, therapeutic naturalismPlace names: Ciudad Rodrigo (Salamanca)Period: 19th and 20th centuries REFERENCIASArroyo Ilera, F. y Camarero Bullón, C., “Water for Madrid: The Problems of Water Supply in a Pre-industrial Capital”, en The History of Water Management in the Iberian Peninsula. Trends in the History of Science. Berlin, Birkhäuser, Cham, 2019, pp. 67- 88.Beattie, J. “Imperial landscapes of health: Place, plants and people between India and Australia, 1800´s‐1900´s”, Health and History, 14-1, (2012), pp. 100-120.Brügelmann, J. “Observations on the Process of Medicalization in Germany, 1770-1830, Based on Medical Topographies”, Réflexions historiques, 9 (1-2) (1982), pp. 131-149.Cárdenes, V., Ponce de León, M., Rodríguez, X. A., y Rubio-Ordóñez, A. “Roofing Slate Industry in Spain: History, Geology, and Geoheritage”, Geoheritage, vol. 11-1, (2019), pp.19-34.Casco Solis, J. “Las topografías médicas: revisión y cronología”, Asclepio, vol. LIII-1, (2001), pp. 213-244.Chías Navarro, P. y Abad Moreno, T., “La construcción del territorio: los puentes en Castilla y León”, en Historia de las obras públicas en Castilla y León: ingeniería, territorio y patrimonio. Madrid, Colegio de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, 2008, pp. 360-361. Chun, Y., Kwan, M.P. y Griffith, D.A. “Uncertainty and context in GIScience and geography: challenges in the era of geospatial big data”, International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 32, (2019), pp. 12-24.Comelles, J.M. “The Role of Local Knowledge in Medical Practice: A Trans-historical Perspective”. Cult Med Psychiatry, 24, (2000), pp. 39-73.D’Onofrio R. y Trusiani E., “The Need for New Urban Planning for Healthy Cities: Reorienting Urban Planning Towards Healthy Public Policy”, en Urban Planning for Healthy European Cities. Berlin, Springer, Cham, 2018, pp. 31-41.García Juan, L. y Vallina Rodríguez, A. “SIG y bases de datos. Oportunidades y retos en la transición de los sistemas tradicionales al big data”, Espacio Tiempo y Forma Serie VI Geografía, 12, (2019), pp. 135-158.García Juan, L., “Ciudad Rodrigo: al servicio del rey para la defensa de la frontera portuguesa”, en El Catastro de Ensenada. Magna Averiguación Fiscal para alivio de los vasallos y mejor conocimiento de los reinos (1749-1756). Ciudad Rodrigo, 1750. Madrid, Dirección General del Catastro, 2019, pp. 62-119. Griffin, C. “Historical Geography of Environment”, en International Encyclopedia of Human Geography. Elsevier, Londres, 2019, pp. 169-174.Gurrutxaga, M. “Geografía de la salud: aplicaciones en la planificación territorial y urbana”, Estudios geográficos, 280-286, (2019), pp. 2-18.Huzui, A. E., Călin, I. y Pătru-Stupariu, I. “Spatial Pattern Analyses of Landscape using Multi-Temporal Data Sources”, Procedia Environmental Sciences, 14, (2012), pp. 98-110.Jepson, W. “Of soil, situation, and Salubrity: Medical topography and medical officers in early nineteenth‐century British India”, Historical Geography, 32, (2004), pp. 137-155.Jori, G. “El estadio de la salud y la enfermedad desde una perspectiva geográfica: temas, enfoques y métodos”, Biblio 3W Revista bibliográfica de geografía y ciencias sociales, Vol. XVIII, n.º 1029, 15 de junio de 2013.Kearns, K.A. y Joseph, A.E. “Space in its place: Developing the link in medical geography”, Social Science Medicine, vol. 37-6, (1993), pp. 711-717.Lorenzo Briega, A., “Geografía médica española: Datos médicos topográficos de Ciudad Rodrigo”. Ciudad Rodrigo: Imp. de la Vda. e Hijos de Cuadrado, 1899, 102 pp. Oosterom, J. “The importance of hygiene in modern society”, International Biodeterioration Biodegradation, Volume 41, Issues 3–4, (1998), pp. 185-189.Parr, H. “Medical geography: critical medical and health geography?”, Progress in Human Geography, 22-2, (2004), pp. 246-257.Piovan S.E. “The Geohistorical Approach in Environmental and Territorial Studies”, en The Geohistorical Approach. Berlin, Springer Geography, 2020, pp. 5-37. Porras Galló, M. I. “Luchando contra una de las causas de invalidez: antecedentes, contexto sanitario, gestación y aplicación del decreto de vacunación obligatoria contra la viruela de 1903”. Asclepio, vol. LVI-1 (2004), pp. 145- 168.Prats, L. “La Catalunya rància les condicions de vida materials de les classes populars a la Catalunya de la Restauració segons les topografies mèdiques”. Barcelona, Ed. Alta Fulla, 1996.Sánchez Manzano, M., “Datos para la geografía médica de Ciudad Rodrigo”. Ciudad Rodrigo: Imp. De Vicente Cuadrado, 1929, 118 pp. Smyth, F. “Medical geography: understanding health inequalities”, Progress in Human Geography, 32-1 (2008), pp. 119-127.Urteaga, L. “La teoría de los climas y los orígenes del ambientalismo”, Geo Crítica, 99, (1993), pp. 5-55.— “Higienismo y ambientalismo en la medicina decimonónica”, Dynamis, V-VI, (1985), pp. 417- 425.— “Miseria, miasmas y microbios: Las topografías médicas y el estudio del medio ambiente en el siglo xix”, Geo Crítica, 5-29, (1890), pp.1-40.Vallina Rodríguez, A. “La provincia de Salamanca en el siglo xviii”, en El Catastro de Ensenada. Magna averiguación fiscal para alivio de los vasallos y mejor conocimiento de los reinos (1749-1756): Ciudad Rodrigo 1750. Dirección General de Catastro. Ministerio de Hacienda y Función Pública, 2019, pp. 48- 61.Vallina Rodríguez, A. Macedo Ruiz, E. C. y Camarero Bullón, C. “Medical Topographies: Sources for the Evolutionary Study of Territory and Landscape”, Human Geographies, 14-1 (2020), pp. 21-38.

Since 1997, the mining industry has paid attention to develop information-technology (IT) components at sectoral and enterprise levels. However, due to various reasons, including the interest of business and sector leaders as well as limited resources, IT in the mining industry is still on a small scale, in which it has not yet linked to a network and had a shared database, and is therefore not shared. Under the impact of Industry Revolution 4.0, to develop the IT field as an essential tool to promote the technologies of the 4.0 technology component, a systematic policy combination is needed. This article is responsible for meeting that demand of the IT field of Vietnam's mining industry. Keywords Industry 4.0, IT, IT policy. References [1] K. Schwab, The Fourth Industrial Revolution: What It Means and How to Respond, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/the-fourth-industrial-revolution-what-it-means-and-how-to-respond/, 2015.[2] Forschungsunion, Acatech, Recommendations for implementing the strategic initiative INDUSTRIE 4.0, Final report of the Industrie 4.0 Working Group, April 2013.[3] J.H. Leavitt, L.T. Whisler, Management in the 1980’s, Harvard Business Review, 1958-11.[4] National Assembly of Vietnam, Law on information technology (No. 67/2006/QH11), June 29, 2006 (in Vietnamese).[5] National Association directing the compilation of encyclopedias (Vietnam), Vietnamese encyclopedia, Hanoi, Vietnam, 1995 (in Vietnamese),[6] Wikipedia, Thomas Kuhn, https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn, 2019.[7] V.C. Dam, Scientific research methodology Science and Technics Publishing House, Hanoi, Vietnam, 1999 (in Vietnamese).

Abstract As Chinese socialism evolves into a new era, the government's concept of social governance has undergone profound and significant changes. Since the planned economy's inception, relying entirely on the government to implement a top-down, all-inclusive administrative management model has gradually proven incapable of adapting fully to the time requirements for development. Notably, the Fourth Plenary Session of the Party's 19th Central Committee adopted a major strategic decision to advance the country's governance system and capabilities for modernization, informatization, and intelligence. This manuscript aims to integrate social events based on encyclopedias, national standards, social events extracted from social networks, and social events discovered by the general public in order to realize modern social governance. By establishing a massive knowledge network, it is possible to analyze and manage the hierarchical classification of events, things, and organizations, as well as make flexible decisions about social events through a combination of automation, semi-automation, and manual processes, ensuring that events are quickly and accurately pushed to appropriate staff for survey, processing, and real-time feedback. This study is expected to be more effective in assisting social governance and facilitating the simultaneous transfer of urban management information among all participants. Simultaneously, the system will be used for carbon emission reduction management, enabling intelligent carbon emission reduction management, enhancing carbon emission reduction management efficiency, and injecting new impetus into the world's new path of green development in the post-epidemic era, thereby affecting international carbon emission reduction action, global industrial development patterns, and even geopolitical economic ecology.

The aim of the study was to analyze and characterize the priority principles of the formation of innovative and entrepreneurial competence of future managers of education. The article highlights the priority principles of the formation of innovative and entrepreneurial competence of future managers of education. In particular, the signs of innovative and entrepreneurial competence of future education managers have been determined. The features of academic entrepreneurship are characterized. The direction of the strategy of entrepreneurial activity of the University of Sustainable Development has been determined. The new role of the «entrepreneur-scientist» is presented – a manager of a new type who has economic thinking, mobility and is able to effectively carry out innovative and entrepreneurial activities, which is based on a sufficient level of formation of innovative and entrepreneurial competence. The following methods were used in the research: theoretical (study and analysis of psychological-pedagogical, economic, reference-encyclopedic, scientific-methodical literature on the researched problem; comparative analysis; theoretical modeling); empirical (pedagogical observation, study and generalization of pedagogical experience.

The article focuses on the scholars’ efforts to compile the ten volumes of the Great Dictionary of Contemporary Church Slavonic Language using software tools and a digitized corpus of texts to speed up the work and enable users to extract words and phrases from the corpus semi-automatically. One of the dictionary’s advantages is its detailed descriptions of phraseology and linguistic metaphors. This is because the hymnographic works that comprise the Church Slavonic corpus are poetic in nature. The dictionary’s primary goal is to provide information on the meanings of Church Slavonic words and phrases. Furthermore, the authors included grammar data for each word and encyclopedic data when necessary. The illustrations are complete with comparisons from Greek sources. The dictionary contains all of the dictionary found in the liturgical books, such as place names (toponyms), proper names identifying different people (anthroponyms), and function words.

The purpose of this article is to clarify the policy and legal provisions in the development of high-quality human resources (H-Q HR) in the field of education. A number of studies have shown that policies and laws play an important role in developing H-Q HR, but it is also a barrier if the policies and laws are not suitable for the actual development of the country. This research focuses on analyzing the real situation of H-Q HR in the field of education and training, pointing out the major successes and limitations in this field; at the same time, systematizing some practical and theoretical issues, analyzing the current situation of laws, and policies and on the development of H-Q HR in the field of education and training. From there, provide basic views and solutions to improve policies and laws on develop Cisco and Oxford Economics. (2018). Technology and the future of ASEAN jobs: the impacts of AI on workers in ASEAN’s six largest economies. https://www.cisco. com/c/dam/global/en_sg/assets/csr/pdf/technology-andthe-future-of-asean-jobs.pdf Communist Party of Vietnam. (2011). Document of the XIth NPC. Hanoi: National Politics Truth. Communist Party of Vietnam. (2016). Document of the XIIth NPC. Hanoi: National Politics Truth. Communist Party of Vietnam. (2021a). Document of the XIIIth NPC, vol 1. Hanoi: National Politics Truth. Communist Party of Vietnam. (2021b). Document of the XIIIth NPC, vol 2. Hanoi: National Politics Truth. Frederick Harbison and Charles A. Myers. (1964). Education, manpower, and economic growth: Strategies of human resource development. New York: McGraw - Hill. FAO/WHO. (1992). The Role of Nutrition in Social and Economic Development. Retrieved from https://www.fao.org/3/y5343e/y5343e04.htm (2020). Decree No. 112/2020/ND-CP on disciplining cadres, civil servants, and public employees. General Statistics Office. (2021). Press release on the employment situation in the fourth quarter of 2021 and Vietnam Human Development Index 2016 – 2020. Retrieved from https://www.gso.gov.vn/du-lieu-va-so-lieu%20-thong-ke/2022/01/thong-cao-bao-chi-tinh-hinh-lao-dong-viec-lam-quy-iv-nam-2021-va-chi-so-phat-trien-child-people%20-viet-nam-2016-2020/,%20January%206,%202022 Hai, T. N. (2021). Policy on development of Vietnamese intellectuals - viewed from Resolution 27, term X. Journal of Propaganda. Retrieved from http://tapchimattran.vn/nghien-cuu/chinh-sach-phat-trien-doi-ngu-tri-thuc-viet-nam-nhin-tu-nghi-quyet-27-khoa-x-42283.html V. Van. (2022). Management of educational activities in schools towards the approach of learners’ competency: a case study of a high school. Nuances: Estudos Sobre Educação, 32(00), e021005. https://doi.org/10.32930/nuances.v32i00.9118. V. Van., & Hiep, H. D. (2019). Innovating teaching and learning methods to improve the quality of human resource training in Vietnam today. International Journal of Science and Research 8 (8), 1853-1861. DOI: 10.21275/ART2020713 V. Van. (2022). The State's Legal Policy and Management on Civil Servants: The Current Situation and Issues Raised. International Journal of Early Childhood Special Education, 14(3). DOI: 10.9756/INT-JECSE/V14I3.688 Hang, L. T., & Van, V. H. (2020). Building Strong Teaching and Learning Strategies through Teaching Innovations and Learners’ Creativity: A Study of Vietnam Universities. International Journal of Education and Practice, 8(3), 498–510. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.61.2020.83.498.510 Hieu, N. (2022). Building a team of intellectuals in the current era. State Organization Magazine. Retrieved from https://tcnn.vn/news/detail/40902/Xay_dung_doi_ngu_tri_thuc_trong_thoi_dai_hien_nayall.html Hoduc, H., Vothanh, H., &Vuhong, V. (2022). The changes in education policy in the context of educational innovation in Vietnam. Revista on Line De Política E GestãoEducacional, 26(esp.1), e022043. https://doi.org/10.22633/rpge.v26iesp.1.16772 HongVan, V (2020). Identify Methods of Teaching and Learning to Create Interest, Self-Study, And Creativity of Students. Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews, 8(3), 646-656. https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2020.8369. International Labor Organization. (2022). The open economy changes the form, distribution and quality of Vietnamese jobs. Retrieved from https://www.ilo.org/hanoi/Informationresources/Publicinformation/comments-and-analysis/WCMS_736066/lang--en/index.htm,%2011-2-2022 Schwab. (2016). The Fourth Industrial Revolution: what it means, how to respond https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/the-fourth-industrial-revolution-what-it-means-and-how-to-respond/ Luongngoc, V., & Vuhong, V. (2022). Research and teaching of marxism-leninism at the universities: The requirements, difficulties and recommended solutions. Nuances: Estudos Sobre Educação, 33(00), e022011. https://doi.org/10.32930/nuances.v33i00.9489 Mai, V.T.P. (2012). Renovate the remuneration policy for H-Q HR, creating a driving force to promote the cause of industrialization and modernization in the spirit of the XIth Party Congress. Communist Journale (online). Minh, H. C. (2011): Complete Volume, Volume 5. Hanoi: National Politics Truth. National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. (2008). Law on cadres and civil servants (Law No. 22/2008/QH12). Hanoi. National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. (2010). Law on Public Officials (Law No. 58/2010/QH12). Hanoi. National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. (2014). Law on Organization of the National Assembly (Law No. 57/2014/QH13). Hanoi. National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. (2015). Law on Organization of Local Government (Law No. 77/2015/QH13). Hanoi. National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. (2012). Labor Code (Law No. 10/2012/QH13). Hanoi. National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. (2019a). Amending and supplementing a number of articles of the Law on cadres and civil servants and the Law on public employees (Law No. 52/2019/QH14). Hanoi. National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. (2019b). Law on Education (Law No. 43/2019/QH14). Hanoi. National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. (2019c). Labor Code (Law No. 45/2019/QH14). Hanoi. Party Central Committee. (2021). Conclusion No. 21-KL/TW on accelerating the rectification of the Party and political system, strictly handling cadres who have degraded in ideology, morality, and lifestyle, and exhibiting “self-evolution” and “self-transformation”. Hanoi. OECD/ERIA (2018). SME Policy Index: ASEAN 2018: Boosting Competitiveness and Inclusive Growth. OECD Publishing, Paris/Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia, Jakarta. https://doi. org/10.1787/9789264305328-en The National Council directs the compilation of the Vietnam Encyclopedia. (2005). Encyclopedic dictionary. Hanoi: Encyclopedia Dictionary. The Politburo. (2011). Resolution No. 08-NQ/TW, issued on December 1, 2011, on “Strengthening the leadership of the Party, creating a strong change in physical training and sports until 2020”. Hanoi. Theodore W.Schultz (1961). Investment in human capital. USA: The American Economic Review. Trung, N. S., & Van, V. H. (2020). Educating Traditional Cultural Values in Vietnam Universities. South Asian Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 2(3), pp. 210-214. Trung, N. S., & Van, V. H. (2020). Vietnamese Cultural Identity in the Process of International Integration. Journal of Advances in Education and Philosophy 4(6), pp. 220- 225. Truong P. X. Anh, T. T. (2019). National human resource development strategy in the world and lessons learned for Vietnam. VNU Journal of Science: Policy and Management Studies, 35(3), pp. 12-20. Vuhong. (2021). Managing traffic safety education activities in primary and y schools: status, necessity, and influencing factors. Revista on Line De Política E GestãoEducacional, 25(3), 2535–2551. https://doi.org/10.22633/rpge.v25i3.15840 Van, V. H. (2022a). The State's Legal Policy and Management on Civil Servants: The Current Situation and Issues Raised. International Journal of Early Childhood Special Education, 14(3). DOI: 10.9756/INT-JECSE/V14I3.688 Van, V. H. (2022b). Education policy in the context of Vietnam’s international integration: Problems raised and proposed solutions. International Journal of Health Sciences, 6(S4), 3562–3571. https://doi.org/10.53730/ijhs.v6nS4.9019 VNIES. (2018). Survey report on demands for IT HR of businesses (within the Government level research on “Forecasting HR needs as a basis for developing the training program until 2025”. (2022). 16,000 teachers quit in 2022. Retrieved fromhttps://vnexpress.net/16-000-giao-vien-bo-viec-trong-nam-2022-4517768.html Vuhong, V. (2022). Management of educational activities in schools towards the approach of learners’ competency: a case study of a high school. Nuances: EstudosSobreEducação, 32(00), e021005. https://doi.org/10.32930/nuances.v32i00.9118 (2000). World Development Indicators. - London: Oxford. Yoshihara Kunio. (1999). The Nation and Economic Growth – Korea and Thailand. - Kyoto: Kyoto University.Historical article: Received: 15.08.2022. Revised: 28.12.2022. Accepted: 04. 01.2023 ment of H-Q HR in the field of education, and training in Vietnam.

Introduction The evolution of creative city paradigm in the last three decades has dramatically changed the notion of placemaking and the meaning of art and design for urban development in the creative and cultural economy context. Very recently, a spontaneously emerging art district has been exploited by policy actions in many cities, resulting in its presence on the global stage at the UNESCO Creative City Network. The two most common approaches that drive art and design-based development policies are seen in the creative city approach and community development approach (Evans; Murdoch III et al.). The creative city approach aims to contribute to economic development by focussing on the economic role of art and design (Florida; Murdoch III et al.). The community development approach, on the other hand, is seen as an important factor for social benefit and democratic development (Murdoch III et al.; Grodach; Markusen and Gadwa). Grassroots arts movements and community arts organisations, in the community development approach, support the arts as a low-income community involvement and development initiative (Murdoch III et al.). According to Grodach, public spaces and art and design spaces have three main roles in community development, and are built on local assets to increase community engagement, interaction, and participation. Despite the vast range of economic considerations in the current literature, it remains unclear how creative placemaking through arts, crafts, and design operates in the context of creative cities. Particularly, there is a need for a more comprehensive perspective of how creative placemaking contributes to art district development. Economic competition among creative cities has increased, especially since neoliberal policies diffused to the urban agenda. The city of Izmir, located in the Aegean coast of Turkey, being one of the world's top 130 cities (Tekeli), contributes to globalisation of the region and occupies a unique position in Turkey’s democratic history. Regarding the global arena, Izmir has reformulated its governmental structure in the making of places, with particular neighbourhoods seeking to increase their attractiveness to the creative class, support the creative industries, and to become a ‘Creative City’. Since the Culture and Art Workshop in 2009, when the Izmir Metropolitan Municipality established a creative city vision to serve as a high point in a democratic era, in particular involving elements of culture and creativity of importance for local and global actors, there has been a series of programs with different design strategies and governance mechanisms, such as the design projects (e.g. Izmir Sea Project and Izmir History Project, and History Design Workshop), formations (e.g. establishment of Izmir Mediterranean Academy with branches of history, design, ecology, culture, and arts in 2013), events and organisations (e.g. Good Design Izmir in 2016, 5th World Design Talks by the World Design Organization [WDO] in 2018), and applications for candidacy (e.g. for the World Design Capital title 2020, and UNESCO Creative Cities Network in 2019). The purpose of this article is to explore the drivers for art and design-based development in the urban environment through the lens of creative placemaking, and how this is practiced by creative class grassroots initiatives in cities such as Izmir, Turkey, which was shortlisted in the Creative City Network competition in 2019. The methodology is built on 1) a framework analysis through the research on art and design districts and the utilisation of creative placemaking, and 2) a field study exploring the creative placemaking drivers in an emerging art district, Darağaç, in Izmir. The field study is composed of site visits, visual mappings, the use of snowball sampling to reach the creative class, and structured interviews. The framework analysis findings suggest a set of creative placemaking drivers for art and design-based developments, and the case study findings present implications for future policies for integration of localised initiatives into the creative city framework. Framework Analysis The practice of creative cities applies one-size-fits-all strategies based on tangible and intangible characteristics to attract talent and support economic growth, whereas creative placemaking offers some crucial approaches to contribute to a locale's success and involvement in larger-scale plans. Therefore, placemaking appears as a phenomenological process that explains a sense of place, attachments, and, more broadly, the interaction between a region and its inhabitants (Mengi and Guaralda). The term ‘creative placemaking’ was first used by economist Ann Markusen and art consultant Anne Gadwa in the 2010 White Paper of the National Endowment for the Arts, as a solution when cities, suburbs, and small towns are faced with structural changes and displacement. Creative placemaking aims to revitalise space and economic development with creative initiatives. Markusen and Gadwa argue that creative placemaking provides gains in areas such as innovative products and services, livability, diversity, jobs, and income opportunities. Creative placemaking is also defined as a community-participatory tool to strengthen and enrich the identity of a place as well as development of a place. Community identity enables local assets to build trust and relationships (Kelkar et al.) while exploiting social and civic fabric that brings out the local character and narratives (Borrup). Moreover, Redaelli formulates creative placemaking as an innovative way of thinking for solving community problems that utilises the creative power of art and artists. From an economic perspective, Gallagher et al. point out that creative placemaking can happen in communities of any size and uses art and cross-sector collaboration to benefit the space. Creative placemaking through cross-sector collaboration is directly related to political ideology, social division, community size, resource limitations, and capacity of arts organisations. The theoretical discussion derived from the literature enables us to reconsider the use of creative placemaking approaches for creative city strategies and provides a framework that brings the most significant drivers of creative placemaking, especially for art and design-based strategies in urban environments (Table 1). Drivers Indicators Creative Practices Products Artworks Events Festivals Cultural Production Local Assets Local Knowledge Context Listening & Gathering Stories Knowledge & Skill Exchange Creativity Exchange Experiential Learning Community Involvement Co-Creation Collaboration Creative Placemakers Artists Designers Craftspeople Resident of the Community Local Audience Virtual Platform Archive/Publications Creativity Productivity Collectivity Spatial Environment Neighbourhood Streets Place Identity Digital Hub Atelier Digital Studio/Maker Space Art Galleries Exhibition Spaces Art Equipment Maker/Supplier Meeting Place/Third Place Institutional Support Networking Platform for Dialogue Space for Exhibition Publicity Public Fund Private Fund Philanthropists Sponsorship Education Institutions Art Institutions Art Organisations Non-Government Organisations Government Table 1: Major drivers of creative placemaking. Creative Practices, as the first driver, aim to describe tangible outputs such as products, works of art, events, and festivals. Wyckoff defines projects and activities involving art, culture, and creative thinking as the driving forces of creative placemaking to create collective memory. In this regard, Mutero et al. emphasise the importance of listening and gathering stories, in which it associates definitions such as community, local knowledge, and context. Describing community participation as a tool to improve the development of a place, Kelkar et al. mention that it helps to change the perception of the community. In this context, it creates trust and relationships while building community identity and sense of belonging. Creative Placemakers, as the second driver, represent actors in creative placemaking. One of the six drivers suggested by Markusen and Gadwa for creating a successful place are the creative initiators. Borrup, on the other hand, underlines the role of crucial actors, named as creative placemakers, such as city planners, developers, artists, local policy makers. neighbourhood residents, and local audiences, who also take part in creative practices guided by artists, designers, and craftspeople. According to Gaumer et al. and Schupbach, local actors must be involved as partners to realise more effective successful creative placemaking practices. Similarly, Kelkar et al. argue that the relationships that are built on the collaborative nature of involving actors transform productivity and create social capital. Spatial Environment, as the third driver, focusses on the spaces of creative practices. Spatial environments can be referred to at different scales, such as the digital hubs, ateliers, maker spaces, and event areas such as art galleries and exhibition areas that bring creative placemakers together and enable them to produce together. According to Ellery et al., such spaces enhance the use of public spaces while providing a sense of aesthetics, security, and community. Wyckoff lists drivers of creative placemaking as art spaces where artistic, cultural, and creative projects take place, work and living spaces for the creative class, art, culture, and entertainment activities. Institutional Support, as the fourth driver, underlines the expectations of creative placemakers from institutions. The institutional support through networking provides a platform for creative placemakers to establish dialogue as well as opportunities for exhibition areas and performances. The importance of the support of institutions and organisations such as the public sector, private sector, NGOs, and sponsors are essential to creative placemaking practices. Particularly, cross-sector partnership between institutions such as education institutions, art institutions, art organisations, non-government organisations, and government plays an important role in art and design-based development (Markusen and Gadwa; Borrup). Emergence of Darağaç as an Art District Creative places are found at various scales, such as regions, districts, hubs, and studios, and constitute the very integral part of the creative city formation. They represent a high culture ground on which artists and designers can design, make, and exhibit art. The secret of the successful transformation of creative places lies in the spontaneity of their development. The spontaneously emerging creative places are found as the result of a bottom-up approach where the resident involvement in this transformation strengthens the bond between local people and the place. Spontaneous developments are visible where cultural producers come together to attract like-minded producers (Zukin & Braslow). Examples of this phenomenon include New York City's SoHo neighbourhood, Beijing's 798 Arts District, Kreuzberg in Berlin, and the Temple Bar district in Dublin (Goldenberg-Miller et al.). The development of a spontaneous art and design district starts with the coming together of artists, designers, and cultural workers to form a network. Factors strengthening the network and contributing to the success of the region include community perception, information exchange within the community, and working and living together (Kumer). Darağaç has very recently emerged as an art district in Umurbey neighbourhood in Izmir. Known formerly as an industrial zone, it now hosts small industries and artists. Darağaç Art District, home to pre-Republican era factories operated by non-Muslim minorities and nineteenth-century two-storey workers' residences, was developed in the twentieth century as an industrial zone hosting Şark Sanayi Electric Factory, İzmir Cotton Fabric Factory, and Sümerbank Basma Industry (Kayın qtd. in Pasin et al.). A small group of artists from Izmir settled in the region in 2013, in rented former workers' residences serving as studios and residences, and shortly afterwards the district started to attract more artists and designers (Darağaç Collective). Surrounded by inert and functionless industrial buildings, Darağaç Art District still maintains its industrial identity as well as hosting those on low incomes and providing artists with opportunity to live and produce (Kocaer). There has been an increasing dialogue established between the original inhabitants, mostly craftspeople, and the artists, especially after 2 craftspeople and 13 artists opened their first exhibitions in June 2016 (Darağaç Collective). Since then, Darağaç has evolved to an “art district”, home to many projects and national and international artists. This has greatly shaped the physical environment and neighbourhood identity in the Darağaç Art District (fig. 1). Fig. 1: The integration of artworks or installations with the physical environment and neighbourhood identity in the Darağaç Art District. (Source: Kanal.) For Yavuzcezzar, the main purpose of Darağaç is to provide a space or a common discourse for young artists to exhibit their works. Darağaç Art District hosts interdisciplinary art works covering painting, photography, sculpture, installation, video, and performance (Yavuzcezzar). Also, Children's Meetings held in Darağaç Art District aim to increase the engagement of children in the neighbourhood through culture and arts (Darağaç Collective). Kılınç et al. explain the three main factors contributing to the development of the Darağaç Art District: site specificity; collaborative art practice; and close personal relationships established between neighbours. The site specificity factor is defined as the expansion of production towards the street and the inert lots in the district, replacing the existing spatial configurations in the neighbourhood, which do not meet the needs of the artists. Collaborative art practice is defined as the exchange between local people and artists. Kılınç et al. argue that the productive roles of artists and craftspeople have enabled them to establish a cooperation. The third factor is the close relationship established between neighbours through the Darağaç Collective Association in 2020 (Kılınç et al.). This has been visible in one of the most influential projects, ‘Darağaç Bostan’, in Darağaç (fig. 2). Fig. 2: Co-creation efforts in the Darağaç Art District. (Source: Culture Civic.) The case of Darağaç illustrates a unique case of a spontaneously emerged art district and underlines the importance of creative placemaking drivers for bottom-up creative city strategies. The area has been a democratic space via meetings, exhibitions, and workshops (fig. 3). Fig. 3: Knowledge-sharing practices in the Darağaç Art District. (Source: Darağaç.) The Case of Darağaç The case study consists of site visits, visual mappings, use of snowball sampling for reaching the artists and craftspeople, and structured interviews, and discusses the major drivers of creative placemaking and how they are practiced in Darağaç in Izmir. First Studies The first site visit to the Darağaç Art District was conducted in November 2020. At the time, there were a total of 13 artists and over 30 craftspeople located in the area (fig. 4). Following this, the pilot survey was conducted in February 2021, with a total of six participants, four artists, and two craftspeople from Darağaç Art District. All six participants were interviewed face-to-face, and each survey took approximately 15-20 minutes. After feedback from the pilot study participants, several changes were made in the final version of the survey. The following image illustrates the spatial clustering of craftspeople and artists residing in the neighbourhood who participated in the study (fig. 4). Fig. 4: Darağaç Survey Map. The Survey and Findings The four above-mentioned main drivers of creative placemaking, namely creative practices, creative placemakers, spatial environment, and institutional support, were addressed by Likert-scale questions. In the framework of the previously identified creative placemaking drivers, the survey was carried out to collect the opinions of the art district residents and draw conclusions. The participants were classified into three categories: artists, designers, and craftspeople. The first part of the survey is composed of general questions (age, gender, field of study, etc.) to give an overall idea of the participants. In the following four sections, it was aimed to measure the major drivers of creative placemaking, categorised as creative practices, creative placemakers, spatial environment, and institutional support. The fifth part examined the spatiality of art and design-based development in Darağaç in terms of economic, environmental, cultural, and social aspects. The survey was conducted between February and March 2021 in Darağaç Art District. All the art district residents were contacted and the rate of return of surveys was approximately 50%. 58% of the participants were resident in the neighbourhood, 42% were non-resident. 42% of participants reported that they used shared workspaces; 58% used individual workspaces. According to the survey results, the driving forces that most contribute to the development of the region are creative practices (art and craft works), creative placemakers (artists, designers, and craftspeople), and spatial environment (place identity), followed by institutional support from public, private, and non-governmental organisations, respectively (fig. 5). Fig. 5: Contributions of drivers to creative placemaking in Darağaç. It seems that the interaction and collaboration grouped under creative practice contribute significantly to the development of Darağaç, closely followed by knowledge and skill exchange and the presence of art and design events, and, lastly, by the final products. Considering the role of placemakers in the spontaneous development of Darağaç, an art district, the findings reveal that artists make the greatest contribution, followed by designers and craftspeople, while the impact of the residents as placemakers is relatively low. The results for the place-based inspirations for creative placemakers show that the spatiality of placemaking has a considerable effect on the texture of the neighbourhood. For the placemakers in the district, the pre-existence of artists, designers, and craftspeople in Darağaç was one of the main reasons for locating there. The neighbourhood’s cultural and historical value and the communication with the local community have equal importance in terms of their contribution to the spontaneous development. Finally, we examine institutional support as the final driver, which falls behind the other three, as seen in fig. 5. Only 38% of the participants reported that they were able to collaborate with an institution before, while only 38% managed to receive financial support. According to the results, the main three actors supporting the grassroots activities through collaborations are art organisations, universities, and municipalities. The results also show that the financial support through funding comes mainly from the existing associations and public authorities. Evaluation The results obtained from the case study show that cultural exchange has been the most influential factor in art and design-based development. Regarding the creative placemaking drivers, dialogue between the residents of the neighborhood has considerably increased as they share and exchange knowledge and skills since the art district development spontaneously started. Changing perceptions of the neighborhood residents through time and their growing relationship with art, design, and crafts have greatly contributed to the emergence of an art district. When we examine the art and design-based development, it is visible that the neighbourhood has evolved to a more attractive and atmospheric space for art and design practices. The results underline the role of solidarity and sense of belonging for strengthening the community engagement. We can also argue that the adaptive reuse of vacant spaces and the design of possible exhibition spaces have dramatically changed the identity of the space. However, the economic impacts of spontaneous art and design-based development have remained moderate with regard to the creation of auxiliary sectors to the production process, creating new jobs and income opportunities and having a self-sufficient economy. Conclusion Since 2010, the placemaking process has been more sensitive, with the help of increased human input and indication of co-creation tactics through creative placemaking. Creative placemaking has been reshaped along the creative city policies and strategies. Before the conceptualisation of creative placemaking, many authors (see Jones; Weitz; Wositzsky), had referred to the link between art and community development, and highlighted how artists, art societies and local communities are positively affected by using art as a tool for the community. Within this context, this article provides a relatively more comprehensive approach to art and design-based development within the framework of creative placemaking for the creative cities of today. It examines and categorises the creative placemaking components, and explores how these components work and how they contribute to spontaneous art district development through the case of Darağaç, Izmir, in Turkey, a place where artists, designers, and craftspeople live and produce together. Culture and creativity as significant tools for economic development and urban renewal are found in many of the recent planning strategies (Codignola). The creative economy, cultural tourism, and creative placemaking have encouraged communities to use art for economic benefit (Gallagher et al.). According to Grodach, art and design spaces can contribute to tourism by attracting visitors from the immediate environment while providing employment opportunities to local artists and thus contributing to individual well-being and local economic development. Although this does not have the power to eliminate problems such as displacement, unemployment, and social exclusion, it makes a great contribution to urban inequality (Grodach). The four main drivers, creative practices, creative placemakers, spatial environment, and institutional support, all play a significant role in the emergence of Darağaç as an art district. The most influential driver, that of creative practices, highlights the importance of art and design production and events and festivals as creative practices, indicating a high concentration of local assets and tacit knowledge. Secondly, placemakers have a considerable importance in the spontaneous transformation from an industrial zone to an art district with regard to craftspeople’s and designers’ living and work environments. Also, their collective attitude towards the local residents in the area seems to have significantly contributed to this development through skill exchange, community involvement, and co-creation. Thirdly, the spatial environment, originating in the 1930s, and the available amenities have a great influence on the identity formation of the district. Lastly, the available institutional support underlines the strong role of art and design in economic development. However, Darağaç Art District has yet to receive sufficient support from the institutions, and tries to sustain its organic structure by operating as a self-sufficient entity. In further studies, additional drivers must be examined on an individual basis to arrive at policy suggestions, due to the strategic importance of building a feeling of place in the attraction and retention of creative talent. For the policy recommendations, it is important that the current urban agenda should present a combination of characteristics derived from the framework of creative placemaking for building better and more habitable creative places, rather than focussing solely on the more visible economic and physical urban goals. It is crucial to understand the strategic balance of the various drivers that enable the growth of creative places for future urban development. For the practical implications, the use of creative placemaking drivers for spontaneous art and design-based development enables the collaboration between different actors and engagement of grassroots activities in policymaking. References Borrup, Tom. "Creative Placemaking: Arts and Culture as a Partner in Community Revitalization." 2016. Codignola, Federica. "Culture and Creativity Management: Milan as a Global Capital for Value Creation." Symphonya: Emerging Issues in Management 2 (2016): 108-124. Culture Civic. "REENKARNE darağaç." 2022. 29 May 2022 <https://www.culture-civic.org/projeler/reenkarne-daragac>. Darağaç. "Neighborhood and Culture-Art Relationship." 2021. 22 May 2022 <https://www.daragac.com/en/neighborhood-and-culture-art-relationship/>. Darağaç Collective. “About Darağaç.” Darağaç_Kitap (2019): 136-139 Ellery, Jane, et al. "Placemaking: An Engaged Approach to Community Well-Being." Journal of Family & Consumer Sciences 109.2 (2017): 7-13. Evans, Graeme. "Creative Cities, Creative Spaces and Urban Policy." Urban Studies 46.5-6 (2009): 1003-1040. Gallagher, B. Kathleen, and Matthew P. Ehlman. "Arts at the Intersection: Cross-Sector Collaboration and Creative Placemaking in Rapid City, SD." Public Performance & Management Review 42.6 (2019): 1333-1350. Gaumer, Carol J., Kathie J. Shaffer, and Corey A. Knipple. "Creative Placemaking: Marketing Communities and Success Metrics." Journal of International Business Disciplines 14.1 (2019). Grodach, Carl. "Art Spaces, Public Space, and the Link to Community Development." Community Development Journal 45.4 (2010): 474-493. ———. "Art Spaces in Community and Economic Development: Connections to Neighborhoods, Artists, and the Cultural Economy." Journal of Planning Education and Research 31.1 (2011): 74-85. ———. "Urban Cultural Policy and Creative City Making." Cities 68 (2017): 82-91. Goldberg-Miller, Shoshanah B.D., and Joe E. Heimlich. "Creatives' Expectations: The Role of Supercreatives in Cultural District Development." Cities 62 (2017): 120-130. Jones, Bernie. "The Community Artist as Community Development Catalyst: An Evaluation of a Pilot Project." Community Development 19.1 (1988): 37-50. Kanal, Ali. "Gift." See: Darağaç. 2017. 27 Mar. 2022 <https://www.daragac.com/en/see-daragac/>. Kelkar, Nikita Prakash, and Gabriella Spinelli. "Building Social Capital through Creative Placemaking." Strategic Design Research Journal 9.2 (2016): 54-66. Kayın, Emel. “The Architecture of Industrial Buildings.” Izmir City Encyclopedia, Architecture 1 (2013). Kilinc, Kivanc, Burkay Pasin, and Guzden Varinlioglu. "Becoming One with the Neighborhood: Collaborative Art, Space-Making, and Urban Change in Izmir Daragac." 2021. Kocaer, Onur. “Darağaç III.” Platform Journal (2018): 51-52. Kumer, Peter. "Self-Governance and Social Inclusion in a Post-Socialist City: Contradictions between City-Designated and Naturally-Occurring Arts Districts." Družboslovna Revija 57.1 (2020): 28-48. Markusen, Ann, and Anne Gadwa. "Creative Placemaking." Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Arts, 2010. Mengi, Onur, and Mirko Guaralda. "Multidimensional Management Framework for Creative Places." Journal of Place Management and Development 13.3 (2020): 297–317. Murdoch III, James, Carl Grodach, and Nicole Foster. "The Importance of Neighborhood Context in Arts-Led Development: Community Anchor or Creative Class Magnet?" Journal of Planning Education and Research 36.1 (2016): 32-48. Mutero, Innocent Tinashe, and Ivan Gunass Govender. "Advancing the Exploration of Engaged Creative-Placemaking amongst Universities and Communities for Social Cohesion in South Africa." Journal of Asian and African Studies 55.3 (2020): 429-445. Nowak, Jeremy. "Creativity and Neighborhood Development: Strategies for Community Investment." 2007. Pasin, Burkay, Güzden Varinlioğlu, and Kıvanç Kılınç. "Alternatif Bir Kentsel Tamirat Pratiği Olarak Darağaç [Darağaç as an Alternative Urban Repair Practice]." Ege Mimarlık 4.108 (2020): 78-85. Redaelli, Eleonora. "Creative Placemaking and the NEA: Unpacking a Multi-Level Governance." Policy Studies 37.4 (2016): 387-402. Schupbach, Jason. "Creative Placemaking." Economic Development Journal 14.4 (2015): 28-33. Tekeli, İlhan. “İzmir Modeli: İzmir İçin Demokratik Bir Belediyecilik Modeli Önerisi.” İzmir Büyükşehir Belediyesi (2018): 64. Weitz, Judith. Coming Up Taller: Arts and Humanities Programs for Children and Youth at Risk. Diane Publishing, 1996. Wositzky, Helen. "Out of the Ashes, a Community Responds: The Dandenong Ranges Bushfires, January 1997." The Australian Journal of Emergency Management 13.2 (1998): 17-20. Wyckoff, Mark A. "Definition of Dlacemaking: Four Different Types." Planning & Zoning News 32.3 (2014): 1. Yavuzcezzar, Zeynep. “Preface.” Darağaç_Kitap (2019): 6-7. Zukin, Sharon, and Laura Braslow. "The Life Cycle of New York’s Creative Districts: Reflections on the Unanticipated Consequences of Unplanned Cultural Zones." City, Culture and Society 2.3 (2011): 131-140.

Introduction Cookbooks are an exceptional written record of what is largely an oral tradition. They have been described as “magician’s hats” due to their ability to reveal much more than they seem to contain (Wheaton, “Finding”). The first book printed in Germany was the Guttenberg Bible in 1456 but, by 1490, printing was introduced into almost every European country (Tierney). The spread of literacy between 1500 and 1800, and the rise in silent reading, helped to create a new private sphere into which the individual could retreat, seeking refuge from the community (Chartier). This new technology had its effects in the world of cookery as in so many spheres of culture (Mennell, All Manners). Trubek notes that cookbooks are the texts most often used by culinary historians, since they usually contain all the requisite materials for analysing a cuisine: ingredients, method, technique, and presentation. Printed cookbooks, beginning in the early modern period, provide culinary historians with sources of evidence of the culinary past. Historians have argued that social differences can be expressed by the way and type of food we consume. Cookbooks are now widely accepted as valid socio-cultural and historic documents (Folch, Sherman), and indeed the link between literacy levels and the protestant tradition has been expressed through the study of Danish cookbooks (Gold). From Apicius, Taillevent, La Varenne, and Menon to Bradley, Smith, Raffald, Acton, and Beeton, how can both manuscript and printed cookbooks be analysed as historic documents? What is the difference between a manuscript and a printed cookbook? Barbara Ketchum Wheaton, who has been studying cookbooks for over half a century and is honorary curator of the culinary collection in Harvard’s Schlesinger Library, has developed a methodology to read historic cookbooks using a structured approach. For a number of years she has been giving seminars to scholars from multidisciplinary fields on how to read historic cookbooks. This paper draws on the author’s experiences attending Wheaton’s seminar in Harvard, and on supervising the use of this methodology at both Masters and Doctoral level (Cashman; Mac Con Iomaire, and Cashman). Manuscripts versus Printed Cookbooks A fundamental difference exists between manuscript and printed cookbooks in their relationship with the public and private domain. Manuscript cookbooks are by their very essence intimate, relatively unedited and written with an eye to private circulation. Culinary manuscripts follow the diurnal and annual tasks of the household. They contain recipes for cures and restoratives, recipes for cleansing products for the house and the body, as well as the expected recipes for cooking and preserving all manners of food. Whether manuscript or printed cookbook, the recipes contained within often act as a reminder of how laborious the production of food could be in the pre-industrialised world (White). Printed cookbooks draw oxygen from the very fact of being public. They assume a “literate population with sufficient discretionary income to invest in texts that commodify knowledge” (Folch). This process of commoditisation brings knowledge from the private to the public sphere. There exists a subset of cookbooks that straddle this divide, for example, Mrs. Rundell’s A New System of Domestic Cookery (1806), which brought to the public domain her distillation of a lifetime of domestic experience. Originally intended for her daughters alone, Rundell’s book was reprinted regularly during the nineteenth century with the last edition printed in 1893, when Mrs. Beeton had been enormously popular for over thirty years (Mac Con Iomaire, and Cashman). Barbara Ketchum Wheaton’s Structured Approach Cookbooks can be rewarding, surprising and illuminating when read carefully with due effort in understanding them as cultural artefacts. However, Wheaton notes that: “One may read a single old cookbook and find it immensely entertaining. One may read two and begin to find intriguing similarities and differences. When the third cookbook is read, one’s mind begins to blur, and one begins to sense the need for some sort of method in approaching these documents” (“Finding”). Following decades of studying cookbooks from both sides of the Atlantic and writing a seminal text on the French at table from 1300-1789 (Wheaton, Savouring the Past), this combined experience negotiating cookbooks as historical documents was codified, and a structured approach gradually articulated and shared within a week long seminar format. In studying any cookbook, regardless of era or country of origin, the text is broken down into five different groupings, to wit: ingredients; equipment or facilities; the meal; the book as a whole; and, finally, the worldview. A particular strength of Wheaton’s seminars is the multidisciplinary nature of the approaches of students who attend, which throws the study of cookbooks open to wide ranging techniques. Students with a purely scientific training unearth interesting patterns by developing databases of the frequency of ingredients or techniques, and cross referencing them with other books from similar or different timelines or geographical regions. Patterns are displayed in graphs or charts. Linguists offer their own unique lens to study cookbooks, whereas anthropologists and historians ask what these objects can tell us about how our ancestors lived and drew meaning from life. This process is continuously refined, and each grouping is discussed below. Ingredients The geographic origins of the ingredients are of interest, as is the seasonality and the cost of the foodstuffs within the scope of each cookbook, as well as the sensory quality both separately and combined within different recipes. In the medieval period, the use of spices and large joints of butchers meat and game were symbols of wealth and status. However, when the discovery of sea routes to the New World and to the Far East made spices more available and affordable to the middle classes, the upper classes spurned them. Evidence from culinary manuscripts in Georgian Ireland, for example, suggests that galangal was more easily available in Dublin during the eighteenth century than in the mid-twentieth century. A new aesthetic, articulated by La Varenne in his Le Cuisinier Francois (1651), heralded that food should taste of itself, and so exotic ingredients such as cinnamon, nutmeg, and ginger were replaced by the local bouquet garni, and stocks and sauces became the foundations of French haute cuisine (Mac Con Iomaire). Some combinations of flavours and ingredients were based on humoral physiology, a long held belief system based on the writings of Hippocrates and Galen, now discredited by modern scientific understanding. The four humors are blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. It was believed that each of these humors would wax and wane in the body, depending on diet and activity. Galen (131-201 AD) believed that warm food produced yellow bile and that cold food produced phlegm. It is difficult to fathom some combinations of ingredients or the manner of service without comprehending the contemporary context within they were consumeSome ingredients found in Roman cookbooks, such as “garum” or “silphium” are no longer available. It is suggested that the nearest substitute for garum also known as “liquamen”—a fermented fish sauce—would be Naam Plaa, or Thai fish sauce (Grainger). Ingredients such as tea and white bread, moved from the prerogative of the wealthy over time to become the staple of the urban poor. These ingredients, therefore, symbolise radically differing contexts during the seventeenth century than in the early twentieth century. Indeed, there are other ingredients such as hominy (dried maize kernel treated with alkali) or grahams (crackers made from graham flour) found in American cookbooks that require translation to the unacquainted non-American reader. There has been a growing number of food encyclopaedias published in recent years that assist scholars in identifying such commodities (Smith, Katz, Davidson). The Cook’s Workplace, Techniques, and Equipment It is important to be aware of the type of kitchen equipment used, the management of heat and cold within the kitchen, and also the gradual spread of the industrial revolution into the domestic sphere. Visits to historic castles such as Hampton Court Palace where nowadays archaeologists re-enact life below stairs in Tudor times give a glimpse as to how difficult and labour intensive food production was. Meat was spit-roasted in front of huge fires by spit boys. Forcemeats and purees were manually pulped using mortar and pestles. Various technological developments including spit-dogs, and mechanised pulleys, replaced the spit boys, the most up to date being the mechanised rotisserie. The technological advancements of two hundred years can be seen in the Royal Pavilion in Brighton where Marie-Antoinin Carême worked for the Prince Regent in 1816 (Brighton Pavilion), but despite the gleaming copper pans and high ceilings for ventilation, the work was still back breaking. Carême died aged forty-nine, “burnt out by the flame of his genius and the fumes of his ovens” (Ackerman 90). Mennell points out that his fame outlived him, resting on his books: Le Pâtissier Royal Parisien (1815); Le Pâtissier Pittoresque (1815); Le Maître d’Hôtel Français (1822); Le Cuisinier Parisien (1828); and, finally, L’Art de la Cuisine Française au Dix-Neuvième Siècle (1833–5), which was finished posthumously by his student Pluméry (All Manners). Mennell suggests that these books embody the first paradigm of professional French cuisine (in Kuhn’s terminology), pointing out that “no previous work had so comprehensively codified the field nor established its dominance as a point of reference for the whole profession in the way that Carême did” (All Manners 149). The most dramatic technological changes came after the industrial revolution. Although there were built up ovens available in bakeries and in large Norman households, the period of general acceptance of new cooking equipment that enclosed fire (such as the Aga stove) is from c.1860 to 1910, with gas ovens following in c.1910 to the 1920s) and Electricity from c.1930. New food processing techniques dates are as follows: canning (1860s), cooling and freezing (1880s), freeze drying (1950s), and motorised delivery vans with cooking (1920s–1950s) (den Hartog). It must also be noted that the supply of fresh food, and fish particularly, radically improved following the birth, and expansion of, the railways. To understand the context of the cookbook, one needs to be aware of the limits of the technology available to the users of those cookbooks. For many lower to middle class families during the twentieth century, the first cookbook they would possess came with their gas or electrical oven. Meals One can follow cooked dishes from the kitchen to the eating place, observing food presentation, carving, sequencing, and serving of the meal and table etiquette. Meal times and structure changed over time. During the Middle Ages, people usually ate two meals a day: a substantial dinner around noon and a light supper in the evening (Adamson). Some of the most important factors to consider are the manner in which meals were served: either à la française or à la russe. One of the main changes that occurred during the nineteenth century was the slow but gradual transfer from service à la française to service à la russe. From medieval times to the middle of the nineteenth century the structure of a formal meal was not by “courses”—as the term is now understood—but by “services”. Each service could comprise of a choice of dishes—both sweet and savoury—from which each guest could select what appealed to him or her most (Davidson). The philosophy behind this form of service was the forementioned humoral physiology— where each diner chose food based on the four humours of blood, yellow bile, black bile, or phlegm. Also known as le grand couvert, the à la française method made it impossible for the diners to eat anything that was beyond arm’s length (Blake, and Crewe). Smooth service, however, was the key to an effective à la russe dinner since servants controlled the flow of food (Eatwell). The taste and temperature of food took centre stage with the à la russe dinner as each course came in sequence. Many historic cookbooks offer table plans illustrating the suggested arrangement of dishes on a table for the à la française style of service. Many of these dishes might be re-used in later meals, and some dishes such as hashes and rissoles often utilised left over components of previous meals. There is a whole genre of cookbooks informing the middle class cooks how to be frugal and also how to emulate haute cuisine using cheaper or ersatz ingredients. The number dining and the manner in which they dined also changed dramatically over time. From medieval to Tudor times, there might be hundreds dining in large banqueting halls. By the Elizabethan age, a small intimate room where master and family dined alone replaced the old dining hall where master, servants, guests, and travellers had previously dined together (Spencer). Dining tables remained portable until the 1780s when tables with removable leaves were devised. By this time, the bread trencher had been replaced by one made of wood, or plate of pewter or precious metal in wealthier houses. Hosts began providing knives and spoons for their guests by the seventeenth century, with forks also appearing but not fully accepted until the eighteenth century (Mason). These silver utensils were usually marked with the owner’s initials to prevent their theft (Flandrin). Cookbooks as Objects and the World of Publishing A thorough examination of the manuscript or printed cookbook can reveal their physical qualities, including indications of post-publication history, the recipes and other matter in them, as well as the language, organization, and other individual qualities. What can the quality of the paper tell us about the book? Is there a frontispiece? Is the book dedicated to an employer or a patron? Does the author note previous employment history in the introduction? In his Court Cookery, Robert Smith, for example, not only mentions a number of his previous employers, but also outlines that he was eight years working with Patrick Lamb in the Court of King William, before revealing that several dishes published in Lamb’s Royal Cookery (1710) “were never made or practis’d (sic) by him and others are extreme defective and imperfect and made up of dishes unknown to him; and several of them more calculated at the purses than the Gôut of the guests”. Both Lamb and Smith worked for the English monarchy, nobility, and gentry, but produced French cuisine. Not all Britons were enamoured with France, however, with, for example Hannah Glasse asserting “if gentlemen will have French cooks, they must pay for French tricks” (4), and “So much is the blind folly of this age, that they would rather be imposed on by a French Booby, than give encouragement to an good English cook” (ctd. in Trubek 60). Spencer contextualises Glasse’s culinary Francophobia, explaining that whilst she was writing the book, the Jacobite army were only a few days march from London, threatening to cut short the Hanoverian lineage. However, Lehmann points out that whilst Glasse was overtly hostile to French cuisine, she simultaneously plagiarised its receipts. Based on this trickling down of French influences, Mennell argues that “there is really no such thing as a pure-bred English cookery book” (All Manners 98), but that within the assimilation and simplification, a recognisable English style was discernable. Mennell also asserts that Glasse and her fellow women writers had an enormous role in the social history of cooking despite their lack of technical originality (“Plagiarism”). It is also important to consider the place of cookbooks within the history of publishing. Albala provides an overview of the immense outpouring of dietary literature from the printing presses from the 1470s. He divides the Renaissance into three periods: Period I Courtly Dietaries (1470–1530)—targeted at the courtiers with advice to those attending banquets with many courses and lots of wine; Period II The Galenic Revival (1530–1570)—with a deeper appreciation, and sometimes adulation, of Galen, and when scholarship took centre stage over practical use. Finally Period III The Breakdown of Orthodoxy (1570–1650)—when, due to the ambiguities and disagreements within and between authoritative texts, authors were freer to pick the ideas that best suited their own. Nutrition guides were consistent bestsellers, and ranged from small handbooks written in the vernacular for lay audiences, to massive Latin tomes intended for practicing physicians. Albala adds that “anyone with an interest in food appears to have felt qualified to pen his own nutritional guide” (1). Would we have heard about Mrs. Beeton if her husband had not been a publisher? How could a twenty-five year old amass such a wealth of experience in household management? What role has plagiarism played in the history of cookbooks? It is interesting to note that a well worn copy of her book (Beeton) was found in the studio of Francis Bacon and it is suggested that he drew inspiration for a number of his paintings from the colour plates of animal carcasses and butcher’s meat (Dawson). Analysing the post-publication usage of cookbooks is valuable to see the most popular recipes, the annotations left by the owner(s) or user(s), and also if any letters, handwritten recipes, or newspaper clippings are stored within the leaves of the cookbook. The Reader, the Cook, the Eater The physical and inner lives and needs and skills of the individuals who used cookbooks and who ate their meals merit consideration. Books by their nature imply literacy. Who is the book’s audience? Is it the cook or is it the lady of the house who will dictate instructions to the cook? Numeracy and measurement is also important. Where clocks or pocket watches were not widely available, authors such as seventeenth century recipe writer Sir Kenelm Digby would time his cooking by the recitation of the Lord’s Prayer. Literacy amongst protestant women to enable them to read the Bible, also enabled them to read cookbooks (Gold). How did the reader or eater’s religion affect the food practices? Were there fast days? Were there substitute foods for fast days? What about special occasions? Do historic cookbooks only tell us about the food of the middle and upper classes? It is widely accepted today that certain cookbook authors appeal to confident cooks, while others appeal to competent cooks, and others still to more cautious cooks (Bilton). This has always been the case, as has the differentiation between the cookbook aimed at the professional cook rather than the amateur. Historically, male cookbook authors such as Patrick Lamb (1650–1709) and Robert Smith targeted the professional cook market and the nobility and gentry, whereas female authors such as Eliza Acton (1799–1859) and Isabella Beeton (1836–1865) often targeted the middle class market that aspired to emulate their superiors’ fashions in food and dining. How about Tavern or Restaurant cooks? When did they start to put pen to paper, and did what they wrote reflect the food they produced in public eateries? Conclusions This paper has offered an overview of Barbara Ketchum Wheaton’s methodology for reading historic cookbooks using a structured approach. It has highlighted some of the questions scholars and researchers might ask when faced with an old cookbook, regardless of era or geographical location. By systematically examining the book under the headings of ingredients; the cook’s workplace, techniques and equipment; the meals; cookbooks as objects and the world of publishing; and reader, cook and eater, the scholar can perform magic and extract much more from the cookbook than seems to be there on first appearance. References Ackerman, Roy. The Chef's Apprentice. London: Headline, 1988. Adamson, Melitta Weiss. Food in Medieval Times. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood P, 2004. Albala, Ken. Eating Right in the Renaissance. Ed. Darra Goldstein. Berkeley: U of California P, 2002. Beeton, Isabella. Beeton's Book of Household Management. London: S. Beeton, 1861. Bilton, Samantha. “The Influence of Cookbooks on Domestic Cooks, 1900-2010.” Petit Propos Culinaires 94 (2011): 30–7. Blake, Anthony, and Quentin Crewe. Great Chefs of France. London: Mitchell Beazley/ Artists House, 1978. Brighton Pavilion. 12 Jun. 2013 ‹http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/interactive/2011/sep/09/brighton-pavilion-360-interactive-panoramic›. Cashman, Dorothy. “An Exploratory Study of Irish Cookbooks.” Unpublished Master's Thesis. M.Sc. Dublin: Dublin Institute of Technology, 2009. Chartier, Roger. “The Practical Impact of Writing.” Trans. Arthur Goldhammer. A History of Private Lives: Volume III: Passions of the Renaissance. Ed. Roger Chartier. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap P of Harvard U, 1989. 111-59. Davidson, Alan. The Oxford Companion to Food. New York: Oxford U P, 1999. Dawson, Barbara. “Francis Bacon and the Art of Food.” The Irish Times 6 April 2013. den Hartog, Adel P. “Technological Innovations and Eating out as a Mass Phenomenon in Europe: A Preamble.” Eating out in Europe: Picnics, Gourmet Dining and Snacks since the Late Eighteenth Century. Eds. Mark Jacobs and Peter Scholliers. Oxford: Berg, 2003. 263–80. Eatwell, Ann. “Á La Française to À La Russe, 1680-1930.” Elegant Eating: Four Hundred Years of Dining in Style. Eds. Philippa Glanville and Hilary Young. London: V&A, 2002. 48–52. Flandrin, Jean-Louis. “Distinction through Taste.” Trans. Arthur Goldhammer. A History of Private Lives: Volume III : Passions of the Renaissance. Ed. Roger Chartier. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap P of Harvard U, 1989. 265–307. Folch, Christine. “Fine Dining: Race in Pre-revolution Cuban Cookbooks.” Latin American Research Review 43.2 (2008): 205–23. Glasse, Hannah. The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy; Which Far Exceeds Anything of the Kind Ever Published. 4th Ed. London: The Author, 1745. Gold, Carol. Danish Cookbooks: Domesticity and National Identity, 1616-1901. Seattle: U of Washington P, 2007. Grainger, Sally. Cooking Apicius: Roman Recipes for Today. Totnes, Devon: Prospect, 2006. Hampton Court Palace. “The Tudor Kitchens.” 12 Jun 2013 ‹http://www.hrp.org.uk/HamptonCourtPalace/stories/thetudorkitchens› Katz, Solomon H. Ed. Encyclopedia of Food and Culture (3 Vols). New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2003. Kuhn, T. S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1962. Lamb, Patrick. Royal Cookery:Or. The Complete Court-Cook. London: Abel Roper, 1710. Lehmann, Gilly. “English Cookery Books in the 18th Century.” The Oxford Companion to Food. Ed. Alan Davidson. Oxford: Oxford U P, 1999. 277–9. Mac Con Iomaire, Máirtín. “The Changing Geography and Fortunes of Dublin’s Haute Cuisine Restaurants 1958–2008.” Food, Culture & Society 14.4 (2011): 525–45. Mac Con Iomaire, Máirtín, and Dorothy Cashman. “Irish Culinary Manuscripts and Printed Cookbooks: A Discussion.” Petit Propos Culinaires 94 (2011): 81–101. Mason, Laura. Food Culture in Great Britain. Ed. Ken Albala. Westport CT.: Greenwood P, 2004. Mennell, Stephen. All Manners of Food. 2nd ed. Chicago: U of Illinois P, 1996. ---. “Plagiarism and Originality: Diffusionism in the Study of the History of Cookery.” Petits Propos Culinaires 68 (2001): 29–38. Sherman, Sandra. “‘The Whole Art and Mystery of Cooking’: What Cookbooks Taught Readers in the Eighteenth Century.” Eighteenth Century Life 28.1 (2004): 115–35. Smith, Andrew F. Ed. The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink. New York: Oxford U P, 2007. Spencer, Colin. British Food: An Extraordinary Thousand Years of History. London: Grub Street, 2004. Tierney, Mark. Europe and the World 1300-1763. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1970. Trubek, Amy B. Haute Cuisine: How the French Invented the Culinary Profession. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P, 2000. Wheaton, Barbara. “Finding Real Life in Cookbooks: The Adventures of a Culinary Historian”. 2006. Humanities Research Group Working Paper. 9 Sep. 2009 ‹http://www.phaenex.uwindsor.ca/ojs/leddy/index.php/HRG/article/view/22/27›. Wheaton, Barbara Ketcham. Savouring the Past: The French Kitchen and Table from 1300-1789. London: Chatto & Windus, 1983. White, Eileen, ed. The English Cookery Book: Historical Essays. Proceedings of the 16th Leeds Symposium on Food History 2001. Devon: Prospect, 2001.

Introduction The trope of food is often used in the humanities to discuss aspects of a culture that are customarily overlooked by a textualist approach, for food embodies a kind of knowledge that comes from the direct engagement with materials and processes, and involves taste as an aesthetics that exceeds the visual concept of the “beautiful.” Moreover, cooking is one of the most ancient cultural practices, and is considered the habit that defines us as humans in comparison to other animals—not only culturally, but also physiologically (Wrangham). Today we have entered a post-human age in which technological augmentations, while promoting the erasure of embodiment in favour of intelligence (Hayles), create new assemblages between the organic and the digital, thus redefining what it means to be human. In this context, a reassessment of the practice of cooking as the manipulation of what constitutes food—both for thought and for the body—may promote a more nuanced approach to contemporary culture, in which the agency of the non-human (from synthetic materials to the digital) affects our modes of being and reflects on our aesthetic sensibility. In the 1980s, Guy Debord observed that the food industry's standardisation and automation of methods of production and consumption have anaesthetised the consumer palate with broader political and cultural implications. Today the Internet has extended the intertwinement of food and technology to the social and aesthetic spheres, thus further impacting on taste. For instance, cultural trends such as “foodism” and “slow food” thrive on blogs and social networks and, while promoting an artisanal style in food preparation and presentation, they paradoxically may also homogenise cooking techniques and the experience of sharing a meal. This leads to questions regarding the extent to which the digitalisation of culture might be hindering our capacity to taste. Or, given the new possibilities for connectivity, can this digitalisation also foster an aesthetic sensibility associated with different attitudes and approaches to food—one that transgresses both the grand narratives and the standardisation promoted by such gastronomic fashions? It also leads to the question of how such activities reflect on the collective sphere, considering the contagious character of networked communication. While foodism thrives online, the Internet has nevertheless prompted a renewed interest in DIY (do-it-yourself) cooking techniques. As a recent issue of M/C Journal testifies, today cookbooks are produced and consulted at an unprecedented rate—either in print or online (Brien and Wessell). Taking the example of the online diffusion of DIY cheese-making recipes, I will below trace the connections between cooking, computer culture, and taste with the support of Gilbert Simondon's metaphysics of technics. Although Simondon never extensively discussed food in relation to technology, the positioning of technicity at the heart of culture allows his work to be used to address the multifaceted nature of taste in the light of recent technological development, in particular of the Network. As a matter of fact, today cooking is not only a technical activity, in the sense that it requires a certain practical and theoretical skilfulness—it is also a technological matter, for the amount of networked machines that are increasingly used for food production and marketing. Specifically, this paper argues that by disentangling the human—albeit partially—from the capitalist cycle of production-marketing-consumption and by triggering an awareness of the increasingly dominant role technology plays in food processing and manufacturing, the online sharing of home-cooking advice may promote a reconfiguration of taste, which would translate into a more nuanced approach to contemporary techno-culture. In the first part of this discussion, I introduce Simondon’s philosophy and foreground the technical dimension of cooking by discussing cheese-making as a process of individuation. In the second, I focus on Simondon’s definition of technical objects and technical ensembles to position Internet culture in relation to cooking, and highlight how technicity folds back on taste as aesthetic impression. Ultimately, I conclude with some reflections on how such a culinary-aesthetic approach may find application in other techno-cultural fields by promoting an aesthetic sensibility that extends beyond the experience of the “social” to encompass an ethical component. Cooking as Individuation: The Networked Dimension of Taste Simondon is known as the thinker, and “tinkerer”, of technics. His project is concerned with ontogenesis—that is, the becoming of objects in relation to the terms that constitute them as individual. Simondon’s philosophy of individuation allows for a better understanding of how the Internet fosters certain attitudes to food, for it is grounded on a notion of “energetic materiality in movement” (Deleuze and Guattari 408) that explains how “immaterial” algorithms can affect individual experience and cultural production. For Simondon, individuation is the process that arises from objects being out-of-phase with themselves. Put differently, individuation allows for “the conservation of being through becoming” (Genesis 301). Likewise, individualisation is “the individuation of an individuated being, resulting from an individuation, [and creating] a new structuration within the individual” (L’Individuation 132). Individuation and individualisation are processes common to all kinds of being. Any individual operates an internal and an external resonance within the system in which it is enmeshed, and produces an “associated milieu” capable of entering into relation with other individuals within the system. Simondon maintains that nature consists of three regimes of individuation, that is, three possible phases of every being: the physical, the biological, and the psycho-social—that develop from a metastable pre-individual field. Technology traverses all three regimes and allows for further individualisation via transductive operations across such phases—that is, via operations of conversion of energy from one form to another. The recent online diffusion of DIY cheese-making recipes lends itself to be analysed with the support of Simondon’s philosophy. Today cheese dominates degustation menus beside the finest wines, and constitutes a common obsession among “foodies.” Although, as an object, cheese defies more traditional canons of beauty and pleasure—its usual pale yellow colour is not especially inviting and, generally speaking, the stinkier and mouldier it is, the more exclusive and expensive it usually is—it has played a sizeable role in the collective imagination since ancient times. Although the genesis of cheese predates archival memory, it is commonly assumed to be the fruit of the chemical reaction naturally occurring in the interaction of milk with the rennet inherently contained in the bladders made of ruminants’ stomachs in which milk was contained during the long transits undertaken by the nomadic cultures of Central Asia. Cheese is an invention that reportedly occurred without human intervention, and only the technical need to preserve milk in high temperature impelled humans to learn to produce it. Since World War II its production is most exclusively factory-based, even in the case of artisanal cheese (McGee), which makes the renewed concern for homemade cheese more significant from a techno-cultural perspective. Following Simondon, the individualisation of cheese—and of people in relation to cheese—depends on the different objects involved in its production, and whose associated milieu affects the outcome of the ontogenetic process via transductive operations. In the specific case of an industrial block of cheese, these may include: the more or less ethical breeding and milking of cows in a factory environment; the types of bacteria involved in the cheese-making process; the energy and costs inherent in the fabrication of the packaging material and the packaging process itself; the CO2 emissions caused by transportations; the physical and intellectual labour implied in marketing, retailing and selling; and, last but not least, the arguable nutritional value of the factory-produced cheese—all of which, in spite of their “invisibility” to the eyes of the consumer, affect physical conditions and moods when they enter into relation with the human body (Bennet). To these, we may add, with specific reference to the packaging: the RFID tags that electronically index food items into databases for a more efficient management of supplies, and the QR codes used for social media marketing purposes. In contrast, the direct engagement with the techno-material conditions at the basis of the home cookery process allows one to grasp how different operations may affect the outcome of the recipe. DIY cheese-making recipes are specifically addressed to laypeople and, because they hardly demand professional equipment, they entail a greater attunement with, and to, the objects and processes required by the recipe. For instance, one needs to “feel” when milk has reached the right temperature (specifically, 82 degrees centigrade, which means that the surface of the milk should be slightly bubbly but not fully boiling) and, with practice, one learns how the slightest movement of the hand can lead to different results, in terms of consistency and aspect. Ultimately, DIY cheese-making allows the cook to be creative with moulding, seasonings, and marinading. Indeed, by directly engaging with the undiscovered properties and potentials of ingredients, by understanding the role that energy (both in the sense of induction and “transduction”) plays on form and matter, and by developing—often via processes of trial and error—technics for stirring, draining, moulding, marinading, canning, and so forth, making cheese at home an exercise in speculative pragmatics. An experimental approach to cooking, as the negotiation between the rigid axioms that make up a recipe and the creative and experimental components inherent in the operations of mixing and blending, allows one to feel the ultimate outcome of the cooking process as an event. The taste of a homemade cheese is linked to a new kind of knowledge—that is, an epistemology based on continuous breakages that allow for the cooking process to carry on until the ultimate result. It is a knowledge that comes from a commitment to objects being out-of-phase, and from the acknowledgement of the network of technical operations that bring cheese to our tables. The following section discusses how another kind of object may affect the outcome of a recipe, with important implications for aesthetics, that is, technical objects. The Internet as Ingredient: Technical Objects, Aesthetics, and Invention The notion of technical objects complements Simondon’s theory of individuation to define the becoming of technology in relation to culture. To Simondon: “the technical object is not this or that thing, given hic et nunc, but that of which there is a genesis” (Du Mode 20). Technical objects, therefore, are not simply technological artifacts but are constituted by a series of events that determine their evolution (De Vries). Analogously to other kinds of individuals, they are constituted by transductive operations across the three aforementioned phases of being. The evolution of technical objects extends from the element to the individual, and ultimately to the technical ensemble. Elements are less than individualised technical objects, while individuals that are in a relation of interconnection are called ensembles. According to Simondon, technical ensembles fully individualise with the realisation of the cybernetic project. Simondon observes that: “there is something eternal in a technical ensemble [...] and it is that which is always present, and can be conserved in a thing” (Les Cahiers 87). The Internet, as a thing-network, could be regarded as an instance of such technical ensembles, however, a clarification needs to be made. Simondon explains that “true technical ensembles are not those that use technical individuals, but those that are a network of technical individuals in a relation of interconnection” (Du mode 126). To Simondon, humankind has ceased to be a technical individual with the industrialisation and automation of methods of production, and has consigned this function to machines (128). Expanding this line of thought, examples such as the viral spreading of memes, and the hypnotic power of online marketing campaigns, demonstrate how digital technology seems to have intensified this process of alienation of people from the functioning of the machine. In short, no one seems to know how or why things happen on the Internet, but we cannot help but use it. In order to constitute “real” technical ensembles, we need to incorporate technics again into culture, in a relation of reciprocity and complementarity with machines, under the aegis of a technical culture. Simondon specifies that such a reconfiguration of the relation between man and machines can only be achieved by means of an invention. An invention entails the individualisation of the technical ensemble as a departure from the mind of the inventor or designer that conceived it, in order to acquire its own autonomous existence (“Technical Mentality”). It refers to the origin of an operative solidarity between individual agents in a network, which provides the support for a human relation based on the “model of transidividuality” (Du Mode 247). A “transindividual relation” is a relation of relations that puts the individual in direct contact with a real collective. The notion of real collective is opposed to that of an interindividual community or social sphere, which is poisoned by the anxieties that stem from a defected relation with the technical ensemble culture is embedded in. In the specific context of the online sharing of DIY cheese-making recipes, rather than a fully individualised technical ensemble per se, the Internet can be regarded as one of the ingredients that make up the final recipe—together with human and the food—for the invention of a true technical ensemble. In such a framework, praxis, as linked to the kind of non-verbal knowledge associated with “making,” defines individuation together with the types of objects that make up the Network. While in the case of foodism, the practice of online marketing and communication homogenises culture by creating “social phenomena,” in the case of DIY cooking advice, it fosters a diversification of tastes, experiences, and flavours linked to individual modes of doing and cooking, that put the cook in a new relation with the culinary process, with food, and with the guests who have the pleasure to taste her meal. This is a qualitative change in the network that constitutes culture, rather than a mere quantitative shift in energy induction. The term “conviviality” (from the Latin con-vivere) specifically means this: a “living together,” rather than a mere dinner party. For Simondon, a real technical ensemble is an assemblage of humans, machines, tools, resources and milieus, which can only be éprouve—i.e., experienced, also in the sense of “experimented with”—rather than represented. A technical ensemble is first and foremost an aesthetic affair—it can only be perceived by experimenting with the different agents involved in the networked operations that constitute it. For Simondon “aesthetics comes after technicity [and] it also returns to us in the heart of technicity” (Michaud in De Boever et al. 122). Therefore, any object bears an aesthetic potential—even something as trivial as a homemade block of cheese. Simondon rejects the idea of an aesthetic object, but affirms the power of technicity to foreground an aesthetic impression, which operates a convergence between the diverging forces that constitute the mediation between man and world, in terms of an ethical treatment of technics. For Simondon, the beautiful is a process: “it is never, properly speaking, the object that is beautiful: it is the encounter operating a propos of the object between a real aspect of the world and a human gesture” (Du Mode 191 emphasis added). If an analysis of cooking as individuation already foregrounds an aesthetics that is both networked and technical, the relational capabilities afforded by networked media have the power to amplify the aesthetic potential of the human gesture implied in a block of homemade cheese—which today extends from searching for (or writing) a recipe online, to pouring the milk and seasoning the cheese, and which entails less environmental waste due to the less intensive processing and the lack of, or certainly a reduction in, packaging materials (Rastogi). The praise of technical creativity resounds throughout Simondon’s thought. By using the Internet in order to create (or indeed cook) something new, the online sharing of DIY cooking techniques like cheese-making, which partially disengages the human (and food itself) from the cycle of production-marketing-consumption that characterises the food industry in capitalist society by fostering an awareness of the networked operations that constitute her as individual, is an invention in its own right. Although the impact of these DIY activities on the global food industry is still very limited, such a hands-on approach, imbued with a dose of technical creativity, partially overcomes the alienation of the individual from the production process, by providing the conditions to “feel” how the individualisation of cheese (and the human) is inscribed in a larger metabolism. This does not stop within the economy of the body but encompasses the techno-cultural ensemble that forms capitalist society as a whole, and in which humans play only a small part. This may be considered a first step towards the reconciliation between humans and technical culture—a true technical ensemble. Indeed, eating involves “experiments in art and technology”—as the name of the infamous 1960s art collective (E.A.T.) evokes. Home-cooking in this sense is a technical-aesthetic experiment in its own right, in which aesthetics acquires an ethical nuance. Simondon’s philosophy highlights how the aesthetics involved in the home cooking process entails a political component, aimed at the disentanglement of the human from the “false” technical ensemble constituted by capitalist society, which is founded on the alienation from the production process and is driven by economic interests. Surely, an ethical approach to food would entail considering the biopolitics of the guts from the perspective of sourcing materials, and perhaps even building one’s own tools. These days, however, keeping a cow or goat in the backyard is unconceivable and/or impossible for most of us. The point is that the Internet can foster inventiveness and creativity among the participants to the Network, in spite of the fixity of the frame in which culture is increasingly inscribed (for instance, the standardised format of a Wordpress blog), and in this way, can trigger an aesthetic impression that comprises an ethical component, which translates into a political stand against the syncopated, schizophrenic rhythms of the market. Conclusion In this discussion, I have demonstrated that cooking can be considered a process of individuation inscribed in a techno-cultural network in which different transductive operations have the power to affect the final taste of a recipe. Simondon’s theory of individuation allows us to account for the impact of ubiquitous networked media on traditionally considered “human” practices, thus suggesting a new kind of humanism—a sort of technological humanism—on the basis of a new model of perception, which acknowledges the non-human actants involved in the process of individuation. I have shown that, in the case of the online sharing of cheese-making recipes, Simondon’s philosophy allows us to uncover a concept of taste that extends beyond the mere gustatory experience provided by foodism, and in this sense it may indeed affirm a reconfiguration of human culture based on an ethical approach towards the technical ensemble that envelops individuals of any kind—be they physical, living, or technical. Analogously, a “culinary” approach to techno-culture in terms of a commitment to the ontogenetic character of objects’ behaviours could be transposed to the digital realm in order to enlighten new perspectives for the speculative design of occasions of interaction among different beings—including humans—in ethico-aesthetic terms, based on a creative, experimental engagement with techniques and technologies. As a result, this can foreground a taste for life and culture that exceeds human-centred egotistic pleasure to encompass both technology and nature. Considering that a worryingly high percentage of digital natives both in Australia and the UK today believe that cheese and yogurt grow on trees (Howden; Wylie), perhaps cooking should indeed be taught in school alongside (rather than separate to, or instead of) programming. References Bennet, Jane. Vibrant Matter: a Political Ecology of Things. Durham: Duke UP, 2010 Brien, Donna Lee, and Adele Wessell. “Cookbook: A New Scholarly View.” M/C Journal 16.3 (2013). 7 Jan. 2014. ‹http://journal.media-culture.org.au/index.php/mcjournal/article/viewArticle/688›. Crary, Jonathan, and Sanford Kwinter. Incorporations. New York: Zone, 1992. De Boever, Arne, Alex Murray, Jon Roffe, and Ashley Woodward, eds. Gilbert Simondon: Being and Technology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012. De Vries, Marc. “Gilbert Simondon and the Dual Nature of Technical Artifacts.” Techné: Research in Philosophy and Technology 12.1 (2008). Debord, Guy. “Abat-Faim.” Encyclopedie des Nuisances 5 (1985) 2 Jan. 2014. ‹http://www.notbored.org/abat-faim.html›. Deleuze, Gilles and Felix Guattari. A Thousand Plateaus. London: Continuum, 2004. Hayles, N. Katherine. How We Became Posthuman: Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1999. Howden, Saffron. “Cultural Cringe: Schoolchildren Can’t See the Yoghurt for the Trees.” The Sydney Morning Herald 5 Mar. 2012. 5 Jan. 2014. ‹http://www.smh.com.au/national/education/cultural-cringe-schoolchildren-cant-see-the-yoghurt-for-the-trees-20120304-1ub55.html›. McGee, Harold. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. New York: Scribner, 2004. Michaud, Yves. “The Aesthetics of Gilbert Simondon: Anticipation of the Contemporary Aesthetic Experience.” Gilbert Simondon: Being and Technology. Eds. Arne De Boever, Alex Murray, Jon Roffe, and Ashley Woodward. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012. 121–32. Rastogi, Nina. “Soft Cheese for a Clean Planet”. Slate 15 Dec. 2009. 25 Jan. 2014. ‹http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/the_green_lantern/2009/12/soft_cheese_for_a_clean_planet.html›. Simondon, Gilbert. Du Mode d’Existence des Objets Techniques. Paris: Aubier, 2001. ---. L’Individuation a La Lumière Des Notions de Forme et d’Information. Grenoble: Millon, 2005. ---. “Les Cahiers du Centre Culturel Canadien” 4, 2ème Colloque Sur La Mécanologie. Paris, 1976. ---. “Technical Mentality.” Parrhesia 7 (2009): 17–27.---. “The Genesis of the Individual.” Incorporations. Eds. Jonathan Crary, and Sanford Kwinter. New York: Zone, 1992. 296–319. Wrangham, Richard. “Reason in the Roasting of Eggs.” Collapse: Philosophical Research and Development Volume VII. Eds. Reza Negarestani, and Robin Mackay. London: Urbanomic, 2011. 331–44. Wylie, Catherine. “Significant Number of Children Believe Cheese Comes from Plants, Reveals New Survey.” The Independent 3 Jun. 2013. 5 Jan. 2014. ‹http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/significant-number-of-children-believe-cheese-comes-from-plants-reveals-new-survey-8641771.html›.