Zeitschriftenartikel zum Thema „Incas / Civilization“

On the occasion of Peru’s Independence, the champions of the Creole nation elevated the Inca State Indian to the status of a respectable ancestor, thus eliminating the Amerindian historicity of the population. The archaeological remains provide support to an indigenist ideology that ignores the sociological Indian, considered to be ontologically inferior. Today, these Inca vestiges contribute to the construction of the national narrative: the Inca solar cult is thus reinvented on the site of Sacsayhuaman. To what extent can the work of archaeologists serve to corroborate partisan ideologies? The presidents of the Peruvian and Bolivian Republics were inducted as pre-Hispanic rulers, the first on the Inca site of Machu Picchu, the second at the Tiwanaku Sun gate. To what extent can the vestiges of a civilization be instrumentalized by politics? The Inca sites are now assailed by New Age mystics from the United States and Europe under the leadership of local neo-shamans. They are indeed reputed to carry positive “energy”, one that is exploited by mystical tourism agencies. To what extent can the heritage of the nation, maintained by public services, be the object of private profits, ideologies that may be sectarian and possibly irreparable damages? In the culture of traditional Andean communities, the pre-Hispanic ruins had a classificatory and symbolic function. This function disappears when the setting of a myth is replaced by a historical site. How can we respect the indigenous perception of archaeological remains? These are the ethical questions that this article seeks to raise on the basis of specific and concrete cases of archaeological sites on which the author has carried out excavations.

When the last Inca emperor and the conquistador from Extremadura, Spain, met in Cajamarca, Peru, on Saturday, 16 November 1532, a world separated them, but they had one thing in common: neither knew how to read. In Andean popular culture and historical analysis, Atahualpa and Francisco Pizarro remain the protagonists of that formidable collision of worlds, in which the most powerful man of the Tawantinsuyo, the Inca empire, which stretched from Ecuador to northern Argentina, confronted a Spanish adventurer who was seeking an easy fortune, well aware that this encounter was his last and greatest opportunity. Beyond a mnemonic system of colored knots called quipus, which registered population numbers and other types of numerical accounting, the Incas did not know writing. Pizarro was an illegitimate child from a rich family and apparently had been a swineherd as a boy. It has been repeated that despite his illiteracy, he belonged to the “civilization of the sign” while Atahualpa, despite his power, was condemned for belonging to “the culture of orality.” However, according to legend, during his months of prison, out of curiosity the Inca learned some Spanish words and wrote on the fingernail of his thumb the word Dios (“God”). It is said that he showed it to Pizarro, asking him what it meant, and found that his rival could not read it. From the prison cell of a condemned man and the site of his punishment, Atahualpa engaged in what might have been the first critical reappropriation of the Castilian language (Garcilaso, Historia 98; bk. 1, ch. 33).

This article reviews the legacies of the civilizations of the Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas. It specifically deals with five administrative problems faced by these civilizations, which include: an unorganized and inefficient bureaucracy, an inadequate and unfair tax collection system, nugatory agricultural practices, a warped judicial order, and a poor educational system. The article further discusses the relevance to contemporary administration of these civilizations' solutions to the aforementioned five administrative problems.

Nature is full of mysteries which compel one to explore the hidden passages. The passionate urge might take a traveller into the deepest corners of forgotten lands which have truths to be unraveled. Each and every space dynamics has its own temporality and ideological framework which shapes the entire course of ones ideas. The paper will talk about the travelling account of Che Guevara captured in his memoir The Motorcycle Diaries. The book traces the early travels of this Marxist revolutionary. The idea behind is to mark the curvature of topological transformation and its impact on the ideological framework of a person. The paper will explore the interconnections and impact of different spaces encountered during a travel and the nature of discourse which develops during such explorations. Ideas have a disposition to travel with the moving discourse where the architectural domain shapes the outline of the traveller’s thought process. Here Che Guevara’s trip through South America will portray the flow of ideas through different spaces formulating the base for his revolutionary ideas. Through the account of Francisco Pizarro during the conquest of Incan civilization and through the impact of this event on the civilization as a collective whole, the paper will attempt to analyze the ethical curvature of two distinct civilizations, namely the Incan and the Christian Imperial West. The conquest of the South American continent and the consequent clash was cataclysmic, as the socio-economic subversion is still embedded almost non- retrievably deep in terms of its collateral. The paper will include “Heights of Machu Picchu” by Pablo Neruda which again is set during his travelling account to Machu Picchu, which is the marker of a lost civilization where the distorted architecture echoes the richness and the loss at the same time.

Many agricultural production areas worldwide are characterized by high variability of water supply conditions, or simply lack of water, creating a dependence on irrigation since Neolithic times. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the evolution of irrigation of agricultural lands worldwide, based on bibliographical research focusing on ancient water management techniques and ingenious irrigation practices and their associated land management practices. In ancient Egypt, regular flooding by the Nile River meant that early agriculture probably consisted of planting seeds in soils that had been recently covered and fertilized with floodwater and silt deposits. On the other hand, in arid and semi-arid regions farmers made use of perennial springs and seasonal runoff under circumstances altogether different from the river civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and early dynasties in China. We review irrigation practices in all major irrigation regions through the centuries. Emphasis is given to the Bronze Age civilizations (Minoans, Egyptians, and Indus valley), pre-Columbian, civilizations from the historic times (e.g., Chinese, Hellenic, and Roman), late-Columbians (e.g., Aztecs and Incas) and Byzantines, as well as to Ottomans and Arabs. The implications and impacts of irrigation techniques on modern management of water resources, as well as on irrigated agriculture, are also considered and discussed. Finally, some current major agricultural water management challenges are outlined, concluding that ancient practices could be adapted to cope with present challenges in irrigated agriculture for increasing productivity and sustainability.

In the previous issue of CAJ, Heggarty (2007) set out how certain key principles and methods of historical linguistics can be exploited to open up another window on the past, from a perspective quite different and complementary to that offered by the archaeological record. Following this up, we turn here to an ideal case-study for exploring how the various patterns in linguistic (pre-)histories can be matched with their most plausible correlates in the archaeological data. Beyond our initial illustration of the Incas we now look further afield, to set the sequence of major civilizations of the Andes into its linguistic context, tracing the expansion trajectories of the main Andean language families further back in time, stage by stage, ultimately to their most plausible original homelands. The linguistic story emerges starkly at odds with assumptions widely held among archaeologists of the region. Indeed we encounter a paradigm case of how only a radical rethinking can reconcile our two disciplines' findings into a single, coherent, holistic prehistory for a human population — in the Andes, a prize now tantalizingly within our reach.

[For the English abstract and full text of the article please see the attached PDF-File (English version follows Russian version)].ABSTRACT Historical analysis made by the author shows that the emergence of new t ransport communications contributes to creation of new major economic and cultural centers, while traditional centers, which turned away from traffic flows, lose their meaning. Research of transport conditions in pre-Columbian America (absence of wheel, horse-drawn, with the exception for the Central Andean region, and horse transport, a lower level of water communications development in comparison with the Old World) allows us to conclude that the lack of vehicles and the lack of private initiative in transport sector essentially limited the possibilities of social and economic growth in ancient civilizations. Keywords: transport, socio-economic development, communication lines, ancient civilization, economic history, institutions. REFERENCES 1. Mises, L. von. Socialism. 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Abstract This paper addresses one of the first translations of a US anthropological monograph into Romanian. Its author, John V. Murra (1916–2006), born into a Russian-Jewish family in Odessa, grew up in Romania, where he studied and became involved in the Communist movement before his departure for Chicago in 1934. His 1956 PhD thesis in anthropology at University of Chicago on the Inka state was a first step towards turning Murra into an influential figure in the field of Andean anthropology. His sister Ata Iosifescu lived in Romania and translated his PhD thesis into Romanian, published in 1987 as Civilizaţie inca: organizarea economică a statului incaş(Inka Civilization: the Economic Organization of the Inka State). Based on their correspondence kept at the National Anthropological Archives at the Smithsonian Institution (Washington, DC), I propose to reconstruct this translation’s story: the context, the constraints and the process of translation itself. I am also addressing the question of the book’s reception in Romania.

The article deals with the politics of indigenism in modern Latin America. Based on the socio-constructivist approach, the changes that took place during the XX-XXI centuries in the public policy of a number of countries in the region in relation to the indigenous population are analyzed, the positions of intellectuals and elites in the formation of the agenda and various options for the policy of indigenism in the context of the colonial European heritage and political events of the XX century are evaluated. Indigenism in this work is considered as a specific public policy towards the indigenous population and a strategy of nation-building in Latin American countries. Special attention is paid to the countries in which a significant part of the population is made up of Indians - Mexico, Peru and Bolivia. These countries have been united by a common history for centuries: the pre-Hispanic civilizations of America - the Maya, Aztecs, Incas, who inhabited their territories, were distinguished by a high level of development of science and culture. However, for a long time, both in colonial times and after independence, indigenous ethnic groups seemed incapable of independent development, they were purposefully destroyed or assimilated. For integrated Mestizo Indians in some Latin American countries, special terms have been adopted aimed at erasing their Indian origin. European liberalism also contributed to the downgrading of the status of Indians and Indian land, which was constantly under attack. Despite the visible positive changes that took place by the end of the XX century in Latin American legislation concerning Indians, they are still forced to fight for their territory, cultural identity, are in a disenfranchised and distressed situation. The article identifies a number of factors (ideological commitment, the nature of the political regime, etc.) that have had one way or another influence on the change in the rhetoric of Latin American elites in setting the indigenist agenda in different time periods. Conclusions are drawn about the variability of the policy of indigenism in these countries at the present stage, depending on a combination of a number of factors.

The chronological events associated with cannabis utilization are viewed perceptively as matters/issues that happened from the period “before Christ” (BC) or “anno domini” (AD, “in the year of our Lord”) to the present time. Cannabis is one of the oldest natural products known to humanity worldwide and has been used by various civilizations, cultures, and religions before the birth of Christ. Interestingly, it is used to date and has the potential for future usage for centuries to come. Currently, the major religions around the world are Christianity, Islamism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Taoism, Judaism, Confucianism, Bahá'í, Shinto, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism, with their precepts regarding the use of cannabis products. Similarly, the most noted ancient civilizations, including the Incan Civilization, Aztec Civilization, Roman Civilization, Ancient Greek Civilization, Chinese Civilization, Mayan Civilization, Ancient Egyptian Civilization, Indus Valley Civilization, and Mesopotamian Civilization, have reported cannabis use. This review discusses cannabis in various civilizations and religions from the past to the present day.

AbstractSmall species with high home fidelity, high ecological specialization or low vagility are particularly prone to suffer from habitat modification and fragmentation. The Lima leaf-toed gecko (Phyllodactylus sentosus) is a critically endangered Peruvian species that shelters mostly in pre-Incan archeological areas called huacas, where the original environmental conditions are maintained. We used genotyping by sequencing to understand the population genomic history of P. sentosus. We found low genetic diversity (He 0.0406–0.134 and nucleotide diversity 0.0812–0.145) and deviations of the observed heterozygosity relative to the expected heterozygosity in some populations (Fis − 0.0202 to 0.0187). In all analyses, a clear population structuring was observed that cannot be explained by isolation by distance alone. Also, low levels of historical gene flow were observed between most populations, which decreased as shown in contemporary migration rate analysis. Demographic inference suggests these populations experienced bottleneck events during the last 5 ka. These results indicate that habitat modification since pre-Incan civilizations severely affected these populations, which currently face even more drastic urbanization threats. Finally, our predictions show that this species could become extinct in a decade without further intervention, which calls for urgent conservation actions being undertaken.

In the modern world, the revolutionary development of the new Informational technologies (IT) along with the various opportunities it has brought, also has created new challenges for humanity. The scope of these challenges is so great that it has become an insurmountable force for a separate state. Therefore, to overcome them, the states must form an alliance, and establish supranational organizations and systems, through which it will be possible to reduce and, if possible, neutralize the threats and emerging risks arising from them. One of the similar threats is “lie”: falsification, misinformation, “mass confabulation” * and fake news, the speed, volume, and diversity of which spread has turned into a “war of narratives”, in the chaos of which an urgent issue of international protection of fundamental rights and freedoms of human, also truth and justice of civilization has arisen. The subject of this article is “Narrative warfare” (NW). Purpose: is an analysis of the role of creating an “alternative past” (AP) for an “alternative future” (AF) in international relations, against a “paradigmatic future” (PF), using the substitution of meanings, symbols, and influence on the mass perception of reality, causing cognitive dissonance and mass psychosis in the affected areas. Results of the research paper show, that due to the NW, universal justice suffers, and the chain of intertwined historical perceptions of collective identity is broken. In conclusion, to defend the truth, states must unite and consolidate the world community, and establish appropriate institutions within the framework of the new world order.

Religion-faith, art and science has dominated much of human existence since the early days of Homo Sapiens-Sapiens walking the earth. The intent of this two-part paper is to provide a wider understanding of the evolution of the colour ‘Red’ from its early beginnings, it also analyses the diverse characteristics of insects and plants-based colour of different Red’s such a cochineal, Vermillion-Cinnabar, Chinese red, red lead-minium and the relationship with pre-Columbian Peruvian funerary rituals. The first part touches on the historical aspect, its discovery, fabrication, commercialization of the colour ‘Red’. Even though blue or black may be the favourite colour in today’s Western accounts, ‘Red’ has always placed special meaning in our everyday life events, from Greco-Roman antiquity through to the Middle Ages, it has remained the most remarkably strong colour, full of richness in poetics and symbolic possibilities. The second part of this paper, focuses on providing evidence of the practise of the usages of the colour ‘red’ in the textiles of pre-Columbian Peruvian funerary rituals of the Andean civilizations such as Moche, Chimu, Nasca, Paracas, and subsequently the Incas as a means of symbolic connection with the afterlife. Finally, this paper concludes with a brief examination that the color “Red” acquires a dimension with a meaning which is based on the cultural context of the ‘Taki Onkoy’ or ‘Mal de Canto’ expression, historical and its psychological effects. It is a journey that captivates the fantasies of every generation across different continents.

The condemnation of Galileo Galilei, a milestone in the history of science, is interpreted as if the Catholic Church were an oppressive institution and against scientific investigation. However, much of what we are taught is nothing more than myth or legend, such as persecution and condemnation at the bonfire. In fact, far from persecuting him, the Roman Catholic Apostolic Church welcomed Galileo as a son and, moreover, it was the cradle of science and the university system, for being the institution that was most interested in cultivating knowledge, it was also the one that invested most in astronomy. Previously called natural philosophy, modern science was influenced by the priests of the Catholic Church, mainly by the Jesuits who were pioneers in astronomy. Priests like Nicolaus Copernicus, who started the theory of heliocentrism, Roger Boscovich, a Jesuit priest who gave the first coherent description of the atom giving rise to the first modern atomic theories, Gregor Mendel, who was the monk who performed experiments with peas, Georges Lemaître, the Belgian priest who created the Big Bang theory. These and many others made great discoveries that made science take great leaps. Not discarding other civilizations and religions, pantheists, who brought a lot of wisdom, such as the Incas, Mayans, Babylonians, Egyptians, etc., but the Christian Church was the only one that reached to take science to another level, for it was based on the belief of a single God who had created all things with physical order and laws. Therefore, the objective of this work is to contest the idea that the Church is opposed to Science, exposing the difference between the two and aiming at scientific investigations carried out by priests. Concluding that this Christian institution did not persecute science, but made great leaps, did not burn scientists on the bonfire because of their ideas, did not delay science in the medieval and the conflict or divergence is the result of criticism made for the Church by Enlightenment thinkers and the story badly told full of fantasies.