Auswahl der wissenschaftlichen Literatur zum Thema „Green bond market“

Green bonds (or climate bonds) are one of the most used sustainable investment instruments, and under the Paris Climate Agreement of 2015, the climate bond market is expected to thrive in the near future. Green bonds are gaining increasing popularity between environmentally responsible investors, as well as investors who “simply” attempt to benefit from portfolio diversification, including green issuances, that are close to other fixed bonds. This paper aims to take advantage of previous literature contributions on the green bond market to indicate the way forward for future research. Herein, through a systematic literature review on the green bond market, our ultimate goal is to provide investors, main markets actors, and policymakers with some helpful insight on the role of environmental investments in reshaping the financial markets and fostering the sustainability of the economy.

Expansion of green bond markets as an appropriate way to lower environmental pollution is one of the most debatable issues among scholars. However, the expansion of this market is not a simple matter and depends on several factors. The main purpose of this study is to carry out a multi-dimensional analysis using the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method to find and prioritize factors influencing the development of green bond markets. As a case, we do our analysis for Vietnam that, since the last years, has been trying to expand green bond market as an effective investment channel to finance low-carbon projects. The main findings revealed that legal infrastructure, official interest rate of green bonds, and economic stability are the most important factors directly affecting green bond market expansion. Therefore, economic and legal requirements should be addressed by policy makers. As major policy implications, we recommend an affordable price of green bonds and improvement of economic and financial stability to accelerate the development of green bond markets.

The green bond market helps to mobilize financial sources toward sustainable investments. Green bonds are similar to conventional bonds but are specifically designed to raise money to finance environmental projects. The feature of green bonds is the existence of greenium, or the lower yield compared to “conventional” bonds of the same risk. The relevance of the paper is underpinned by the mixed evidence on the existence of ‘greenium’, especially in corporate green bond markets; there has been limited research on the topic and a narrow focus on global, US, or Chinese green bond markets. Instead, the greenium in European debt markets remains underexplored. The objective of this study is to investigate the existence of greenium and its key determinants in European corporate debt capital markets, including the local markets of the United Kingdom (UK), France, Netherlands, and Germany. The sample included 3851 corporate bonds, both green and conventional ones, between 2007 and 2021 from 33 European countries. Linear regression was applied for the analysis. The results show that the climate corporate bonds in Europe are priced at a discount to the same-risk conventional corporate bonds. The magnitude of greenium is around 3 bps. Determinants of greenium include the presence of an ESG rating and belonging to the utility and financial industry. The remaining drivers of bond yields in the European corporate debt market are the credit quality (expressed by the level of credit rating), the coupon size, the bond tenor, the market liquidity, and macroeconomic variables (growth of gross domestic product and consumer price index). For the local corporate debt markets, our results are controversial. In all markets under consideration except for the UK and the Netherlands, we did not find sustainable evidence of greenium. The results of the research lead to a better understanding of the green bond market for investors, researchers, regulators, and potential issuing companies.

This study examines the market for green bonds, which have been in the spotlight as an eco-friendly investment product. We analyze the volatility dynamics and spillovers between the equity and green bond markets. As the return dynamics of financial products typically exhibit asymmetric volatility, we check whether green bonds also share this property. Our analyses confirm that although green bonds do exhibit the asymmetric volatility phenomenon, their volatility, unlike that of equity, is also sensitive to positive return shocks. An analysis of the association between the green bond and equity markets confirms that although the two markets have some volatility spillover effects, neither responds significantly to negative shocks in the other market.

This paper is a survey of recent academic developments in the literature on green bonds, which have become an important financial instrument in socially responsible investment. This study provides a review of papers that study the market pricing of green bonds, the economic and environmental effects of green bond financing, as well as legal and institutional issues in the green bond market. The literature on market pricing focuses mainly on the existence of greenium, which represents the extent to which green bonds carry a price premium over otherwise identical non-green counterparts. The literature on the economic and environmental effects mainly concerns stock market reaction to green bond issuance and associated economic value implications to other stakeholders, as well as investment in green projects. This paper discusses current issues in the green-bond market and avenues for future research.

Green bonds have both “bond” and “green” attributes and are one of the important financing tools for green financial markets. The green bond risk premium directly reflects the financing cost of bond issuers and the capital gains of investors. A reasonable risk premium is the key to the successful issuance and trading of green bonds. Therefore, this paper studies the factors affecting the risk premium of China’s green bond issuance, aiming to provide a basis for determining a more reasonable risk premium. Based on the primary issuance market of green bonds, this paper takes into account the macro- and microscopic cross-sectional data of green bond issuance and comprehensively considers the main factors affecting the green bond risk premium from macro-influence factors, micro-influence factors, and green attribute factors. An empirical study of the factors affecting the risk premium of China’s green bond issuance was conducted using multivariate statistical regression analysis. The study found that the green attribute factor affecting the risk premium of green bonds is third-party green assessment certification. The bond factors affecting the risk premium of green bond issuance mainly include debt credit rating, issue period, and issue size, all of which affect the risk of green bond issuance. The issuer factors affecting the risk premium of green bonds include debt principal, nature of property rights, and return on net assets. The macro factor affecting the risk premium of green bonds is the current market interest rate.

PurposeThis study presents the state of green bond markets in Africa and green bond funds by some countries in the continent.Design/methodology/approachThe authors adopt a case study approach on four different kinds of countries, namely oil-rich economy, green bond innovator, renewable energy user and carbon vulnerability.FindingsThe authors found that Africa's green bond is still at the early stages. However, countries are using innovative ways that are adaptable to their current economic conditions and investment attractiveness in issuing green bonds. While some countries focus on central and local government bonds, others use corporate bonds, few combine government and corporate green bonds. Interestingly, the first green bond globally certified by the Climate Bonds Standard was issued by an Africa country in Africa. In some selected countries such as Nigeria, South Africa, Morocco, Namibia and Kenya, green bond markets have seen massive growth and have contributed to numerous infrastructural energy efficiency projects. To expand this market further in these countries, the authors recommend fostering a public–private partnership backed by policies and political will.Originality/valueThis study provides an original contribution to the green bond and its likelihood of driving energy efficiency in a continent that has attracted little to no attention in the literature.

Using an international sample of corporate Green bond issuances over the recent period, this paper highlights the potential consequences of the issuance of a Green bond on the issuer’s financial performance. Starting with a first sample of 2079 Green bond issuances of 190 unique issuers from 2009 to 2018, we investigate only corporate green bond issuances. Our final sample contains 475 green bonds issued by 145 unique firms. We find that the market reacts negatively to the announcement of green bond issuances. In particular, results show that the stock market reacts on the day of the green bond announcement date and the day after, and that the cumulative abnormal return is between −0.5% and −0.2%, depending on the asset pricing model (CAPM, the 3-factor Fama and French models, and the 4-factor Carhart models). This effect is mainly noticeable at the first Green Bond issuance and in developed markets. Our results provide evidence that the investors react in the same manner for Green bonds as for conventional or convertible bonds. This evidence suggests that green debt offerings convey unfavorable information about the issuing firms.

The green bond market is attracting new issuers and a more diversified base of investors. However, the size of the green bond market remains small compared to the challenges it is meant to address and to the overall traditional bond market. This paper is based on a unique methodology combining an extensive literature review, market data analysis, and interviews with a large spectrum of green bond market participants. We identify the current barriers explaining the lack of scalability of the green bond market: a deficit of harmonized global standards; risks of greenwashing; the perception of higher costs for issuers; the lack of supply of green bonds for investors; and the overall infancy of the market. This paper makes several recommendations to overcome these obstacles and unlock the full potential of green bonds to finance sustainability goals.

From the perspective of financing cost, this article investigates the benefits of green bonds to the issuer. Based on 227 green bonds and 405 conventional bonds selected from China’s bond market, we find that (1) green bonds can decrease financing cost by at least 15 bps in the primary market, which is more significant than the effect in the secondary market; (2) third-party certification can strengthen the ‘greenium’ of green bonds in both the primary and secondary markets; and (3) there is no ‘greenium’ effect for financial green bonds in either primary or secondary markets in China, even for green bonds with third-party certification.

This thesis investigates the effects of environmental and economic disasters on green bond funds and conventional bond funds during the years 2016-2020. The research emphasizes how a saver could act when comparing green bond funds and conventional bond funds for investing purposes. Based on previous research, there are indications that green bonds and conventional bonds differ in pricing despite having the same economic quality. This research investigates bond funds rather than singular bonds. The tests in this study are quantitative based on hypothetico-deductive approach. Based on hypothesis testing through the Mann-Whitney-U test, green bond funds and conventional bond funds act similarly during events of stress, and there is no statistically significant evidence which proves that investing solely in either of the two groups is better than the other. In accordance to the Efficient Market Hypothesis, this thesis suggests that the bond funds act similarly because in essence they are the same financial instrument and act according to their ratings and qualities. From a saver’s perspective, it is therefore better to look at the quality and rating of a fund rather than what category of fund it is.

The interest for green investments has risen rapidly in the past years and with it, the green bond market. In line with the EU’s new Green Deal for a sustainable future, a Taxonomy of sustainable activities has been released along with a complementary green bond framework, the EU Green bond standard (EU GBS). Within the literature, there is a consensus that the green bond market has not yet reached its full potential and a number of obstacles for market growth have been identified. The new EU GBS is predicted to have an impact on the market, but it is not clear what it will look like, what role it will take on the market, and if it has the prerequisites to become the new market praxis framework. As the EU GBS will have an impact on the market, it could also have an impact on the obstacles for market growth. It is also at this stage uncertain if the EU GBS will contribute with new obstacles. Findings show that the EU GBS does have the prerequisites to become the standard framework on the market. It has advantages in being closely linked to the mandatory Taxonomy as well as a credible organization behind it. However, there are many other options, and it may be difficult for some issuers to issue an EU GBS as the criteria is set high. The EU GBS could help overcome some of the obstacles, but could also make some worse. It could open some doors, such as new sectors for green bonds and a common standard among European countries which could simplify the process. However, the uncertainty around it, the highly set thresholds and the do no significant harm criteria could decrease its growth. There are also issues around possible sub optimization and its credibility due to the notable presence of politics in the decision-making process.
Intresset för gröna investeringar har snabbt ökat de senaste åren och således även intresset för gröna obligationer. I linje med EU:s nya Green Deal för en hållbar framtid har en taxonomi för hållbara aktiviteter släppts tillsammans med en kompletterande ramverk för gröna obligationer, EU Green bond standard (EU GBS). Inom litteraturen råder det enighet om att den gröna obligationsmarknaden ännu inte har nått sin fulla potential och ett antal hinder för marknadstillväxt har identifierats. Det nya EU GBS förutspås ha en inverkan på marknaden, men det är inte klart hur den kommer att se ut, vilken roll EU GBS kommer att ta och om ramverket har förutsättningar för att bli marknadspraxis. Eftersom EU GBS kommer att påverka marknaden kan det också komma att påverka hindren för marknadstillväxt. Det är också i detta skede osäkert om EU GBS kommer att bidra med nya hinder. Resultaten visar att EU GBS har förutsättningar att bli marknadspraxis. En av dess fördelar är sin nära koppling till den obligatoriska taxonomin såväl som en trovärdig organisation som står bakom. Det finns dock många andra alternativ och det kan vara svårt för vissa emittenter att utfärda ett EU GBS eftersom kriterierna är höga. EU GBS kan hjälpa till att övervinna några av hindren, men kan också arbeta emot dem. Ramverket kan öppna vissa dörrar, till exempel för nya sektorer för gröna obligationer och en gemensam standard för europeiska länder som kan förenkla processen. Osäkerheterna kring ramverket, de högt ställda tröskelvärdena samt ”do no significant harm”-kriterierna skulle dock kunna minska tillväxten av den gröna obligationsmarknaden. Det finns också frågor kring möjlig suboptimering och Taxonomins trovärdighet på grund av den politiska inblandningen i beslutsprocessen.

This thesis examined the effect of non-financial motives, namely pro-environmental or sustainability preference, in bond pricing on the European secondary market before and during the COVID-19 crisis over the period 02.01.2019-26.02.2021. To estimate the potential yield spread between green bonds and matched conventional bonds, we applied a stringent matching method and fixed-effect regression to explore the green bond premium. The result indicated a small positive premium of 0.46 bps before the COVID-19 (01.2019-02.2020) and a small negative premium of 0.2 bps during the ongoing COVID-19 crisis (03.2020-02.2021), and the premiums have significantly changed between the two study periods, implying that the COVID-19 had a significant effect on the GB premium. Thus, before the pandemic, investors demanded compensation in the form of a higher yield return on investing in green bonds; however, during the pandemic, investors are willing to accept a lower yield on the GBs in comparison to the equivalent CB to finance environmentally-friendly projects. Additionally, the paper investigated bond volatility by analyzing the standard deviation of the daily yield. Although green bonds tended to have a higher volatility, no robust conclusion could be drawn due to a lack of statistical significance.

The green bond market offers investors the opportunity to take an explicit focus on sustainable investment projects. However, it is yet to be determined whether this novel asset class offers attractive yields compared to non-green bonds. To address this question, we study European green bonds and how they diverge from conventional bonds in terms of yields. Using a dataset of 88 matched pairs of European green bonds between 2015 and 2019, we document a significant negative green bond premium of -12 bps on average in the secondary market. The green bond premium is defined as the yield differential between a green and a conventional bond while controlling for liquidity. The results suggest that European investors accept a lower financial return in exchange for receiving non-pecuniary benefits and thus challenging the assumptions of classical asset pricing models. Furthermore, we use a matching method and two-step regression to control for liquidity and identify the determinants of the green bond premium. The results show that the negative green bond premium is less pronounced for lower-rated bonds. Moreover, we find support for variations in the green bond premium across different business sectors. Government-related green bonds experience a greater negative green bond premium than green bonds related to financials and industrial corporates.

Context:Over the years, India has evolved as a leading powerhouse of economic growthbut belongs to the nations that are most significantly affected by anthropogenicenviron-mental changes. As part of the Paris Agreement, India has formulated a national climate agenda, but a large gapprevalentin the green financialmarket as well as other deficien-cies in the general bondmarket and the underlying infrastructure restrain the country from attaining those goals. Purpose:Earlier scholarly works, and green bond reports, in particular, have foreground the number of green bond issuances in India but do not take a critical look at the stagnat-ing development of the market and have not scrutinised the market and its actors in the context of scientific frames of reference yet. Thus, this thesis aims to identify the chal-lenges India faces in scaling the green financial market up while taking the demands and potential contributions of stakeholder groups into consideration. Methodology:This thesis is grounded in the author’s assumptions of interpretivism and subjectivity. Following these initial considerations, an inductive approach was followed, and a qualitative study was conducted, mainly based on a literature review in areas like sustainable finance,green financialmarkets and theirparticipantsas well asgreen debt securities and the associated issuers, investors, costsandverificationmethodsin India. Findings:The main challenges India faces in developing the green financial market fur-ther are the missing transparency provoked by the fragmentary green bond regulation as to disclosure and verification requirements as well as illiquidity caused by a small number of and little environmental awareness among investors. The market relies heavily on the banking sector and green investment projects are slanted towards renewable energy and energy efficiency projects. Moreover, green debt securities lack clear pricing advantages compared to conventional bonds but bear risks for greenwashing activities. Research Limitations:This thesis was not able to bridge the research gap on challenges for scaling India’s sustainable financial market up. The examination was further initiated by the author’s experiences with the topicand is based on an interpretive approach, thus, argumentations and findingsmight be value-laden. The small sample size of interviews taken and the limited information on greenwashing within financial activities might have not deliveredfull insightsinto the research topic

Background: With the tremendous growth of the Green Bond (GB) market, understanding the relationship of the GB market with other financial markets gains importance. The Covid19 pandemic causing a recession in most major economies creates an opportunity to see the co-movements of the GB market with other financial markets under a period of economic crisis. Purpose: This study aims to use the economic contraction catalyzed by the 2020’s Covid-19 pandemic as a means to investigate the co-movements between the GB and the treasury bond, corporate bond, stock, and carbon markets during an economic recession. Through this, we intend to find if co-movements of the GB market have changed, and if so, how. Method: As the collected data is time-series data, Augmented Dickey-Fuller and Ljung-Box tests are utilized for preliminary testing. Thereafter, a univariate-GARCH model is used for volatility modeling. Moreover, the DCC-GARCH model has been conducted to determine the co-movements between the markets. Conclusion: The results of the study show that in the case of GB, treasury, and corporate bond markets, no considerable changes were observed in the co-movement among the two different sample periods. Moving to the stock and GB markets, it was found that the co-movement increased at the beginning of the crisis. However, for the whole crisis period, no substantial changes can be seen in comparison to the pre-crisis period. Furthermore, the co-movement between the two markets was found to be weak in general. Moving on to the results obtained for GB and carbon markets, at the start of the crisis, a sharp fall can be observed. When compared to the pre-crisis period, the co-movement showed a slight increase, yet very weak. Furthermore, it was observed that the co-movement between the two markets has been weak during the whole sample period.

Background: With the first green bond being issued in 2008 as a joint venture between World Bank Organization and the Swedish bank SEB the financial instrument has made an impact on the financial markets. With a high demand for sustainable investments in Sweden partly due to policies a premium for the green bonds is to be expected at least according to theory. The real estate market has adapted to the increased demand for green investments by moving more towards green bonds, and rightfully so as it is one of the largest polluters seen by sector. In result, it is also one of the largest issuers of bonds which creates an excellent opportunity to research the industry as there is plenty of data available. Purpose: This report will examine the premium of green bonds in the Swedish real estate market. Furthermore, it will also examine the effects of Covid-19 and to what extent this pandemic had an impact on green bonds. Method: The thesis examines the Option Adjusted Spread (OAS) of 166 bonds of 9 different companies from the start of 2016 to December 2020 within the Swedish real estate market. Control variables such as Company risk, Market risk and Macroeconomic variables were used in an OLS regression to estimate the premium. The effect of the Covid-19 pandemic was also examined. Conclusion: After analyzing 53 green and 113 conventional bonds no significant results were found on how premium differs between green and conventional bonds. However more general findings were found that suggest bonds become more sought during the Covid-19. It was further found that the green bond market is rapidly growing and may in a few years be in a better position to be examined.

This research analyzes the motives and future of the Nordic green bond market from an underwriter perspective. Threefold motives for being active in the Nordic green bond market are found. There are monetary gains, corporate social responsibility, and an opportunity to receive and maintain legitimacy. Several important factors for the future of the Nordic green bond market are identified. The EU Taxonomy will have a major impact on this market, and is the most important factor for the future of it. Further, sustainability-linked bonds enable the transition of various sectors towards sustainability and are an important factor for the development of the Nordic bond market in general. Experts that possess roles within green bond underwriting and green bond investing have been interviewed. Stakeholder theory, corporate social responsibility and legitimacy theory have been implemented in this research with the aim of analyzing the motives and future of the Nordic green bond market. By doing that, this research contributes to a broader theoretical discussion in the area of sustainable finance.

This study was motivated by the urgent requirement to scale up the global green bond (GB) market to meet the trillion-dollar financial requirement of environmental resilience projects worldwide, and by the absence of prior scientific investigations to determine solutions to the GB market’s problems from different perspectives. Three empirical studies were conducted to provide a holistic view of the GB market. The first study investigated the perception gaps of different stakeholders in the GB market in terms of assessing the ‘greenness’ of projects funded through GBs, investors’ expectations of GB investments, and the factors hindering the growth of the GB market. A qualitative method was employed with document review, followed by interviews, a questionnaire survey and peer debriefing. The study found that both the demand and supply sides of the GB market are inadequate to meet the world’s green investment requirements. The main obstacles hindering the market growth are fear for greenwashing, definitions that lack clarity, the absence of large-scale issues, and the high costs associated with complex reporting processes and third-party certifications. The second study assessed the influence of GB principles on investor demand for GBs, using global GBs issued for the period 2007 to 2016. Bid–ask spread and yield spread were used to measure the investor demand. The results indicated a significant positive relationship between the degree of compliance and investor demand. The third study compared the credit spreads of corporate GBs and conventional bonds, measured by option-adjusted spread daily data for the period 2016 to 2017 worldwide. Hybrid method of panel data regression was employed to analyse the data, and found that GBs are traded at a premium in the world market, compared with conventional bonds. This thesis suggests several policy implications based on the findings of these studies to scale up the GB market as a new source of financing.
Doctor of Philosophy

The green bond market has grown rapidly in the past years but still only stands for 1 percent of the total bond market. More issuers need to issue green bonds for the green bond market to grow, and investors need to invest in new issuers. A weakness of the green bond market is that there is no universal definition of sustainability. This thesis investigates the green bond market from investors’ perspectives, focusing on the role of trust in the green bond market. The thesis is qualitative research containing eight interviews with people on pension funds, asset management firms, an insurance company, and a fixed-income institute. The interviews were supplemented with a short questionary. The main findings are that trust has a vital role in the green bond market. Trust between investors and issuers can be strengthened through increased transparency from the issuer. Issuers’ general sustainability work is essential for investors when investing in green bonds. The research identified that the green bond market growth would benefit if a third-party actor would vouch for the company’s sustainability work. A recommendation to facilitate market growth is to establish a voluntary standardized sustainability rating with clear financial incentives for the issuer. It would enhance issuers’ sustainability awareness and increase transparency for the investors as the rating would be on the issuers’ initiative.
Den gröna obligationsmarknaden har vuxit kraftigt de senaste åren men står endast för 1 procent av den totala obligationsmarknaden. För att marknaden ska växa behöver fler emittenter utfärda gröna obligationer samtidigt som investerare behöver investera i nya emittenter. En svaghet för den gröna obligationsmarknaden är att det saknas en universell definition av hållbarhet. Detta arbete undersöker den gröna obligationsmarknaden från en investerares perspektiv med fokus på tillitens betydelse på marknaden. Arbetet är en kvalitativ studie som baseras på åtta intervjuer med personer inom pensionsbolag, kapitalförvaltning, försäkringsbolag och ett ränteinstitut. Intervjuerna kompletterades med en kort enkät. De viktigaste resultaten visar på att tillit har en betydande roll på den gröna obligationsmarknaden. Tillit mellan investerare och emittenter kan stärkas genom ökad transparens från emittentens sida. Resultat visar även på att emittentens generella hållbarhetsarbete är viktigt för investerare när de investerar i en grön obligation. Det identifieras att den gröna obligationsmarknaden skulle kunna dra fördel av om det existerar en tredjepartsaktör som kan bekräfta en emittents hållbarhetsarbete. Ett förslag som eventuellt skulle kunna leda till marknadstillväxt är att införa ett standardiserat hållbarhetsbetyg kopplat till tydliga finansiella incitament för både emittenten och investeraren. Detta skulle öka transparensen för investerare samt kunna förbättra emittentens medvetenhet gällande hållbarhet eftersom bedömningen skulle göras på emittentens initiativ.

This paper describes the issuance of the first sustainable bond in Brazil, executed by the Banco de Desenvolvimento de Minas Gerais (BDMG) with the support of the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) Group. It highlights key features of the transaction as well as the role that public financial institutions can play in developing the thematic bond market. The bond supported projects with measurable environmental and social benefits, such as energy efficiency, renewable energy, water and sanitation, health, and education projects, in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, and was developed following a Sustainability Bond Framework in accordance with the Green Bond Principles, the Social Bond Principles, and the Sustainability Bond Guidelines.

Nationalism: Past as Prologue began as a single volume being compiled by Ad Akande, a scholar from South Africa, who proposed it to me as co-author about two years ago. The original idea was to examine how the damaging roots of nationalism have been corroding political systems around the world, and creating dangerous obstacles for necessary international cooperation. Since I (Bruce E. Johansen) has written profusely about climate change (global warming, a.k.a. infrared forcing), I suggested a concerted effort in that direction. This is a worldwide existential threat that affects every living thing on Earth. It often compounds upon itself, so delays in reducing emissions of fossil fuels are shortening the amount of time remaining to eliminate the use of fossil fuels to preserve a livable planet. Nationalism often impedes solutions to this problem (among many others), as nations place their singular needs above the common good. Our initial proposal got around, and abstracts on many subjects arrived. Within a few weeks, we had enough good material for a 100,000-word book. The book then fattened to two moderate volumes and then to four two very hefty tomes. We tried several different titles as good submissions swelled. We also discovered that our best contributors were experts in their fields, which ranged the world. We settled on three stand-alone books:” 1/ nationalism and racial justice. Our first volume grew as the growth of Black Lives Matter following the brutal killing of George Floyd ignited protests over police brutality and other issues during 2020, following the police assassination of Floyd in Minneapolis. It is estimated that more people took part in protests of police brutality during the summer of 2020 than any other series of marches in United States history. This includes upheavals during the 1960s over racial issues and against the war in Southeast Asia (notably Vietnam). We choose a volume on racism because it is one of nationalism’s main motive forces. This volume provides a worldwide array of work on nationalism’s growth in various countries, usually by authors residing in them, or in the United States with ethnic ties to the nation being examined, often recent immigrants to the United States from them. Our roster of contributors comprises a small United Nations of insightful, well-written research and commentary from Indonesia, New Zealand, Australia, China, India, South Africa, France, Portugal, Estonia, Hungary, Russia, Poland, Kazakhstan, Georgia, and the United States. Volume 2 (this one) describes and analyzes nationalism, by country, around the world, except for the United States; and 3/material directly related to President Donald Trump, and the United States. The first volume is under consideration at the Texas A & M University Press. The other two are under contract to Nova Science Publishers (which includes social sciences). These three volumes may be used individually or as a set. Environmental material is taken up in appropriate places in each of the three books. * * * * * What became the United States of America has been strongly nationalist since the English of present-day Massachusetts and Jamestown first hit North America’s eastern shores. The country propelled itself across North America with the self-serving ideology of “manifest destiny” for four centuries before Donald Trump came along. Anyone who believes that a Trumpian affection for deportation of “illegals” is a new thing ought to take a look at immigration and deportation statistics in Adam Goodman’s The Deportation Machine: America’s Long History of Deporting Immigrants (Princeton University Press, 2020). Between 1920 and 2018, the United States deported 56.3 million people, compared with 51.7 million who were granted legal immigration status during the same dates. Nearly nine of ten deportees were Mexican (Nolan, 2020, 83). This kind of nationalism, has become an assassin of democracy as well as an impediment to solving global problems. Paul Krugman wrote in the New York Times (2019:A-25): that “In their 2018 book, How Democracies Die, the political scientists Steven Levitsky and Daniel Ziblatt documented how this process has played out in many countries, from Vladimir Putin’s Russia, to Recep Erdogan’s Turkey, to Viktor Orban’s Hungary. Add to these India’s Narendra Modi, China’s Xi Jinping, and the United States’ Donald Trump, among others. Bit by bit, the guardrails of democracy have been torn down, as institutions meant to serve the public became tools of ruling parties and self-serving ideologies, weaponized to punish and intimidate opposition parties’ opponents. On paper, these countries are still democracies; in practice, they have become one-party regimes….And it’s happening here [the United States] as we speak. If you are not worried about the future of American democracy, you aren’t paying attention” (Krugmam, 2019, A-25). We are reminded continuously that the late Carl Sagan, one of our most insightful scientific public intellectuals, had an interesting theory about highly developed civilizations. Given the number of stars and planets that must exist in the vast reaches of the universe, he said, there must be other highly developed and organized forms of life. Distance may keep us from making physical contact, but Sagan said that another reason we may never be on speaking terms with another intelligent race is (judging from our own example) could be their penchant for destroying themselves in relatively short order after reaching technological complexity. This book’s chapters, introduction, and conclusion examine the worldwide rise of partisan nationalism and the damage it has wrought on the worldwide pursuit of solutions for issues requiring worldwide scope, such scientific co-operation public health and others, mixing analysis of both. We use both historical description and analysis. This analysis concludes with a description of why we must avoid the isolating nature of nationalism that isolates people and encourages separation if we are to deal with issues of world-wide concern, and to maintain a sustainable, survivable Earth, placing the dominant political movement of our time against the Earth’s existential crises. Our contributors, all experts in their fields, each have assumed responsibility for a country, or two if they are related. This work entwines themes of worldwide concern with the political growth of nationalism because leaders with such a worldview are disinclined to co-operate internationally at a time when nations must find ways to solve common problems, such as the climate crisis. Inability to cooperate at this stage may doom everyone, eventually, to an overheated, stormy future plagued by droughts and deluges portending shortages of food and other essential commodities, meanwhile destroying large coastal urban areas because of rising sea levels. Future historians may look back at our time and wonder why as well as how our world succumbed to isolating nationalism at a time when time was so short for cooperative intervention which is crucial for survival of a sustainable earth. Pride in language and culture is salubrious to individuals’ sense of history and identity. Excess nationalism that prevents international co-operation on harmful worldwide maladies is quite another. As Pope Francis has pointed out: For all of our connectivity due to expansion of social media, ability to communicate can breed contempt as well as mutual trust. “For all our hyper-connectivity,” said Francis, “We witnessed a fragmentation that made it more difficult to resolve problems that affect us all” (Horowitz, 2020, A-12). The pope’s encyclical, titled “Brothers All,” also said: “The forces of myopic, extremist, resentful, and aggressive nationalism are on the rise.” The pope’s document also advocates support for migrants, as well as resistance to nationalist and tribal populism. Francis broadened his critique to the role of market capitalism, as well as nationalism has failed the peoples of the world when they need co-operation and solidarity in the face of the world-wide corona virus pandemic. Humankind needs to unite into “a new sense of the human family [Fratelli Tutti, “Brothers All”], that rejects war at all costs” (Pope, 2020, 6-A). Our journey takes us first to Russia, with the able eye and honed expertise of Richard D. Anderson, Jr. who teaches as UCLA and publishes on the subject of his chapter: “Putin, Russian identity, and Russia’s conduct at home and abroad.” Readers should find Dr. Anderson’s analysis fascinating because Vladimir Putin, the singular leader of Russian foreign and domestic policy these days (and perhaps for the rest of his life, given how malleable Russia’s Constitution has become) may be a short man physically, but has high ambitions. One of these involves restoring the old Russian (and Soviet) empire, which would involve re-subjugating a number of nations that broke off as the old order dissolved about 30 years ago. President (shall we say czar?) Putin also has international ambitions, notably by destabilizing the United States, where election meddling has become a specialty. The sight of Putin and U.S. president Donald Trump, two very rich men (Putin $70-$200 billion; Trump $2.5 billion), nuzzling in friendship would probably set Thomas Jefferson and Vladimir Lenin spinning in their graves. The road of history can take some unanticipated twists and turns. Consider Poland, from which we have an expert native analysis in chapter 2, Bartosz Hlebowicz, who is a Polish anthropologist and journalist. His piece is titled “Lawless and Unjust: How to Quickly Make Your Own Country a Puppet State Run by a Group of Hoodlums – the Hopeless Case of Poland (2015–2020).” When I visited Poland to teach and lecture twice between 2006 and 2008, most people seemed to be walking on air induced by freedom to conduct their own affairs to an unusual degree for a state usually squeezed between nationalists in Germany and Russia. What did the Poles then do in a couple of decades? Read Hlebowicz’ chapter and decide. It certainly isn’t soft-bellied liberalism. In Chapter 3, with Bruce E. Johansen, we visit China’s western provinces, the lands of Tibet as well as the Uighurs and other Muslims in the Xinjiang region, who would most assuredly resent being characterized as being possessed by the Chinese of the Han to the east. As a student of Native American history, I had never before thought of the Tibetans and Uighurs as Native peoples struggling against the Independence-minded peoples of a land that is called an adjunct of China on most of our maps. The random act of sitting next to a young woman on an Air India flight out of Hyderabad, bound for New Delhi taught me that the Tibetans had something to share with the Lakota, the Iroquois, and hundreds of other Native American states and nations in North America. Active resistance to Chinese rule lasted into the mid-nineteenth century, and continues today in a subversive manner, even in song, as I learned in 2018 when I acted as a foreign adjudicator on a Ph.D. dissertation by a Tibetan student at the University of Madras (in what is now in a city called Chennai), in southwestern India on resistance in song during Tibet’s recent history. Tibet is one of very few places on Earth where a young dissident can get shot to death for singing a song that troubles China’s Quest for Lebensraum. The situation in Xinjiang region, where close to a million Muslims have been interned in “reeducation” camps surrounded with brick walls and barbed wire. They sing, too. Come with us and hear the music. Back to Europe now, in Chapter 4, to Portugal and Spain, we find a break in the general pattern of nationalism. Portugal has been more progressive governmentally than most. Spain varies from a liberal majority to military coups, a pattern which has been exported to Latin America. A situation such as this can make use of the term “populism” problematic, because general usage in our time usually ties the word into a right-wing connotative straightjacket. “Populism” can be used to describe progressive (left-wing) insurgencies as well. José Pinto, who is native to Portugal and also researches and writes in Spanish as well as English, in “Populism in Portugal and Spain: a Real Neighbourhood?” provides insight into these historical paradoxes. Hungary shares some historical inclinations with Poland (above). Both emerged from Soviet dominance in an air of developing freedom and multicultural diversity after the Berlin Wall fell and the Soviet Union collapsed. Then, gradually at first, right wing-forces began to tighten up, stripping structures supporting popular freedom, from the courts, mass media, and other institutions. In Chapter 5, Bernard Tamas, in “From Youth Movement to Right-Liberal Wing Authoritarianism: The Rise of Fidesz and the Decline of Hungarian Democracy” puts the renewed growth of political and social repression into a context of worldwide nationalism. Tamas, an associate professor of political science at Valdosta State University, has been a postdoctoral fellow at Harvard University and a Fulbright scholar at the Central European University in Budapest, Hungary. His books include From Dissident to Party Politics: The Struggle for Democracy in Post-Communist Hungary (2007). Bear in mind that not everyone shares Orbán’s vision of what will make this nation great, again. On graffiti-covered walls in Budapest, Runes (traditional Hungarian script) has been found that read “Orbán is a motherfucker” (Mikanowski, 2019, 58). Also in Europe, in Chapter 6, Professor Ronan Le Coadic, of the University of Rennes, Rennes, France, in “Is There a Revival of French Nationalism?” Stating this title in the form of a question is quite appropriate because France’s nationalistic shift has built and ebbed several times during the last few decades. For a time after 2000, it came close to assuming the role of a substantial minority, only to ebb after that. In 2017, the candidate of the National Front reached the second round of the French presidential election. This was the second time this nationalist party reached the second round of the presidential election in the history of the Fifth Republic. In 2002, however, Jean-Marie Le Pen had only obtained 17.79% of the votes, while fifteen years later his daughter, Marine Le Pen, almost doubled her father's record, reaching 33.90% of the votes cast. Moreover, in the 2019 European elections, re-named Rassemblement National obtained the largest number of votes of all French political formations and can therefore boast of being "the leading party in France.” The brutality of oppressive nationalism may be expressed in personal relationships, such as child abuse. While Indonesia and Aotearoa [the Maoris’ name for New Zealand] hold very different ranks in the United Nations Human Development Programme assessments, where Indonesia is classified as a medium development country and Aotearoa New Zealand as a very high development country. In Chapter 7, “Domestic Violence Against Women in Indonesia and Aotearoa New Zealand: Making Sense of Differences and Similarities” co-authors, in Chapter 8, Mandy Morgan and Dr. Elli N. Hayati, from New Zealand and Indonesia respectively, found that despite their socio-economic differences, one in three women in each country experience physical or sexual intimate partner violence over their lifetime. In this chapter ther authors aim to deepen understandings of domestic violence through discussion of the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of theit countries to address domestic violence alongside studies of women’s attitudes to gender norms and experiences of intimate partner violence. One of the most surprising and upsetting scholarly journeys that a North American student may take involves Adolf Hitler’s comments on oppression of American Indians and Blacks as he imagined the construction of the Nazi state, a genesis of nationalism that is all but unknown in the United States of America, traced in this volume (Chapter 8) by co-editor Johansen. Beginning in Mein Kampf, during the 1920s, Hitler explicitly used the westward expansion of the United States across North America as a model and justification for Nazi conquest and anticipated colonization by Germans of what the Nazis called the “wild East” – the Slavic nations of Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine, and Russia, most of which were under control of the Soviet Union. The Volga River (in Russia) was styled by Hitler as the Germans’ Mississippi, and covered wagons were readied for the German “manifest destiny” of imprisoning, eradicating, and replacing peoples the Nazis deemed inferior, all with direct references to events in North America during the previous century. At the same time, with no sense of contradiction, the Nazis partook of a long-standing German romanticism of Native Americans. One of Goebbels’ less propitious schemes was to confer honorary Aryan status on Native American tribes, in the hope that they would rise up against their oppressors. U.S. racial attitudes were “evidence [to the Nazis] that America was evolving in the right direction, despite its specious rhetoric about equality.” Ming Xie, originally from Beijing, in the People’s Republic of China, in Chapter 9, “News Coverage and Public Perceptions of the Social Credit System in China,” writes that The State Council of China in 2014 announced “that a nationwide social credit system would be established” in China. “Under this system, individuals, private companies, social organizations, and governmental agencies are assigned a score which will be calculated based on their trustworthiness and daily actions such as transaction history, professional conduct, obedience to law, corruption, tax evasion, and academic plagiarism.” The “nationalism” in this case is that of the state over the individual. China has 1.4 billion people; this system takes their measure for the purpose of state control. Once fully operational, control will be more subtle. People who are subject to it, through modern technology (most often smart phones) will prompt many people to self-censor. Orwell, modernized, might write: “Your smart phone is watching you.” Ming Xie holds two Ph.Ds, one in Public Administration from University of Nebraska at Omaha and another in Cultural Anthropology from the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, where she also worked for more than 10 years at a national think tank in the same institution. While there she summarized news from non-Chinese sources for senior members of the Chinese Communist Party. Ming is presently an assistant professor at the Department of Political Science and Criminal Justice, West Texas A&M University. In Chapter 10, analyzing native peoples and nationhood, Barbara Alice Mann, Professor of Honours at the University of Toledo, in “Divide, et Impera: The Self-Genocide Game” details ways in which European-American invaders deprive the conquered of their sense of nationhood as part of a subjugation system that amounts to genocide, rubbing out their languages and cultures -- and ultimately forcing the native peoples to assimilate on their own, for survival in a culture that is foreign to them. Mann is one of Native American Studies’ most acute critics of conquests’ contradictions, and an author who retrieves Native history with a powerful sense of voice and purpose, having authored roughly a dozen books and numerous book chapters, among many other works, who has traveled around the world lecturing and publishing on many subjects. Nalanda Roy and S. Mae Pedron in Chapter 11, “Understanding the Face of Humanity: The Rohingya Genocide.” describe one of the largest forced migrations in the history of the human race, the removal of 700,000 to 800,000 Muslims from Buddhist Myanmar to Bangladesh, which itself is already one of the most crowded and impoverished nations on Earth. With about 150 million people packed into an area the size of Nebraska and Iowa (population less than a tenth that of Bangladesh, a country that is losing land steadily to rising sea levels and erosion of the Ganges river delta. The Rohingyas’ refugee camp has been squeezed onto a gigantic, eroding, muddy slope that contains nearly no vegetation. However, Bangladesh is majority Muslim, so while the Rohingya may starve, they won’t be shot to death by marauding armies. Both authors of this exquisite (and excruciating) account teach at Georgia Southern University in Savannah, Georgia, Roy as an associate professor of International Studies and Asian politics, and Pedron as a graduate student; Roy originally hails from very eastern India, close to both Myanmar and Bangladesh, so he has special insight into the context of one of the most brutal genocides of our time, or any other. This is our case describing the problems that nationalism has and will pose for the sustainability of the Earth as our little blue-and-green orb becomes more crowded over time. The old ways, in which national arguments often end in devastating wars, are obsolete, given that the Earth and all the people, plants, and other animals that it sustains are faced with the existential threat of a climate crisis that within two centuries, more or less, will flood large parts of coastal cities, and endanger many species of plants and animals. To survive, we must listen to the Earth, and observe her travails, because they are increasingly our own.

X. Liang and Z. Gao in Chapter 11 argue that climate change is one of the greatest challenges that humans are facing in this century. Mobilising investment and finance in addressing climate issues is key to unlocking actions on climate change across countries. The estimated investment required to achieve the climate mitigation goal established in the Paris Agreement ranges from US$1.6 trillion to US$3.8 trillion annually from 2016 to 2050, while the tracked annual flow of climate finance is US$579 billion on average. Despite significant growth in climate finance flows, the gap remains substantial. In response to the gap, an issue that must be urgently addressed is maximising the effectiveness of climate investment and finance. Developing Green Finance, such as green bonds, green funds, or green loans, has provided hope for a potential solution to bridge the climate change funding gap. Since the first green bonds were issued in 2007 by the European Investment Bank (EIB), the green financial market has grown rapidly in both scale and market coverage. Green bonds remain the dominant asset in terms of market share. In 2021, green, social, sustainability, sustainability-linked, and transition-themed debt reached US$1 trillion with growth spearheaded by green bond issuance. This represents a twenty-fold increase from 2015, and accounts for 10% of the global debt markets.

This study examines whether there is a negative green bond premium for investors in the secondary European market. To answer this question, the matched pairs method is applied, where the daily i-spreads of green bonds and the interpolated daily i-spreads of similar non-green bonds are compared. The bond sample contains 37 bond couples issued by corporations, financial institutions and governments between November 2019 and April 2020. The findings suggest that there is an average statistically significant negative very small green bond premium. The negative premium could be explained by investors’ preferences for green financial instruments leading to excess demand. The negative green bond premium may also be a compensation for the issuer’s external costs or reflect the internalization of environmental externalities. Further evidence shows that the negative green bond premium varies across industries and is not higher for lower rated investment grade bonds.

The paper analyses green bonds as sources of financing renewable energy projects. Green bonds are a relatively new form of financing and thanks to increased investors’ climate awareness, the market has seen an enormous growth in the last few years. Therefore, the guidelines and standards adopted in financial markets clearly indicate what should be considered a green investment and are a key to further development of the market and achieving the goals of green financing. The goal of the theoretical approach to green bond market in the paper is to identify the key barriers that prevent many countries from taking advantage of this new but growing source of financing renewable energy. The lack of appropriate institutional arrangements for managing green bonds, issuing a minimum volume and high transaction costs are the key obstacles to the development of green bond market. The overall conclusion of the paper is that with just the right measures, many countries could make full use of green bonds to finance climate change adaptation and mitigation projects and thus increase renewable energy capacities.

Nothing has united world in recent years as global climate change issues and its environmental impact. Situation is alarming and world has recognized negative consequences industrial development has on the environment. With the aim to struggle with growing needs for sustainable solutions of environment preserving, finance and investments have crucial role. Sustainable and green finance and investments have rising importance in achieving sustainable environmental projects. Also, environmental, social and governance (ESG) criteria have new vital role today in financial and investment decision making. The aim of this paper is to examine the role of sustainable finance and investments in Western Balkans countries. This study has an essentially exploratory character. The intention is to analyze current situation and to seek for potentials regarding development of green finance products like green bonds. The idea is to find incentives in sustainable finance area to further promote and develop capital market in this region.

Fuel NOx is one of the main issues related to the combustion of biomass derived Low Calorific Value (LCV) Gas. The high NOx emissions accompanying the combustion of that fuel in gas turbines or gas engines are compromising the CO2 neutral character of biomass and are a barrier towards the introduction of this green energy source in the market. The reduction of NOx emissions has been one of the main preoccupations of researchers in the LCV gas combustion field. Although, much has been achieved for thermal NOx which is caused mainly by the conversion of the nitrogen of the air in high temperature regions, less work has been devoted to the reduction of fuel NOx, which has as a main source the fuel bound nitrogen FBN, namely ammonia in case of biomass. Reducing the conversion of the FBN to NOx has been the main issue in recent research work. However, fuel NOx could be reduced significantly applying methods; like washing the gas in a scrubber prior its entrance to the combustor, and SNCR or SCR methods applied at the exhaust. But those solutions stay very expensive in terms of polluted waste water and catalyst cost. In this paper, the approach is to reduce the conversion of FBN to NOx inside a newly designed combustor. The idea is to optimize the combustion process ending up with the lowest possible conversion of FBN to NOx. The LCV gas used in the experiments described in this paper is made by mixing CO, CO2, H2, natural gas and N2 with proportions comparable to those of the real LCV gas. This gas is then doped with NH3 to simulate the FBN. In this paper the conversion ratio of FBN to NOx versus the FBN concentration is presented. Furthermore, the system is investigated in terms of the effect of CH4 concentration on the conversion of FBN to NOx. And measurements along the combustor axis were performed with a traversing probe where temperature and important emissions along the axis were measured. In all the experiments described in the paper, The LCV gas has an HHV (High Calorific Value) ranging from 4 to 7Mj/nm3. The newly designed combustor contains an embedded inner cylinder. In these experiments presented are without that embedded cylinder. The purpose of the current experiments is to be compared to the later experiments with the insert in order to define clearly the effect of the inner cylinder. Furthermore, this arrangement, i.e. without the insert, gave us the opportunity to traverse the combustor by a probe and to measure temperature and species profiles, which is of a great importance in defining the key parameter controlling the conversion of NH3 to NOx.

This brief highlights the potential for developing sustainable bond markets in the ASEAN+3 region and suggests ways forward. It notes that renewable energy and energy efficiency are seen as promising sectors for the development of green bonds. It suggests how policymakers and development partners can help expand the issuer base and increase local demand for sustainable bonds, increase project bankability, and create an enabling ecosystem.

This study uses city-level data from the People’s Republic of China to examine links between green bond market development and air quality as well as mortality rates. It finds that cities with more green bond financing as a share of total bond financing tend to have better air quality. The effect is stronger when certified green bonds are examined and in cities with higher gross domestic product growth. Further, local green bond issuance is also negatively related to mortality rates. The findings support the argument that green bond issuance is a credible signal of corporates’ commitment to be environmentally responsible.

This policy brief was developed in order to identify preliminary green /sustainable infrastructure opportunities for cities in Brazil. The rapidly growing green bond market can help local authorities to attract new sources of capital for financing subnational infrastructure. Water and sanitation, waste to energy and urban mobility were the sectors selected for an inicial assessment, given the investment needs in Brazilian municipalities and their alignment with low carbon development and resilience. This brief was also used to raise awareness across key infrastructure stakeholders in Brazil, and build a number of market education activities in the second semester of 2018.

This guidance note aims to help bond issuers and their advisors to understand the process and key considerations for a successful green bond issuance. Demand for green bonds and other sustainable finance products is increasing rapidly, and issuers are seeing an opportunity to be part of the green bond market. This publication covers all the steps required to follow best practices in labeling bonds as green. It includes examples, links to further details, and key resources for green bond issuers and their deal teams.

This publication provides an overview of institutional investors’ interest in green bonds issued in Indonesia, along with an assessment of the perspectives of local arrangers and underwriters on their clients’ interest in green bond issuances. It presents the results of a survey to help identify drivers, impediments, and development priorities for Indonesia’s sustainable finance market. The findings serve as a resource to inform action to accelerate the market’s development. The publication was prepared in collaboration with the Global Green Growth Institute.