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1
Rolfe, Leonard. „Hierarchical organization in grammar“. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 14, Nr. 4 (Dezember 1991): 574. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x00071442.
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Ham, Sanda. „Croatian Shtokavian grammar books“. St open 1 (2020): 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.48188/so.1.10.
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This paper describes the criteria for the systematic periodization of Croatian grammar books. These criteria are exclusively linguistic and take into account the phonological and morphological structure described in these grammar books; where the grammar books contain a dictionary, the lexical organization has been taken into consideration as well. Based on these criteria, all Croatian grammar books may be systematized into four periods: I. 1604 – 1836 (old Croatian grammars), II. 1836 – 1899 (Croatian grammars from the Illyrian Movement to the end of the 19th century, with two parallel subgroups: grammars by the Zagreb School and Croatian Vukovians), III. 1899 – 1986 (with three successive subgroups: Croatian grammars from the beginning of the 20th century to 1940, Croatian grammars from 1940 to 1945, Croatian grammars from 1945 to the 1970s), IV. contemporary Croatian grammars. All these grammars clearly reveal the continuity of the Croatian literary language. This language is recognizable and comprehensible in all grammars, primarily owing to its Shtokavian stylization – and not to any kind of “organic basis”.
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Givon, T. „Toward a neurology of grammar“. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 21, Nr. 1 (Februar 1998): 154–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x9821096x.
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This commentary makes a case for a connection between the hierarchically organized skills emphasized in Greenfield's (1991t) target article and rhythmic skills utilized in music. It also links hierarchical organization with automated processing. Implicit is the notion that lower levels of a hierarchy become automatic, as they go under control of higher levels of organization.
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Schnelle, Helmut. „Grammar and brain“. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 26, Nr. 6 (Dezember 2003): 689–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x03450152.
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Jackendoff's account of relating linguistic structure and brain structure is too restricted in concentrating on formal features of computational requirements, neglecting the achievements of various types of neuroscientific modelling. My own approaches to neuronal models of syntactic organization show how these requirements could be met. The book's lack of discussion of a sound philosophy of the relation is briefly mentioned.
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Iwasaki, Shoichi. „A multiple-grammar model of speakers’ linguistic knowledge“. Cognitive Linguistics 26, Nr. 2 (01.05.2015): 161–210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/cog-2014-0101.
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AbstractBy using the concept of ‘multiple grammars,’ this paper develops the view of an individual speaker’s cognitive organization of grammar. Although conversation, one type of spoken language environment, plays a crucial role in the emergence of grammar, for some speakers in a literate society, the written language environment may also contribute to developing a grammar. The two language environments are expected to provide unique incentives to shaping grammar differently as they diverge greatly in terms of media types (sound vs graph), constraints (online processing vs detachment), and purposes (interaction vs ideational formation), among others. At the same time, speakers may come in contact with and acquire additional sets of grammar for specific genres. Though the grammars acquired in different genre environments may be merged at the most abstract level, each grammar contains genre-specific formulaic expressions and grammatical resources with varying degrees of granularity. Speakers may conduct their routine linguistic activities in an informal conversation by employing reusable formulaic expressions of various types and rudimentary combinatory algorithms, but when they engage in more complex verbal tasks (politicians engaging in a debate, interviewees reconstructing past experiences), they may employ more abstract grammatical resources including those that were acquired from written language. The paper explores these suggestions by performing text and statistical analyses of several Japanese discourse samples.
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Leclère, Christian. „Organization of the lexicon-grammar of French verbs“. Lingvisticæ Investigationes. International Journal of Linguistics and Language Resources 25, Nr. 1 (31.12.2002): 29–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/li.25.1.04lec.
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Summary The “Lexicon-grammar” of LADL describes about 15,000 simple verbs and 25,000 complex verbs, according to the syntactic, distributional or semantic properties of their main constructions. I present the types of properties that have been selected as the basis for the classification of these verbs.
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Hengeveld, Kees, und J. Lachlan Mackenzie. „Grammar and context in Functional Discourse Grammar“. Pragmatics. Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA) 24, Nr. 2 (01.06.2014): 203–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/prag.24.2.02hen.
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This article presents a proposal for the organization of the Contextual Component in Functional Discourse Grammar. A guiding principle in this proposal is that, given the fact that Functional Discourse Grammar is a theory of grammar, the Contextual Component should provide the information that is necessary for a proper functioning of the grammar rather than aim at an exhaustive specification of all the information that plays a role in interpreting linguistic expressions. The Contextual Component contains situational and discursive information and is organized in different strata that correspond to the interpersonal, representational, morphosyntactic, and phonological levels of representation within the grammar. The contextual representations make use of the same formalizations as the corresponding linguistic representations, thus allowing for direct exchange of information between the Grammatical and the Contextual Components. Thus exchange of information is handled by an interface called the contextualizer. The article illustrates the functioning of this model by analyzing the role of contextual information with respect to three grammatical phenomena in three different languages: Unexpressed arguments in Turkish, English too, and answers to yes/no questions in European Portuguese.
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Isermann, Michael. „John Wallis on adjectives the discovery of phrase structure in the Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae (1653)“. Historiographia Linguistica 23, Nr. 1-2 (01.01.1996): 47–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/hl.23.1-2.03ise.
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Summary One of the typical features of the early grammars of European vernaculars is their sketchy treatment of syntactic phenomena. The reason for this neglect is obvious: The steady orientation of grammarians towards the traditional word-class approach virtually necessitated the persistence of the view of a sentence as a linear arrangement of words. Though historians of grammar have acknowledged John Wallis’(1616–1703) attempt at freeing the grammar of English from the strait jacket of Latin grammar, they have seen his Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae (1653) in the word-based grammar tradition. In this paper I argue that beyond the fairly traditional organization and terminology of Wallis’ grammar lies a fundamentally different approach: Instead of basing his description of English on a fixed word-class system, Wallis seems to arrive at syntactic categories via the criteria of distribution and substitution. It is these criteria (which are constantly applied rather than stated) that lead Wallis to the discovery of phrases and their internal structure. Especially consistent and concise in this regard is Wallis’ description of the structure of the noun phrase in the chapter on “The adjectives”.
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ROZA, VENI, und Genta Sakti. „EXPERT APPRAISAL ON ISLAMIC TEXTUAL ENHANCEMENT GRAMMAR BOOK DESIGNED FOR GRAMMAR TEACHING AT IAIN BUKITTINGGI“. Journal Educative : Journal of Educational Studies 3, Nr. 2 (29.12.2018): 150. http://dx.doi.org/10.30983/educative.v3i2.552.
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The article aims at evaluating of grammar book designed by the author from some experts. Experts’ appraisals were needed to judge whether Textual Enhancement model designed for teaching grammar at IAIN Bukittinggi was valid or not. In this model, the researcher designed grammar lesson of complex sentences under the model of textual enhancement. She made salient grammar features taught by giving boldfaces and colors in every appearance of complex sentences within the texts in order to draw students’ attention to notice it. The study is mixed methods of quantitative and qualitative. Questionnaire and interview were used to collect data of expert judgments on the model developed (grammar book). There are five experts involved in this research who evaluate the book with impressionistic method which includes language, content and organization. The finding reveals that textual enhancement grammar book is valid and reliable. It can be used after being revised in the aspect of language with some grammar and spelling errors, in the aspect of content to suit with native culture, and organization, to consider the attractive sense. Keywords: expert appraisal; textual enhancement; grammar books; teaching grammar
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Kaltenböck, Gunther, Bernd Heine und Tania Kuteva. „On thetical grammar“. Studies in Language 35, Nr. 4 (31.12.2011): 852–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/sl.35.4.03kal.
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Most frameworks of linguistic analysis tend to highlight phenomena of language use and/or language knowledge such as sentence and word structure, while backgrounding or ignoring other phenomena that are interpreted as being of more marginal interest for the linguist. The main goal of this paper is to argue that some phenomena that have previously been treated as being more peripheral play an important role in the organization of linguistic discourse, and that the latter operates in at least two different domains, namely that of sentence grammar and of thetical grammar. Each of the two domains has its own internal structure, and the two tend to be separated from one another syntactically, prosodically, and semantically. Building on recent research, the paper aims at defining the main characteristics of thetical grammar.
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Bagha, Karim Nazari. „Generative Grammar (GG)“. Management and Labour Studies 34, Nr. 2 (Mai 2009): 291–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0258042x0903400208.
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This article consists of eight parts: introduction, the organization of a Generative Grammar, operation of the system of base rules, deep structure, surface structure and transformational rules, standard theory, extended standard theory, revised extended standard theory, and minimalism. According to Chomsky, the grammar of a language establishes a relationship between sound and meaning, i.e., between phonetic representation and semantic representation. To discover this grammar is the primary goal of linguistics. One of Chomsky's attempts to accomplish this goal is the standard theory grammar, which has been outlined in the article. We note that the grammar consists of three distinct components: the syntactic component, which consists of a Lexicon and two types of syntactic rules, the Base and the Transformational, the phonological component which consists of phonological rules, and the semantic component, which consists of Semantic rules.
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TONOIKE, TOSHIYUKI. „AN ANALYSIS OF GAPPING IN A METAGRAMMATICAL ORGANIZATION OF GRAMMAR“. ENGLISH LINGUISTICS 2 (1985): 236–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.9793/elsj1984.2.236.
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Huda, Masrul, und Gozali Gozali. „IMPLEMENTING OF POLYTECHNIC STUDENTS’ ABILITY OF WRITING APPLICATION LETTERS“. Elite English and Literature Journal 7, Nr. 2 (10.12.2020): 160. http://dx.doi.org/10.24252/10.24252/elite.v7i2a5.
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Writing an English application letter is one of ‘Job Getting’ materials. The writing results can measure the students’ writing ability in English. This study aims to describe the writing quality of English application letter made by State Polytechnic of Balikpapan students. It also tries to explain frequent errors in the application letter. The research method used is descriptive qualitative. The data obtained were assessed based on a scoring rubric adapted from Cohen (1994). There are four criteria assessed including Content, Organization, Grammar, and Mechanic. The data results are presented in the tables, graphs, and description. The results show (1) Most of the students' abilities are at Scale 4 and none has the ability at Scale 1. The average number of each component is Content 3,95; Organization 3,89; Grammar 3,38; and Mechanic 3,30. (2) Errors made in writing application letters can be found in all components. Most mistakes were made by students in all components, respectively, mechanic, grammar, organization, and content.
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Freidin, Robert. „Imaginary mistakes versus real problems in generative grammar“. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 26, Nr. 6 (Dezember 2003): 677–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x03320151.
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Jackendoff claims that current theories of generative grammar commit a “scientific mistake” by assuming that syntax is the sole source of linguistic organization (“syntactocentrism”). The claim is false, and furthermore, Jackendoff's solution to the alleged problem, the parallel architecture, creates a real problem that exists in no other theory of generative grammar.
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Cannizzaro, Michael S., Julie Dumas, Patricia Prelock und Paul Newhouse. „Organizational Structure Reduces Processing Load in the Prefrontal Cortex During Discourse Processing of Written Text: Implications for High-Level Reading Issues After TBI“. Perspectives on Neurophysiology and Neurogenic Speech and Language Disorders 22, Nr. 2 (August 2012): 67–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/nnsld22.2.67.
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Adults with traumatic brain injury (TBI) can demonstrate marked difficulty producing discourse during story retell and story generation tasks. Changes in discourse production have been detailed in terms of fewer content units and infrequent use of story grammar elements essential for organization. One implication is that poor use of story grammar elements during discourse production may signal reduced ability to utilize these elements in other communication realms (e.g., reading comprehension). The neural architecture that supports discourse organization, primarily the medial prefrontal cortex, is particularly susceptible to damage secondary to acquired brain injury. In this event related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study, we describe cortical activation patterns of unimpaired readers as they are presented with discourse that is varied in terms of structural organization. The results suggest reading discourse with less structure is associated with increased cortical activity (e.g., higher processing demands) as compared to reading discourse with more traditional structural cues (e.g., story grammar). We discuss cortical areas implicated and potential implications for supporting discourse communication in persons following TBI.
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Dekydtspotter, Laurent. „The Universal Parser and interlanguage: domain-specific mental organization in the comprehension of combien interrogatives in English-French interlanguage“. Second Language Research 17, Nr. 2 (April 2001): 91–143. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026765830101700201.
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From the perspective of Fodor’s (1983) theory of mental organization and Chomsky’s (1995) Minimalist theory of grammar, I consider constraints on the interpretation of French-type and English-type cardinality interrogatives in the task of sentence comprehension, as a function of a universal parsing algorithm (Universal Parser) and hypotheses embodied in a French-type vs. English-type functional lexicon respectively. I argue on the basis of the interpretation of cardinality interrogatives in English-French interlanguage that second language comprehension appears to require this view of mental organization in which a universal parsing algorithm interacts with an interlanguage lexicon. Specifically, I argue that the Minimalist view of mental organization in the area of grammar provides some insight into the basis of these constraints in mental functioning.
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Lindstrom, Jan. „Grammar in the Service of Interaction: Exploring Turn Organization in Swedish“. Research on Language & Social Interaction 39, Nr. 1 (Januar 2006): 81–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327973rlsi3901_4.
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Ueda, Kazuo, Yoshitaka Nakajima, Takayuki Sasaki und Gerard B. Remijn. „Auditory Grammar: An intimate connection between perceptual organization and auditory communication“. Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the Japanese Psychological Association 78 (10.09.2014): 3PM—1–056–3PM—1–056. http://dx.doi.org/10.4992/pacjpa.78.0_3pm-1-056.
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Ivanovic, Mladjo. „The European Grammar of Inclusion“. Radical Philosophy Review 21, Nr. 1 (2018): 103–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/radphilrev201833084.
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This paper tackles an old, yet persisting philosophical and cultural imaginary that justifies the political subjugation, marginalization and exclusion of distant others through claims that such people are less advanced and cognitively inferior, and therefore remain at the periphery of moral and political considerations of Western political culture. My premise here is that all knowledge is historically conditioned, and as such serves as a discursive formation that mirrors and sustains specific historical forms of social organization and practices. Thus, by considering the interrelated themes of epistemic and social inclusion (and exclusion) of refugees and migrants from a range of critical philosophical perspectives, I argue that successfully managing the dire humanitarian circumstances involved in admitting and receiving displaced and migrant people requires the inclusion of both the bodies of knowledge and discursive interactions (i.e., epistemic inclusion) and also diverse social and cultural perspectives (i.e., social inclusion).
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Mahshanian, Amir, Abbas Rasekh Eslami und Saeed Ketabi. „RATERS’ FATIGUE AND THEIR COMMENTS DURING SCORING WRITING ESSAYS: A CASE OF IRANIAN EFL LEARNERS“. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics 7, Nr. 2 (30.09.2017): 64. http://dx.doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v7i2.8347.
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Rating accuracy in writing among EFL learners is crucial in determining their English proficiency. Despite the importance of its accuracy, little is known about various factors may affect the accuracy of rating writing essays. This study examines how raters’ comments on EFL writing tasks change as a result of fatigue. To this end, four raters were selected and each given 28 essays to score and comment on. Six general types of raters’ comments (i.e., those on grammar, choice of words, organization, punctuation, dictation, and capitalization) were into focus in this study. Overall, results suggested that fatigue affects raters’ frequency of comments on grammar, choice of words, and organization, and that raters’ comments on punctuation, dictation, and capitalization do not seem to change significantly due to the effect of fatigue. Furthermore, this study revealed that the most and least frequent comments in 112 scored essays were those on grammar and dictation, respectively.
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Gusman, Elvina. „STUDENTS’ WRITING ESSAY ABILITY OF “ILMU PERPUSTAKAAN ISLAM”“. Alfuad: Jurnal Sosial Keagamaan 2, Nr. 2 (13.05.2019): 188. http://dx.doi.org/10.31958/jsk.v2i2.1438.
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This research was conducted to see how the ability of students majoring in Islamic Library Science, Faculty of Islamic Law Adab and the Da'wah IAIN Batusangkar in writing discourse. In general, the components of writing discourse that are of concern are Organization, Content, Grammar and Sentence structure, Mechanics and Vocabulary. This research focuses on organization and grammar and sentence structure. This research uses descriptive method. The data of this study were taken from the test of the ability to write discourse by students of Islamic Library Science in the first year. Then, the data is analyzed using the qualitative method. The results of this study indicate that of 38 students majoring in Islamic Library Science, 20 students were able to write discourse while 18 students were only able to write a few sentences. Of the 20 discourses, 1 discourse has used writing components very well. 4 discourses are already using writing components well. 5 discourses are categorized as moderate. 10 discourses are categorized as lacking and there are no discourses categorized as very lacking in using writing components, especially organization and grammar and sentence structure.
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Iskandar, Iskandar. „PENINGKATAN KEMAMPUAN MENULIS DESKRIPSI DENGAN STRATEGI MODELLING“. Pedagogik Journal of Islamic Elementary School 1, Nr. 1 (27.04.2018): 91–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.24256/pijies.v1i1.383.
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This study aims to improve the ability to write descriptions for fifth-grade students of SD Inpres Pabbangiang Gowa Regency which includes the content of ideas, content organization, grammar, diction, and spelling. This research is a classroom action research conducted in two cycles. The research subjects were students of class V in Pabbangiang Inpres Elementary School, Gowa Regency, totaling 43 students. Data collection techniques used are observation, interviews, and tests. The entire data obtained is analyzed through stages: data identification, data reduction, data presentation, and conclusions. The results showed that the results of the pre-action test in the description writing skills of fifth-grade students of Pabbangiang Inpres Elementary School in Gowa Regency which included aspects of the content of ideas, content organization, grammar, diction, and spelling were still lacking. After an action is taken through cycles I and II by applying the semantic mapping strategy in learning to write descriptions, the students' skills increase from the category of being very good. The final results of this study indicate that the application of modeling strategies can improve students' writing skills which include aspects of content ideas, content organization, grammar, diction, and spelling.
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Fedorova, Liudmila. „The Development of Graphic Representation in Abugida Writing: The Akshara’s Grammar“. Lingua Posnaniensis 55, Nr. 2 (01.12.2013): 49–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/linpo-2013-0013.
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Abstract Phonological writing systems can use different modes in the arrangement of phonological information: linear or emblematic. The latter presupposes a two-dimensional composition of graphic elements which convey information of different levels: basic phonological units or their secondary features. Abugida is one of the most perfect modes of writing, using a two-dimensional principle of organization in its graphemes. Indian scripts imply forms of abugida, based on aksharas - orthographic syllables - as main graphemes, with their vocalization marked by sub-graphemes. Their complex forms reveal hierarchical structures representing phonological structures. Thus, “the akshara’s grammar” may be described, with its paradigms of shapes and meanings, their organization in space, their modes of conjunction. The functional characteristics of diacritic types and ligatures can be specified. The graphic shapes of the akshara can be represented as forming a “grammar” comparable to morphological structures. The graphic complexity of writing can then be estimated in typological perspective. This paper is an attempt to describe such a grammar.
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Tiarina, Yuli, Hermawati Syarif, Jufrizal Jufrizal und Yenni Rozimela. „Students’ need on basic English grammar teaching material based on interactive multimedia: an innovative design“. COUNS-EDU: The International Journal of Counseling and Education 4, Nr. 1 (03.03.2019): 29. http://dx.doi.org/10.23916/0020190419310.
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This article, a part of dissertation entitled Developing Basic English Grammar Teaching Material based on Interactive Multimedia at University Level, presents the results of a study conducted to find the model of Basic English Grammar teaching material based on interactive multimedia needed by the students. This empirical research employed both quantitative and qualitative analyses. Seventy eight students of English Department of Universitas Negeri Padang were involved. The students were required to articulate their need on a design of Basic English Grammar teaching material based on interactive multimedia. The data were collected through an open questionnaire. The first result is that Basic English Grammar teaching material based on interactive multimedia is very needed (with the score 3.1 out of 4). Second, the result indicates the organization of Basic English Grammar teaching material based on interactive multimedia. The organization consists of six parts. They are Time to watch/sing/read, Time to chat, Time to Focus, Time for fun practice, Time for tube, and Time for action. Third, the students have different learning style. Fourty two students (53.84%) have visual learning style. Twenty two students (28.21%) have audio learning style. The rest, fourteen students (17.95%) have kinestetic learning style. Four, the finding shows the students have their favorite movies, colors, and music. The students like comedy/humor, drama, horror, dokumentary, and action movies; they love pop, jazz, rock, country, and rap music; they adore blue, green, black, pink, and red color. Another important research finding is almost all students (91%) have their own laptop. Those findings will be considerations in designing the Basic English Grammar teaching material based on interactive multimedia. Further research to see the effectiveness of the model of Basic English Grammar teaching material based on interactive multimedia needs to be done.
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Lindström, Jan K. „On the place of turn and sequence in grammar“. Pragmatics. Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA) 24, Nr. 3 (01.09.2014): 507–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/prag.24.3.04lin.
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This study elaborates the concept of a positionally sensitive grammar with respect to the sequentiality of turns and the turn constructional units in conversation. The linguistic object of the analysis is clausal constructions in Swedish that are initiated by the finite predicate verb: Polar questions, receipt questions (news receipts), conditional protases and pro-drop declaratives. These constructions share potentially the same syntactic surface pattern but are constrained by different sequential conditions of use. The study proposes an integrated interactional linguistic analysis which takes into account both syntactic and sequential aspects of turn construction. A grammatical attribute-value matrix, based on the framework of construction grammar (CxG), is introduced. The analysis shows that regularities of sequential organization may provide robust distinctive constructional features while a pure syntactic analysis remains less distinctive. The decisive constructional features are systematically captured by a notation designed for sequential and syntactic organization.
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Pastra, Katerina, und Yiannis Aloimonos. „The minimalist grammar of action“. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 367, Nr. 1585 (12.01.2012): 103–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0123.
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Language and action have been found to share a common neural basis and in particular a common ‘syntax’, an analogous hierarchical and compositional organization. While language structure analysis has led to the formulation of different grammatical formalisms and associated discriminative or generative computational models, the structure of action is still elusive and so are the related computational models. However, structuring action has important implications on action learning and generalization, in both human cognition research and computation. In this study, we present a biologically inspired generative grammar of action, which employs the structure-building operations and principles of Chomsky's Minimalist Programme as a reference model. In this grammar, action terminals combine hierarchically into temporal sequences of actions of increasing complexity; the actions are bound with the involved tools and affected objects and are governed by certain goals. We show, how the tool role and the affected-object role of an entity within an action drives the derivation of the action syntax in this grammar and controls recursion, merge and move, the latter being mechanisms that manifest themselves not only in human language, but in human action too.
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Aksamija, Ajla, Kui Yue, Hyunjoo Kim, Francois Grobler und Ramesh Krishnamurti. „Integration of knowledge-based and generative systems for building characterization and prediction“. Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing 24, Nr. 1 (29.01.2010): 3–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0890060409990138.
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AbstractThis paper discusses the integration of knowledge bases and shape grammars for the generation of building models, covering interaction, system, and implementation. Knowledge-based and generative systems are combined to construct a method for characterizing existing buildings, in particular, their interior layouts based on exterior features and certain other parameters such as location and real dimensions. The knowledge-based model contains information about spatial use, organization, elements, and contextual information, with the shape grammar principally containing style rules. Buildings are analyzed and layouts are generated through communication and interaction between these two systems. The benefit of using an interactive system is that the complementary properties of the two schemes are employed to strengthen the overall process. Ontologies capture knowledge relating to architectural design principles, building anatomy, structure, and systems. Shape grammar rules embody change through geometric manipulation and transformation. Existing buildings are analyzed using this approach, and three-dimensional models are automatically generated. Two particular building types, the vernacular rowhouse and high-rise apartment building, both from Baltimore, Maryland, are presented to illustrate the process and for comparing the utilized methodologies.
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Abraham, Werner. „What are the guiding principles in the evolution of language: Paradigmatics or syntagmatics?“ Evolutionary Linguistic Theory 1, Nr. 2 (31.12.2019): 109–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/elt.00007.abr.
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Abstract The main designs of modern theories of syntax assume a process of syntagmatic organization. However, research on first language acquisition leaves no doubt that the structured combination of single lexical items cannot begin until a critical mass of lexical items has been acquired such that the lexicon is structured hierarchically on the basis of hierarchical feature bundling. Independent of a decision between the main views about the design of a proto language (the grammarless “Holophrastic view”, Arbib & Bickerton 2010: 1, Bickerton 2014) or the ‘Compositional View’ as taken by Rizzi (2010), Carstairs-McCarthy (2010), and others. What seems to be the minimal offset for language is the existence of grammatical categories like verb and noun, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, functional categories as needed for the expression of all kinds of agreement between the distinct categories to form recursively structured complexes. I follow the different stages of complexification asking whether there is paradigmatic next to syntagmatic organization and what its added value is for the evolution of grammar. The conclusion will be that paradigmatics is an indismissible part of the organization of early language in that it structures the lexicon so as to make primary and secondary syntactic merge possible and, consequently, is also a prerequisite for movement. The guiding idea of this position is Roman Jakobson’s insistence on the twofold organization of language and grammar. The two organizational designs, syntagmatics and paradigmatics, are manifest within each module: in the phonetic, the morphological, the syntactic, the semantic, and the pragmatic form (consider Jakobson’s 1971a, b reiterated argument).
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Raymond, Geoffrey. „Grammar and Social Organization: Yes/No Interrogatives and the Structure of Responding“. American Sociological Review 68, Nr. 6 (Dezember 2003): 939. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1519752.
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O.P., Bykonia. „The requirements of future economists’ english grammar competence“. Scientific Herald of Sivershchyna. Series: Education. Social and Behavioural Sciences 2020, Nr. 2 (21.12.2020): 7–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.32755/sjeducation.2020.02.007.
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The article substantiates the peculiarities of the formation of English grammar competence during classroom and extracurricular work in teaching cadets of economic specialties’ English, especially English for Specific Purposes. The purpose of the article is to determine the requirements for the formation of English grammar competence in accordance with the preparation of cadets of economic specialties’ in the field of knowledge of 05 “Social and behavioral sciences” (051 «Economics») while teaching them English for Specific Purposes. Methodology. Theoretical statements of this work involves analysis of existing methods and approaches to the organization of teaching cadets of economic specialties’ English grammar. It is defined the requirements according to the stages of teaching English at the Academy of the State Penitentiary Service in the first and second years. The theoretical and methodological basis of this article includes the general background of higher school didactics and methods of teaching foreign languages, approaches to scientific and pedagogical research, theoretical and methodological principles on which the methods of teaching English grammar to the cadets, future economists, at different stages while their studying at the Academy of State Penitentiary Service. Results. In this article it is used a critical analysis of domestic and foreign pedagogical, linguistic and methodological literature on the research theme, educational documents, curricula. Based on the research, it is noted that the content of linguistic competences includes declarative and procedural knowledge, skills and language awareness. It is determined that the effectiveness of the development of professional oral and written communication skills in English must be done according to the level of formation of students’ grammatical competence. Practical implications. It is pointed out that these requirements of English grammar competence’s level should be taken into account in the organization of future economists’ educational activities, which is designed to help ensure the realization of the aim of teaching them in the Academy. Further improvement of grammatical competence occurs in the process of mastering English communicative competence at the cadets’ classroom activities and self-study work. It is necessary to use grammatical phenomena in educational materials while teaching cadets English for Specific Purposes. Value (originality). The value of the study is characterized by the presentation of a new vision of the formation of English grammar competence during classroom and extracurricular work while teaching cadets of economic specialities English and English for Specific Purposes. Key words: teaching English, grammar competence, future economists, grammar declarative knowledge, grammar procedural knowledge, grammar skills, language awareness.
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Nedeljkovic, Sasa. „Ljuba Jovanovic: Statesman from Boka“. Zbornik Matice srpske za drustvene nauke, Nr. 133 (2010): 145–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/zmsdn1033145n.
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Ljuba Jovanovic belongs to the generation that prepared, organized and carried out the liberation and union of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes into a single state. In 1876, as a grammar school student, together with friends, he organized the student organization 'Branko Radicevic', spreading the spirit of liberty among the youth of Boka Kotorska Bay. When the Second Boka Uprising broke out in Krivosije in 1882, the members of the organization decided to leave the grammar school and join the insurrectionists. After the uprising was put down, he fled to Serbia. In this new and unfamiliar setting, he made his way to the highest honors and titles, thanks exclusively to his own worthiness and abilities. He was among the initiators of the great national and cultural organizations whose activities would reverberate throughout the Slavic South: Sokoli, National Defense, Serbian Literary Cooperative. An initiative was launched in Boka Kotorska for Ljuba Jovanovic to head the candidate list for parliament of the National Radical Party in Dalmatia, due to his personal ties with his place of birth. Even though he came to hold some of the leading potations in Serbia and The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, he remained an honest man, leading the fight against corruption in the National Radical Party.
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Kyriacopoulou, Tita, und Anastasia Yannacopoulou. „Vers la constitution du lexique-grammaire des verbes en grec moderne“. Lingvisticæ Investigationes. International Journal of Linguistics and Language Resources 26, Nr. 2 (30.07.2004): 215–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/li.26.2.05kyr.
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Summary The purpose of this article is to present the general organization of the Greek verbs lexicon-grammar and to explain the properties that play a decisive role in the distribution of the verbs in the tables of the lexicon-grammar. This long-term operation started a year ago and has not finished yet. Our results are therefore incomplete and limited to the verbs for which the proprieties of structure have been studied. After briefly recapitulating the general principles taken into account in our work, we present a first classification of the Greek verbs and the syntactic proprieties taken into account. Finally, we attempt to analyze automatically a text on the basis of two tables of the lexicon-grammar.
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Mithun, Marianne. „Grammars and the community“. Perspectives on Grammar Writing 30, Nr. 2 (31.03.2006): 281–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/sl.30.2.06mit.
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The audience for a grammatical description is an important consideration for anyone involved in descriptive linguistics. Potential grammar users include linguists, the interested public, and members of the communities in which the language is spoken. An awareness of the target audiences is necessary in shaping the grammar to meet varying needs. It might, for example, affect the choice of topics to be discussed, the organization and style of the presentation, the depth of detail to include, the use of technical terminology, and the nature of exemplification. It is not yet clear whether one grammar can serve all potential audiences and purposes. Whether it can or not, however, there is a good chance that any grammar will eventually be pressed into service for more than one. This paper offers some suggestions based on the author's experience with Mohawk communities situated in Quebec, Ontario, and New York State.
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Iswahyuni, Dwi, und Sri Kiswati. „DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ WRITING SKILL THROUGH JIGSAW, MIND-MAPPING, AND ROUNDTABLE TECHNIQUES“. Edutainment : Jurnal Ilmu Pendidikan dan Kependidikan 7, Nr. 1 (20.08.2019): 82–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.35438/e.v7i1.165.
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Writing skill seems to be a difficult skill for many students. Whereas, they are demanded to be able to write at text level. This study investigates how students’ writing skill can be developed through the combination of jigsaw, mind-mapping, and roundtable techniques. The aim of the study was to find out in what ways the combination of jigsaw, mind-mapping, and roundtable techniques can develop students’ writing skill. Moreover, this study belonged to a pre-experimental study and the instruments employed in this study were tests and field notes. The results of the study showed that almost all of the students made some improvements after the treatments. All aspects which comprised grammar; mechanics; style and quality of expression; organization; and content aspects were improved. In addition, the highest improvement belonged to grammar aspect (30.73%). Furthermore, based on the field notes, the students gave positive responses towards the treatments and the treatments were worthwhile for the development of the students’ writing skill. Based on the results of the study, it can be concluded that the combination of jigsaw, mind-mapping, and roundtable techniques can develop students’ writing skill in many ways including grammar, mechanics, vocabulary, organization, and content aspects.
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Martinot, Claire. „Le lexique-grammaire“. Grammaires et Lexiques Comparés 26, Nr. 1 (30.09.2003): 33–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/li.26.1.05mar.
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Summary The description of the language as used by children along the acquisition period leads to question about the most elementary principles which base all theory about language organization. The principal tools and concepts of the Lexicon-Grammar theory give account of the language organization inspite of the fact that they were not conceived to describe the language in acquisition. In particular the organization of the language in a set of discourses which gives the way of discovering its organization allow children to acquire the language through Reformulation. To acquire language children produce their predications as a function of previous predications. They repeat a part without any change and modify the rest of the source utterance. The invariant part and the modified part change in the course of the acquisition.
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Cronley, Courtney, Christopher Kilgore und Tracey Daniels-Lerberg. „A Multivariate Analysis of Writing Skills in BSW Case Study Papers“. Journal of Baccalaureate Social Work 22, Nr. 1 (01.01.2017): 181–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.18084/1084-7219.22.1.181.
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This study assesses BSW student writing (N=87, 35.2% African American) on a case study writing assignment in a U.S. school of social work. Papers were scored for response to rhetorical situation, organization, grammar, and adherence to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. We then predicted students' scores based on demographic factors using multivariate linear regression. Descriptive statistics showed that students scored lower in response to rhetorical situation (M=2.20, SD=.78, scale of 1–5) than in organization (M=2.60, SD=.82), style (M=2.57, SD=1.03), or grammar (M=2.66, SD=.77). In the multivariate models, grade point average and race were the strongest predictors of scores. Results suggest that baccalaureate social work program directors may consider increasing writing support and process assignments and examining how defining good writing reinforces sociopolitical bias in social work education.
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Karavaeva, Anastasia Anatolievna. „Features of the organization of teaching German grammar based on the contrastive approach“. Вестник Шадринского государственного педагогического университета, Nr. 2 (2021): 98–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.52772/25420291_2021_2_98.
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Dolbey, Andrew. „Constructional Inheritance and Case Assignment In Finnish Numeral Expressions“. Nordic Journal of Linguistics 21, Nr. 1 (Juni 1998): 17–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0332586500004133.
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The grammar of Finnish licenses two different types of complex numeral expressions.While the two occur in the same range of external syntactic and semantic contexts, theynevertheless exhibit striking differences in internal case-marking properties. Utilizing a sign-based, Construction Grammar approach, an analysis of the two types of numeral expressions is provided in terms of a set of closely related constructions. It is argued that the range and properties of numeral expressions as well as the interactions among them reveal a tight system of organization across constructions, expressed here in terms of a carefully formulated inheritance hierarchy. It is also argued that a close examination of the grammar of Finnish numeral expressions provides important insights into more general grammatical phenomena, including compounding, morphosyntactic feature distribution, inflectional realization, and the semantics of quantification
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Zakrajšek, Srečko. „The Organisational and Personnel Aspects of Introducing ICT into Grammar Schools“. Organizacija 42, Nr. 6 (01.11.2009): 234–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10051-009-0020-3.
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The Organisational and Personnel Aspects of Introducing ICT into Grammar SchoolsThis article presents the results of comparisons between investment into ICT and the current state of equipment in Slovenian high schools compared to similar schools in the EU member states. Extensive research is based on surveying and interviews with the headmasters of 10 Slovenian high schools, jointly representing a typical sample of schools, as well as the different aspects of using ICT in their schools. The research results have shown that Slovenian high schools are substantially worse equipped with ICT than similar schools in the developed countries of the EU. This is evident in the lack of modern forms of organization, operation and education based on ICT. Slovenian high schools can only modernize their organization and operations if the Slovenian government starts investing substantially more into purchasing equipment, teacher training and the promotion of the knowledge, skills and competences that can only be developed using ICT.
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Greenslade, Kathryn J., Jade E. B. Stuart, Jessica D. Richardson, Sarah Grace Dalton und Amy E. Ramage. „Macrostructural Analyses of Cinderella Narratives in a Large Nonclinical Sample“. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology 29, Nr. 4 (12.11.2020): 1923–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2020_ajslp-19-00151.
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Purpose Macrostructural narrative analyses are important clinical measures, revealing age-related declines and disorder-related impairments in the accuracy, completeness, logical sequencing, and organization of content. The current study aims to provide preliminary data on typical aging and psychometric evidence supporting multilevel Main Concept, Sequencing, and Story Grammar (MSSG) analyses that capture these aspects of narratives. Method Transcripts of Cinderella narratives for 92 healthy control participants stratified across four age brackets from the online database AphasiaBank were coded by Richardson and Dalton (2016) for main concept (MC) analysis. In the current study, MSSG analyses were completed for (a) logical sequencing, independently and in combination with MC accuracy and completeness (MC + sequencing), and (b) story grammar organization (i.e., inclusion of episodic components and complexity of episodes). Interrater agreement (99%–100%) revealed highly reliable scoring. Results Descriptive statistics for the typically aging sample are presented for sequencing, MC + sequencing, total episodic components, and episodic complexity. Scores for participants over 60 years of age were lower (poorer) than scores for those 20–59 years of age, supporting the construct validity of score use for identifying age-related declines in performance. Conclusions This study's novel MSSG analyses of narrative production efficiently assess the logical sequencing and story grammar organization of content in healthy controls. Preliminary reliability and validity evidence support the use of all scores to measure age-related changes in narrative macrostructure. Data from this typically aging sample provide a foundation for future research and clinical assessment aimed at quantifying narrative deficits in adults with communication disorders. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.12683495
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Ślusarczyk, Grażyna. „A grammar-based multiagent system in dynamic design“. Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing 22, Nr. 2 (2008): 129–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0890060408000097.
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AbstractThis paper deals with the system of agents treated as a concurrent modular system, which is able to support the designer in solving complex design tasks. The behavior of design agents is modeled by sets of grammar rules. Each agent manages a graph grammar and a database of facts concerning the subtask for which it is responsible. The course of designing is determined by the interaction between cooperating specialized agents. The design context is expressed by the environment in which agents act and predicates describing design criteria. The organization, design methodology, and a semantic model of a grammar-based multiagent design system are presented. The notions of a valid design solution and a design solution consistent with the design criteria are also introduced. The proposed approach is illustrated by the example of designing a house estate.
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Post, Mark W. „The phonology and grammar of Galo “words”“. Studies in Language 33, Nr. 4 (22.10.2009): 934–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/sl.33.4.05pos.
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“Words” may be independently defined and identified in Galo (Tibeto-Burman > Western Tani) in terms of relatively consistent and functionally well-motivated sets of phonological and grammatical criteria. However, these criteria very often fail to converge upon identification of the same formal unit; instead, we frequently find phonological “words” which consist of two grammatical “words”, and grammatical “words” which consist of two phonological “words”, etc. The resulting “mismatch” between “phonological words” and “grammatical words” in Galo is argued to be theoretically non-trivial, in that its existence is capable of explaining a variety of otherwise seemingly disparate facts in the synchronic and diachronic organization of Galo grammar. The facts from Galo thus support a view of language in which “word” is independently defined in phonological and grammatical terms, and in which neither type of “word” necessarily corresponds to (or is projected by) the other. Although there might be said to exist a very generalized functional pressure towards “unification” of “phonological words” and “grammatical words”, such a pressure would not be expressible as a formal constraint on language grammar.
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Christie, Frances H. „Using the functional grammar to understand children’s written texts“. Language and Social Life 19 (01.01.2005): 9–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/aralss.19.02chr.
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This paper reports on an analysis of the assessment principles used in marking students’ written texts in the UK. It considers the assessment advice offered markers with respect to two stories written by 14 year old students in the Key Stage 3 English test in England. The observations offered on the written texts are shown to be general and lacking in much understanding of the ways the texts work linguistically. Using the functional grammar, an attempt is made to explore aspects of the grammatical organization of the two texts, and hence to reveal why one text was deemed superior to the other.
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Blum, Mark E. „Phenomenological Time, Historical Time, and The Writing of History“. Journal of the Philosophy of History 8, Nr. 1 (24.03.2014): 39–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18722636-12341265.
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Abstract Contrary to Paul Ricoeur’s claim that there is an unbridgeable chasm between phenomenological time and historical time, my studies have shown me that the former is the cognitive foundation for the latter. The temporality formed in each sentential judgment can be discerned through a stylistic analysis of its grammar. This grammatical foundation which is established at the pre-reflective level of sentence formation becomes a basis in the maturing individual for conceptual preferences. How experience is organized informally and consequently reflected upon in the everyday judgment, or more formally in the writing of history, are outcomes of this grammatical logic. What I term one’s ‘historical logic’ differs in categorically interesting ways in each person; for each person it is an invariant grammatical organization that guides attended experience informing a person’s sense of ‘history’ and its meaning over a career of thought. The grammatical organization itself stems from varying part-whole organizations that perceptually provide the form grammar then instantiates. The epistemological basis of my approach is developed from Kant and Edmund Husserl insofar as their conceptions of temporal generation in judgment. My grammatical analyses rely upon the transformational grammar of Noam Chomsky. In this essay, I show the invariant character of two distinct historical logics through the careers of thought of two Tudor-Stuart historians, G.R. Elton and his student Arthur Joseph Slavin, and two Tudor-Stuart personalities, Edward Coke and Francis Bacon. I have found historical logics to be intergenerational. Forms of historical logic are more than likely psycho-genetic, recurring in every generation. I have provided evidence for this claim in studies I have made of adolescents who have first come to master the well-formed sentence in personal expression. Among the implications of the findings here are that ‘objectivity’ as well as ‘historical objectivity’ are better understood as ‘multiply valid’ among the judgments of equally informed and keen observers and interpreters. There is an unbridgeable foundation that differentiates one person’s conception of temporal organization from another. Synthetically, we are separated in our judgments, even when we can arrive at analytical understandings of these differences.
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Langacker, Ronald W. „Nominal grounding and English quantifiers“. Cognitive Linguistic Studies 3, Nr. 1 (26.09.2016): 1–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/cogls.3.1.01lan.
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The Cognitive Grammar analysis of English nominal quantifiers is re-examined in light of recent theoretical developments: the characterization of grammar as the implementation of semantic functions; and the recognition of strata — baseline and levels of elaboration — as a dimension of structural and systemic organization. For relative quantifiers, which pertain to degree of universality, the grounding function is primary. While absolute quantifiers are primarily adjectival, they assume the function of nominal grounding when initial. This elaboration via functional reorganization eliminates the need for a zero grounding element. Functional reorganization is a key factor in the grammaticization of absolute quantifiers from complex quantifying expressions.
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Dekydtspotter, Laurent. „SECOND LANGUAGE EPISTEMOLOGY“. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 31, Nr. 2 (Juni 2009): 291–321. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0272263109090317.
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This article presents evidence that supports the claim that second language (L2) grammars arise in a domain-specific, informationally encapsulated module with contents provided by Universal Grammar and enriched by native language knowledge, as entertained by Schwartz (1986, 1987, 1999) contra Bley-Vroman (1990). I consider state-of-the-art evidence representative of a body of research on the poverty of the stimulus (POS) that argues for the domain-specificity of L2 representations, with a main focus on interpretation. Then I examine interpretive evidence relevant to the role of informational encapsulation and compositionality in SLA. I seek to demonstrate that the acquisition of syntax-linked interpretive properties where the POS is severe provides opportunities for a type of fingerprinting of mental organization that can inform a variety of epistemologically relevant questions.
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Slabakova, Roumyana. „Features or parameters: which one makes second language acquisition easier, and more interesting to study?“ Second Language Research 25, Nr. 2 (April 2009): 313–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0267658308100291.
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While agreeing with Lardiere that the `parameter-resetting' approach to understanding second language acquisition (SLA) needs rethinking, it is suggested that a more construction-based perspective runs the risk of losing deductive and explanatory power. An alternative is to investigate the constraints on feature assembly/re-assembly in second language (L2) grammars. A model of grammatical organization is adopted from Ramchand and Svenonius (2008) in which properties of the conceptual—intentional (C—I) module of mind are universal, and variation between languages is determined by the extent to which such properties are grammaticalized or determined by context. Predictions are then made about the degree of difficulty involved in determining the appropriate mapping from the C—I module to grammar or context when a learner's first language (L1) is similar to or different from the L2.
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Etelämäki, Marja, und Laura Visapää. „Why blend conversation analysis with cognitive grammar?“ Pragmatics. Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA) 24, Nr. 3 (01.09.2014): 477–506. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/prag.24.3.03ete.
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This article proposes that combining Conversation Analysis (CA) with Cognitive Grammar (CG) provides a fruitful framework for studying language as a socio-cognitive phenomenon. The authors first discuss two indexical phenomena, the Finnish demonstratives and the Finnish free-standing infinitives; these are first analyzed using the methods of CA, then rediscussed in the framework of CG. The description of both phenomena relies on the CG notion of grounding elements, i.e., the elements that conceptualize some facet of the ground (speech situation) as part of their meaning. The authors argue that such meaning associated with grammar includes knowledge about the schematic organization of the ground, and that the grammatical means for conceptualizing the ground make dynamic co-construction of the speech situation possible. Whereas the authors rely on the terminology of CG when describing the con-strual of the ground, they strongly underline the fact that the ways in which the ground is construed can only be found out using the methods of CA. In this way, combining CA with CG can offer us an approach where language is analyzed as the interface of the human mind and the social world.
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Jubran, Clélia Cândida Abreu Spinardi. „Revisitando a noção de tópico discursivo“. Cadernos de Estudos Lingüísticos 48, Nr. 1 (01.08.2011): 33–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.20396/cel.v48i1.8637253.
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This paper presents some complements to the discourse-topic concept formulated by the Group of Textual-Interactive Organization of the Spoken Portuguese Grammar Project. It also emphasizes the functionality of the analytic category of the discourse topic in the particularization of repetition strategies, paraphrasis and parentheses.
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Lyapkova, Anna А. „CURRENT SITUATION OF GRAMMAR SCHOOLS’ LIBRARIES (ON THE EXAMPLE OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF TOMSK)“. Vestnik Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Kul'turologiya i iskusstvovedenie, Nr. 39 (2020): 279–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.17223/22220836/39/26.
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The paper examines the current situation of grammar school’ libraries, which are being trans-formed into library-informational centers. The composition of the library fund is analyzed. The article considers the features of the activity of libraries of General education institutions on the example of libraries of grammar schools in Tomsk. The main areas of activity are defined, such as library lessons, organization of exhibitions, etc. The paper considers the formats of libraries' participa-tion in the educational process and extracurricular activities (organization of events). The representation of grammar school libraries in the virtual spaceis analyzed. The document analysis method was used as the leading method. In general, the representation of libraries on the websites of educational institutions is usually very limited. On some sites, information about libraries is limited to providing brief information about the library or even to having a provision about the library (or library-informational center) as a structural division of the grammar school. The main source of statistical information was the regulations on libraries, open analytical re-ports and reports on self-examination of educational institutions. These documents are presented on the websites of grammar schools. Basic statistical information is provided in open analytical reports and self-research reports. The-se documents determine the current composition of library collections, the volume of the fund of edu-cational and methodical literature, as well as the equipment and capacity of libraries. Open reports, in addition to this information, also contain information about the activities of li-braries: the subject of exhibitions and librarian events. The websites of some grammar schools have provided library work plans, which have also be-come a valuable source of information, since they provide the greatest coverage of the topics and types of events that are held by the library. The regulations on libraries and library and information centers of grammar schools have be-come a source for defining the libraries main tasks, which can be different. The main conclusion to which the author of the article comes: despite the fact that most educa-tional institutions are focused on creating library-informational centers aimed at creating a common information environment, there is a lack of representation of the activities of high school libraries in the virtual space, which is modern and promising.