Zeitschriftenartikel zum Thema „Fruit Diseases and pests Integrated control Australia“

Carpophilus beetles are serious pests of Australian fruit and nut crops, causing significant damage through adult and larval feeding and vectoring plant diseases. Six strains of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana ((Balsamo) Vuillemin; Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae), isolated from a range of hosts in Australia, together with one commercial strain, were screened for virulence to adult and larval stages of Carpophilus attacking stone fruits (C. davidsoni (Dobson)) and almonds (C. truncatus (Murray)) under laboratory conditions. The two species differed significantly in their susceptibility to the B. bassiana isolates. In the adult beetle assay, C. truncatus had a maximum Abbott’s control corrected mortality of 19% when treated with the most effective isolate, B54, compared to 52% for C.davidsoni. In larval bioassays, mortality rates for the two species were generally higher than adults: four isolates caused greater than 80% mortality in C. davidsoni; while only one isolate was considered effective against C. truncatus (causing 73% mortality), all other isolates caused less than 40% mortality. The results indicate promising potential for B. bassiana to be applied as a biopesticide as part of an integrated pest management strategy, which might take the form of a soil application against larvae or an autodissemination program using adult beetles.

With the rapid increase in the world’s population, there is an ever-growing need for a sustainable food supply. Agriculture is one of the pillars for worldwide food provisioning, with fruits and vegetables being essential for a healthy diet. However, in the last few years the worldwide dispersion of virulent plant pests and diseases has caused significant decreases in the yield and quality of crops, in particular fruit, cereal and vegetables. Climate change and the intensification of global trade flows further accentuate the issue. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an approach to pest control that aims at maintaining pest insects at tolerable levels, keeping pest populations below an economic injury level. Under these circumstances, the early identification of pests and diseases becomes crucial. In this work, we present the first step towards a fully fledged, semantically enhanced decision support system for IPM. The ultimate goal is to build a complete agricultural knowledge base by gathering data from multiple, heterogeneous sources and to develop a system to assist farmers in decision making concerning the control of pests and diseases. The pest classifier framework has been evaluated in a simulated environment, obtaining an aggregated accuracy of 98.8%.

Laser-guided variable-rate intelligent spray technology is anticipated to reduce pesticide use in production of crops and safeguard the environment. However, the ability of this technology to effectively control insect pests and diseases of crops must be validated before it becomes part of integrated pest management programs. Abilities of three different intelligent sprayers were tested to control pest insects and plant diseases at one fruit farm and two ornamental nurseries in Ohio during three consecutive growing seasons. The same sprayers with disabled intelligent functions were used as conventional constant-rate applications for comparisons. Test crops were apple (Malus pumila), peach (Prunus persica), blueberry (Vaccinium sect. Cyanococcus), black raspberry (Rubus occidentalis), crabapple (Malus sp.), maple (Acer sp.), birch (Betula sp.), and dogwood (Cornus florida). There were five insects and six diseases total involved in the investigations in the fruit farm and two nurseries. The field tests showed the intelligent spray applications reduced pesticide and foliar fertilizer use by ≈30% to 65% on average during the 3-year experiments. At the same time, intelligent spray technology was similar or more effective than conventional spray technology when controlling insects and diseases on a variety of crops. These results demonstrated that intelligent spray technology was environmentally friendly and more effective for control of insect and disease pests in fruit farms and ornamental tree nurseries.

Apple growers in Kentucky normally control pests on a preventative schedule involving fifteen or more chemical applications annually. IPM technology designed to provide growers information about the threat of diseases and insects was used in a demonstration plot in a Daviess County orchard and in the U.K. research orchard, Princeton. The IPM systems used in Daviess County resulted in 6 less applications of pesticides than the traditional system, a savings of approximately $130 per acre. When compared to the traditional preventative spray schedule, the IPM treated apples showed no differences in fruit quality and in orchard diseases and insect infestations. The decreased pesticide use has the potential to reduce applicator exposure, residues on fruit, and the environmental impact of these chemicals. The results of this demonstration were shared with and received an enthusiastic response from growers, Extension personnel, students, consumers, and the news media. The project demonstrated the feasibility of using apple IPM by a Kentucky grower, and it provided students an insight into applied biology.

A protocol for managing the main diseases and pests of sweet cherry in Spain (New IPM) has been implemented in order to reduce the use of pesticides. This New IPM includes nonchemical strategies, such as biological products against diseases and mass trapping of pests, and adjusts the timing and number of pesticide applications according to damage thresholds and a predictive model of diseases based on climatic factors. The New IPM was compared—in commercial orchards from the main cherry-producing areas in Spain (Aragon and Extremadura)—to the integrated management usually carried out in these areas (Standard IPM). Furthermore, a multiresidue method for the determination of the residues in cherries was developed. The number of applications, active ingredients used, and residue levels in fruit were reduced very significantly with this New IPM without affecting the effectiveness in the control of the main cherry diseases (brown rot, shot-hole, and leaf-spot) and pests (European cherry fly, spotted wing drosophila, and black cherry aphid). Neither significant differences in the abundance and diversity of microorganisms in flowers and fruit nor soil and canopy dwelling arthropods were observed between the two protocols, although some positive effects of this New IPM were seen on some groups of natural enemies.

Fungicides and insecticides used at the recommended rate, and reduced recommended rates were applied at low volume (100 L ha-1) to apple trees in field experiments in South Australia from 1985 to 1988. At harvest the incidence of fruit damaged by fungi and insects was assessed on Golden Delicious, Red Delicious, Jonathan and Granny Smith cultivars. Mixtures of penconazole and mancozeb applied at the recommended rates of 800 mL and 4.5 kg ha-1 respectively as well as 25% and 10% of the recommended rates controlled apple scab completely in 1986, but were less effective in 1987. Azinphos-methyl applied at the recommended rate of 2.7 kg and 25% of the recommended rate reduced codling moth infestation to commercially acceptable levels of <2 % on Red Delicious only in 1987. Considerable cost savings are possible by using low rates of pesticides. Our results suggest that the use of low rates is more applicable to low valued cultivars such as Jonathans and orchards with low levels of pest and disease.

AbstractSuppression tactics for the citrus stink bug pest, Biprorulus bibax Breddin, were developed and implemented during 1987–1992 in four lemon orchards in southern New South Wales, Australia. Tactics were based on introduction and conservation of natural enemies (principally egg parasitoids), physical or chemical treatment of overwintering populations and strategic low rate applications of a selective insecticide. Estimated adult populations of 10–35,000/1.5 ha and 70–90% fruit damage in untreated crops were reduced to <500/1.5 ha and <5%, respectively, following full implementation of the management programme. Integrated management of B. bibax removes the need for broad-spectrum insecticides to control this pest and lessens the risk of disruption to biological control of other citrus pests.

Integrated pest management (IPM) has been promoted globally as an alternative approach to the widespread broad-spectrum chemical insecticidal application for the control of pests and diseases in agricultural production to minimise the harmful effects of the chemicals on humans and the environment. This study examines the impact of an IPM strategy developed to control mango fruit flies on humans and the environment. Using a random sample of 371 mango farmers from Meru County in Kenya, health and environmental outcomes were measured using the environmental impact quotient (EIQ) field use and causal impacts, which were estimated using the endogenous switching regression (ESR) model. The results indicate that the adoption of the IPM strategy reduced pesticide use and pesticide toxicity. Policy efforts therefore should focus on promoting and disseminating fruit fly IPM to improve the livelihoods of rural mango farmers, but also reduce human health and environmental threats as a result of pesticide use.

Integrated parasite management (IPM) for pests, pathogens and parasites involves reducing or breaking transmission to reduce the impact of infection or infestation. For Theileria orientalis, the critical impact of infection is the first wave of parasitaemia from the virulent genotypes, Ikeda and Chitose, associated with the sequelae from the development of anaemia. Therefore, current control measures for T. orientalis advocate excluding the movement of naïve stock from non-endemic regions into infected areas and controlling the tick Haemaphysalislongicornis, the final host. In Australia, treatment of established infection is limited to supportive therapy. To update and expand these options, this review examines progress towards prevention and therapy for T. orientalis, which are key elements for inclusion in IPM measures to control this parasite.

According to their origin, major postharvest losses of citrus fruit are caused by weight loss, fungal diseases, physiological disorders, and quarantine pests. Cold storage and postharvest treatments with conventional chemical fungicides, synthetic waxes, or combinations of them are commonly used to minimize postharvest losses. However, the repeated application of these treatments has led to important problems such as health and environmental issues associated with fungicide residues or waxes containing ammoniacal compounds, or the proliferation of resistant pathogenic fungal strains. There is, therefore, an increasing need to find non-polluting alternatives to be used as part of integrated disease management (IDM) programs for preservation of fresh citrus fruit. Among them, the development of novel natural edible films and coatings with antimicrobial properties is a technological challenge for the industry and a very active research field worldwide. Chitosan and other edible coatings formulated by adding antifungal agents to composite emulsions based on polysaccharides or proteins and lipids are reviewed in this article. The most important antifungal ingredients are selected for their ability to control major citrus postharvest diseases like green and blue molds, caused by Penicillium digitatum and Penicillium italicum, respectively, and include low-toxicity or natural chemicals such as food additives, generally recognized as safe (GRAS) compounds, plant extracts, or essential oils, and biological control agents such as some antagonistic strains of yeasts or bacteria.

Microbe-intensive technology is an integrated package of various biocontrol agents in chili cultivation. This technology was known to be effective in suppressing various chili diseases. The effect of this technique on the two mayor pests of chili, i.e. fruit flies (Bactrocera sp) and thrips (Thrips sp) is still unknown. The aim of this study was to find out the effect of microbeintensive technology on the infestation intensity of fruit flies and thrips on chili pepper. The study consisted of four treatments, namely fully microbe- intensive, microbe- intensive in the nursery, conventional, and control. The research was conducted in three locations with different altitudes. Infestation intensity of fruit fly were observed at 10 and 11 weeks after planting, while observations of infestation intensity of thrips were carried out once a week from 2 to 10 weeks after planting. The application of microbe-intensive technology significantly reduced the infestation rate of fruit flies. Microbe-intensive technology reduced thrips infestation at two planting locations, i.e. Margasari and Bojong, but It was not significantly affect the thrips infestation on Bumijawa.

Soil solarization is a hydrothermal procedure of disinfesting soil of soilborne diseases and pests. Solarization can be combined with many other chemical or non-chemical alternatives to afford integrated pest and diseases management or improve plant yield. Calcium cyanamide (CaCN2) is a fertilizer used in agriculture sector and is also effective in suppressing soilborne pathogens. The present study assessed the influences of different pre-plant CaCN2 dosages on strawberry grown on solarized or non-solarized soil. Soil solarization and 500 kg ha−1 CaCN2 significantly increased early marketable yield by 105.3%, total marketable yield by 53.0% and firmness by 3.0%, respectively compared with the control (no solarization × 0 kg ha−1 of CaCN2). Exposing solarized plots to CaCN2 at 1000 kg ha−1 significantly increased fruit ascorbic acid content by 77.5% and phenolic content by 13.3% compared with fruits from control plants. Overall, plants grown on solarized soil performed better than those cultivated on no-solarized plots. Plants grown on soil treated with a dosage of 500 or 1000 kg ha−1 CaCN2 increased plant height, number of shoots plant−1, number of leaves plant−1, root collar diameter, plant visual quality, anthocyanins, and antioxidant capacity compared to control plants. Fruits from plants grown on soil exposed to CaCN2 with a dosage of 500 and 1000 kg ha−1 showed a lower N fruit content (5.4 and 19.5%, respectively) than control plants (non-treated control).

A systems-based approach was used to evaluate integrated (IFP) and organic fruit production (OFP) (during and after the transition period) in an established high-density commercial orchard of disease-resistant ‘Liberty’ apples (Malus ×domestica Borkh.). Agroecological and economic evaluations included: yields, tree growth, leaf nutrient levels, arthropod and cosmetic fruit damage, environmental impacts, variable costs of production, and potential crop value using both direct market and wholesale market prices. Cumulative yields (2004–2007) of both harvested and total (harvested + dropped) fruit were not different between the two systems. Tree size (trunk cross-sectional area) was not consistently different between the production systems. The IFP-grown apples had between 3% and 6% insect damage (within normal percentages for this region) and between 3% and 17% total damage (either internal or cosmetic). The OFP-grown apples had between 3% and 25% insect damage and 3% to 75% total damage, varying greatly from year to year. In 2006, superficial blemishes, caused by diseases and scarfskin, were extensive on OFP-grown fruit. Using the Environmental Impact Quotient, the potential negative environmental impacts were estimated to be six times greater in the OFP system, largely as a result of the use of lime sulfur and fish oil for thinning and the large quantity of kaolin clay used for pest control. Partial budgets of both systems estimated variable production expenses to be 9% greater for OFP. Sales value was estimated to be 6% greater for OFP than IFP using direct market prices (e.g., farm stand or farmers' market) and 11% greater for IFP than OFP using wholesale market prices. A 56% premium was used to calculate the OFP crop value in the third and fourth years (fruit could have been sold with an organic label after 36 months from the last organically prohibited material). Four years of evaluation suggested that IFP could be widely implemented in the northeastern United States, but the lack of market incentives might impede its adoption. Producing disease-resistant apples under an OFP system also showed potential for success, but a price premium would be needed to offset the reduced profitability incurred from arthropod pests, poor fruit finish, and small fruit size.

The study attempts to determine the training needs of the farmers emphasizing nine selected major thematic areas. Under each major component, specific and relevant training needs item were collected and systematically incorporated into an interview schedule and administered in terms of frequency of training imparted. Four districts were purposively selected for the study and a total of eighty farmers were randomly selected from four districts. Primary data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The study revealed that more male was involved in farming and 45% farmers were middle age category (30-39 years). Majority of the farmers completed primary level of education compared to other categories and family size of more than half (60 %) of the respondents was three. Majority number of respondents (57%) had more than 10 years farming experience. A small number of farmers (8.75%) had owned agricultural land and 45% had land between 0.50- 1 hectare. More than 75% of annual gross income of 57.50% farmers came from agricultural activities. More than half (55%) of the respondents collected information on crop and its varieties by own attempt while about 34% was informed from seed seller or dealer. Farmers in Chattogram district had first priority to get training on integrated pest and diseases management, production of bio control agents and bio pesticides, marketing and transportation. Water management, integrated pest and disease management, vermi-compost production, marketing and transportation ranked first in Khagrachori district. The areas of priority for training in Rajshahi district were production and management technology, processing and value addition, marketing and transportation, integrated pest and disease management, water management and vermi-compost production. Training on integrated pest and disease management, bio-control of pests and diseases, production of bio control agents and bio pesticides, production of off-season vegetables, vermi-compost production, marketing and transportation were most emphasized by the respondents in Rangpur district. Respondents defined identification of adulterated fertilizer, insecticide and pesticide application, disease and insects of mango varieties and fruit bagging system of mango as very good type of training. The study concluded that there is an urgent need to design regular training programs in identified thematic areas to fulfill the knowledge gap among the farmers of Bangladesh.Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 43(4): 669-690, December 2018

There is limited data regarding the specific problems faced by organic fruit growers when dealing with plant protection, particularly at a European Union level, though some general knowledge about pest and disease incidence can be found. Such information is crucial to improve the efficacy of a targeted knowledge transfer to organic fruit growers and advisors aiming at an increased adoption of innovative practices. A survey was thus carried out in seventeen European countries (16 EU member states and Switzerland), within the framework of the EU-funded project BIOFRUITNET, aiming at filling this knowledge gap also in terms of research needs. A questionnaire including a section about general aspects of orchard management (functional biodiversity, fertilization management, varietal/rootstock selection) and a section specifically dedicated to pest and disease occurrence and management in organic orchards was utilized to interview about 250 professionals (farmers and advisors), 155 of which were involved in pome fruits (including apple and pear) production. The analysis of the answers related to plant protection pointed out a varied situation about pest and disease occurrence in apple and pear orchards across Europe, though related to the zonal location of the respondent. However, more than 50% of respondents generally considered just few among the most damaging ones, normally co-occurring in the orchards. Interestingly, regardless of the respondents’ nationality or zonal location, more pests than diseases were indicated as relevant agents threatening organic pome fruits production. Nevertheless, only few measures promoting functional biodiversity in the orchards resulted in being broadly implemented in all regions. The analysis of the data underlines the strong demand for the development of a toolbox of measures that can be integrated successfully into the general orchard management strategy including the successful enhancement of functional or general biodiversity.

Four tomato production systems were compared at Columbus and Fremont, Ohio: 1) a conventional system; 2) an integrated system [a fall-planted cover-crop mixture of hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth.), rye (Secale cereale L.), crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.), and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) killed before tomato planting and left as mulch, and reduced chemical inputs]; 3) an organic system (with cover-crop mixture and no synthetic chemical inputs); and (4) a no-input system (with cover-crop mixture and no additional management or inputs). Nitrogen in the cover-crop mixture above-ground biomass was 220 kg·ha-1 in Columbus and 360 kg·ha-1 in Fremont. Mulch systems (with cover-crop mixture on the bed surface) had higher soil moisture levels and reduced soil maximum temperatures relative to the conventional system. Overall, the cover-crop mulch suppressed weeds as well as herbicide plots, and no additional weed control was needed during the season. There were no differences in the frequency of scouted insect pests or diseases among the treatments. The number of tomato fruit and flower clusters for the conventional system was higher early in the season. In Fremont, the plants in the conventional system had accumulated more dry matter 5 weeks after transplanting. Yield of red fruit was similar for all systems at Columbus, but the conventional system yielded higher than the other three systems in Fremont. In Columbus, there were no differences in economic return above variable costs among systems. In Fremont, the conventional systems had the highest return above variable costs.

Magetan Regency is one of the leading fruit production centers (Pamelo Oranges) and vegetables in East Java. Production of Pamelo orange as a superior product of Magetan regency, during the last 10 years tends to decrease both in terms of quantity and quality. This is as a result of fruit fly pest attack is quite massive and viral; as well as vegetable crops that still depends on pesticide and chemical fertilizers. Quantity and quality of fruit and vegetable products are still not optimal because: 1). There are still pests and diseases that can not be controlled in an environmentally friendly manner, 2) The cultivation of pamelo and vegetable plants in Magetan regency has not been fully applied organic fertilizer intake, 3). Gardening irrigation technology still relies on rain water and semi-technical irrigation. The objective of the action research through Community Partnership Program (CPP) is to provide a touch of science and technology that is expected to accelerate the creative economic activities of the community by providing skills training based on organic materials including: 1. The utilization of yard land by planting vegetables; 2. The production soil enhancer; 3. Production of urine-based biopesticide ; 4. Simple book keeping practice in small-medium scale agriculture, and 5. Production of Pamelo orange-based food. The methods used in facilitating the improvement of skills of farmers and dairy farmers joined in micro small and medium enterprises including lecture, field practice and mentoring. The result of activities is expected to be able to: a). improve farmers skills in good plant care through integrated pest and disease control and organic based fertilization through fertigation. b). Make environmentally friendly fertilizers and pesticides independently. c). Increasing the production and quality of agricultural products. d). Innovative organic biofertilizers products.

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has encouraged people to adopt a healthier lifestyle and at the same time carry out a number of environmentally friendly activities such as urban farming. Besides helping to guarantee the food security aspect of urban areas, urban farming also helps create green open spaces. Even so, urban farming also has a negative impact, if it is carried out with a system that is not wise and effective, such as it can cause increased noise pollution, air pollution, flooding, water wastage, and even potential as a breeding ground for mosquitoes that transmit various diseases. Therefore, it is necessary to educate the public about various aspects needed in the implementation of urban farming, one of which is how to implement Integrated Pest Management (Known as PHT). The method used in this activity is the Action Research Method by applying the Participatory Action Program approach from the participants through discussion, and group work in all activities. The results of group discussions at KWT Bunga Matahari, and other urban farming groups in Kekalek and in Ampenan show that the majority of urban farming communities are very interested in developing various types of fresh vegetables and fruit in their yards as part of the Department of Sustainable Food Home Areas (KRPL) program. Food Security of the Province of NTB and the City of Mataram. Group discussions also revealed that group members became more active during the COVID-19 pandemic, especially during WFH in the early days of the pandemic. They feel the benefits of farming activities in the yard because it really helps meet the family's food needs, especially fresh vegetables. However, most of the target group members are still not familiar with environmentally friendly cultivation techniques, especially in terms of integrated pest management. Although in fact, they are not aware that there are several activities that include PHT, such as monitoring, planting ornamental plants (refugia) around vegetable crops, and mechanical control by directly killing pests that attack their plants

Mucor piriformis E. Fischer causes Mucor rot of pome and stone fruits during storage and has been reported in Australia, Canada, Germany, Northern Ireland, South Africa, and portions of the United States (1,2). Currently, there is no fungicide in the United States labeled to control this wound pathogen on apple. Cultural practices of orchard sanitation, placing dry fruit in storage, and chlorine treatment of dump tanks and flumes are critical for decay management (3,4). Cultivars like ‘Gala’ that are prone to cracking are particularly vulnerable as the openings provide ingress for the fungus. Mucor rot was observed in February 2013 at a commercial packing facility in Pennsylvania. Decay incidence was ~15% on ‘Gala’ apples from bins removed directly from controlled atmosphere storage. Rot was evident mainly at the stem end and was light brown, watery, soft, and covered with fuzzy mycelia. Salt-and-pepper colored sporangiophores bearing terminal sporangiospores protruded through the skin. Five infected apple fruit were collected, placed in an 80-count apple box on trays, and temporarily stored at 4°C. Isolates were obtained aseptically from decayed tissue, placed on potato dextrose agar (PDA) petri plates, and incubated at 25°C with natural light. Five single sporangiospore isolates were identified as Mucor piriformis based on cultural characteristics according to Michailides and Spotts (1). The isolates produced columellate sporangia attached terminally on short and tall, branched and unbranched sporangiophores. Sporangiospores were ellipsoidal, subspherical, and smooth. Chlamydospore-like resting structures (gemmae), isogametangia, and zygospores were not evident in culture. Mycelial growth was examined on PDA, apple agar (AA), and V8 agar (V8) at 25°C with natural light. Isolates grew best on PDA at rates that ranged from 38.4 ± 5.3 to 34.5 ± 2.41 mm/day, followed by AA from 30.5 ± 1.22 to 28.5 ± 2.51 mm/day, and V8 from 29.2 ± 3.0 to 26.7 ± 2.17 mm/day. Species-level identification was conducted by isolating genomic DNA, amplifying a portion of the 28S rDNA gene, and directly sequencing the products. MegaBLAST analysis of the 2X consensus sequences revealed that all five isolates were 99% identical to M. piriformis (GenBank Accession No. JN2064761) with E values of 0.0, which confirms the morphological identification. Koch's postulates were conducted using organic ‘Gala’ apples that were surface sanitized with soap and water, then sprayed with 70% ethanol and allowed to air dry. Wounds 3 mm deep were created using the point of a finishing nail and then inoculated with 50 μl of a sporangiospore suspension (1 × 105 sporangiospores/ml) for each isolate. Ten fruit were inoculated with each isolate, and the experiment was repeated. The fruit were stored at 25°C in 80-count boxes on paper trays for 14 days. Decay observed on inoculated ‘Gala’ fruit was similar to symptoms originally observed on ‘Gala’ apples from storage and the pathogen was re-isolated from inoculated fruit. This is the first report of M. piriformis causing postharvest decay on stored apples in Pennsylvania and reinforces the need for the development of additional tools to manage this economically important pathogen. References: (1) T. J. Michailides, and R. A. Spotts. Plant Dis. 74:537, 1990. (2) P. L. Sholberg and T. J. Michailides. Plant Dis. 81:550, 1997. (3) W. L. Smith et al. Phytopathology 69:865, 1979. (4) R. A. Spotts. Compendium of Apple and Pear Diseases and Pests: Second Edition. APS Press, St. Paul, MN, 2014.

Botrytis cinerea infection of wine grapes can result in a variety of symptoms. The most common symptom is botrytis bunch rot (BBR), where infected berries rot and shrivel, and eventually produce fungal sporulation. Another symptom is slip skin, where the skins of infected ripe berries slide easily from the pulp. It is hypothesised that a reduction in osmotic potential in grape berries due to late-season rainfall leads to slip skin symptom development. Hyphal growth of B. cinerea on osmotically adjusted agar was inhibited at osmotic potentials associated with near-ripe berries. Vine sheltering was used in a research vineyard to manipulate rainfall artificially and to alter berry sugar content in Vitis vinifera Sauvignon blanc vines, with the aim of increasing osmotic potential and altering symptom expression. Both BBR and slip skin symptoms were affected by the various sheltering conditions, with sheltered vines having lower BBR and higher slip skin at harvest. 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Agriculture production is directly dependent on climate change and weather. Possible changes in temperature, precipitation and CO2 concentration are expected to significantly impact crop growth and ultimately we lose our crop productivity and indirectly affect the sustainable food availability issue. The overall impact of climate change on worldwide food production is considered to be low to moderate with successful adaptation and adequate irrigation. Climate change has a serious impact on the availability of various resources on the earth especially water, which sustains life on this planet. The global food security situation and outlook remains delicately imbalanced amid surplus food production and the prevalence of hunger, due to the complex interplay of social, economic, and ecological factors that mediate food security outcomes at various human and institutional scales. Weather aberration poses complex challenges in terms of increased variability and risk for food producers and the energy and water sectors. Changes in the biosphere, biodiversity and natural resources are adversely affecting human health and quality of life. Throughout the 21st century, India is projected to experience warming above global level. India will also begin to experience more seasonal variation in temperature with more warming in the winters than summers. Longevity of heat waves across India has extended in recent years with warmer night temperatures and hotter days, and this trend is expected to continue. Strategic research priorities are outlined for a range of sectors that underpin global food security, including: agriculture, ecosystem services from agriculture, climate change, international trade, water management solutions, the water-energy-food security nexus, service delivery to smallholders and women farmers, and better governance models and regional priority setting. There is a need to look beyond agriculture and invest in affordable and suitable farm technologies if the problem of food insecurity is to be addressed in a sustainable manner. Introduction Globally, agriculture is one of the most vulnerable sectors to climate change. This vulnerability is relatively higher in India in view of the large population depending on agriculture and poor coping capabilities of small and marginal farmers. Impacts of climate change pose a serious threat to food security. “Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (World Food Summit, 1996). This definition gives rise to four dimensions of food security: availability of food, accessibility (economically and physically), utilization (the way it is used and assimilated by the human body) and stability of these three dimensions. According to the United Nations, in 2015, there are still 836 million people in the world living in extreme poverty (less than USD1.25/day) (UN, 2015). And according to the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), at least 70 percent of the very poor live in rural areas, most of them depending partly (or completely) on agriculture for their livelihoods. It is estimated that 500 million smallholder farms in the developing world are supporting almost 2 billion people, and in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa these small farms produce about 80 percent of the food consumed. Climate change threatens to reverse the progress made so far in the fight against hunger and malnutrition. As highlighted by the assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change (IPCC), climate change augments and intensifies risks to food security for the most vulnerable countries and populations. Few of the major risks induced by climate change, as identified by IPCC have direct consequences for food security (IPCC, 2007). These are mainly to loss of rural livelihoods and income, loss of marine and coastal ecosystems, livelihoods loss of terrestrial and inland water ecosystems and food insecurity (breakdown of food systems). Rural farmers, whose livelihood depends on the use of natural resources, are likely to bear the brunt of adverse impacts. Most of the crop simulation model runs and experiments under elevated temperature and carbon dioxide indicate that by 2030, a 3-7% decline in the yield of principal cereal crops like rice and wheat is likely in India by adoption of current production technologies. Global warming impacts growth, reproduction and yields of food and horticulture crops, increases crop water requirement, causes more soil erosion, increases thermal stress on animals leading to decreased milk yields and change the distribution and breeding season of fisheries. Fast changing climatic conditions, shrinking land, water and other natural resources with rapid growing population around the globe has put many challenges before us (Mukherjee, 2014). Food is going to be second most challenging issue for mankind in time to come. India will also begin to experience more seasonal variation in temperature with more warming in the winters than summers (Christensen et al., 2007). Climate change is posing a great threat to agriculture and food security in India and it's subcontinent. Water is the most critical agricultural input in India, as 55% of the total cultivated areas do not have irrigation facilities. Currently we are able to secure food supplies under these varying conditions. Under the threat of climate variability, our food grain production system becomes quite comfortable and easily accessible for local people. India's food grain production is estimated to rise 2 per cent in 2020-21 crop years to an all-time high of 303.34 million tonnes on better output of rice, wheat, pulse and coarse cereals amid good monsoon rains last year. In the 2019-20 crop year, the country's food grain output (comprising wheat, rice, pulses and coarse cereals) stood at a record 297.5 million tonnes (MT). Releasing the second advance estimates for 2020-21 crop year, the agriculture ministry said foodgrain production is projected at a record 303.34 MT. As per the data, rice production is pegged at record 120.32 MT as against 118.87 MT in the previous year. Wheat production is estimated to rise to a record 109.24 MT in 2020-21 from 107.86 MT in the previous year, while output of coarse cereals is likely to increase to 49.36 MT from 47.75 MT. Pulses output is seen at 24.42 MT, up from 23.03 MT in 2019-20 crop year. In the non-foodgrain category, the production of oilseeds is estimated at 37.31 MT in 2020-21 as against 33.22 MT in the previous year. Sugarcane production is pegged at 397.66 MT from 370.50 MT in the previous year, while cotton output is expected to be higher at 36.54 million bales (170 kg each) from 36.07. This production figure seem to be sufficient for current population, but we need to improve more and more with vertical farming and advance agronomic and crop improvement tools for future burgeoning population figure under the milieu of climate change issue. Our rural mass and tribal people have very limited resources and they sometime complete depend on forest microhabitat. To order to ensure food and nutritional security for growing population, a new strategy needs to be initiated for growing of crops in changing climatic condition. The country has a large pool of underutilized or underexploited fruit or cereals crops which have enormous potential for contributing to food security, nutrition, health, ecosystem sustainability under the changing climatic conditions, since they require little input, as they have inherent capabilities to withstand biotic and abiotic stress. Apart from the impacts on agronomic conditions of crop productions, climate change also affects the economy, food systems and wellbeing of the consumers (Abbade, 2017). Crop nutritional quality become very challenging, as we noticed that, zinc and iron deficiency is a serious global health problem in humans depending on cereal-diet and is largely prevalent in low-income countries like Sub-Saharan Africa, and South and South-east Asia. We report inefficiency of modern-bred cultivars of rice and wheat to sequester those essential nutrients in grains as the reason for such deficiency and prevalence (Debnath et al., 2021). Keeping in mind the crop yield and nutritional quality become very daunting task to our food security issue and this can overcome with the proper and time bound research in cognizance with the environment. Threat and challenges In recent years, climate change has become a debatable issue worldwide. South Asia will be one of the most adversely affected regions in terms of impacts of climate change on agricultural yield, economic activity and trading policies. Addressing climate change is central for global future food security and poverty alleviation. The approach would need to implement strategies linked with developmental plans to enhance its adaptive capacity in terms of climate resilience and mitigation. Over time, there has been a visible shift in the global climate change initiative towards adaptation. Adaptation can complement mitigation as a cost-effective strategy to reduce climate change risks. The impact of climate change is projected to have different effects across societies and countries. Mitigation and adaptation actions can, if appropriately designed, advance sustainable development and equity both within and across countries and between generations. One approach to balancing the attention on adaptation and mitigation strategies is to compare the costs and benefits of both the strategies. The most imminent change is the increase in the atmospheric temperatures due to increase levels of GHGs (Green House Gases) i.e. carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) etc into the atmosphere. The global mean annual temperatures at the end of the 20th century were almost 0.7 degree centigrade above than those recorded at the end of the 19th century and likely to increase further by 1.8- 6.4ºC by 2100 AD. The quantity of rainfall and its distribution will be affected to a great extent resulting in more flooding. The changes in soil properties such as loss of organic matter, leaching of soil nutrients, salinization and erosion are a likely outcome of climate change in many cases. Water crisis can be a serious problem with the anticipated global warming and climate change. With increasing exploitation of natural resources and environmental pollution, the atmospheric temperature is expected to rise by 3-5 0C in next 75-100 years (www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/chapter-1). If it happens most of the rivers originating from the Himalayas may dry up and cause severe shortage of water for irrigation, suppressing agriculture production by 40-50%. There has been considerable concern in recent years about climatic changes caused by human activities and their effects on agriculture. Surface climate is always changing, but at the beginning of industrial revolution these changes have been more noticeable due to interference of human beings activity. Studies of climate change impacts on agriculture initially focused on increasing temperature. Many researchers, including reported that changes in temperature, radiation and precipitation need to be studied in order to evaluate the impact of climate change. Temperature changes can affect crop productivity. Higher temperatures may increase plant carboxilation and stimulate higher photosynthesis, respiration, and transpiration rates. Meanwhile, flowering may also be partially triggered by higher temperatures, while low temperatures may reduce energy use and increased sugar storage. Changes in temperature can also affect air vapor pressure deficits, thus impacting the water use in agricultural landscapes. This coupling affects transpiration and can cause significant shifts in temperature and water loss (Mukherjee, 2017). In chickpea and other pulse crop this increase in temperature due to climate change affects to a greater extent flower numbers, pod production, pollen viability, and pistilfunction are reduced and flower and pod abortion increased under terminal heat stress which ultimately leads to hamper its productivity on large scale. There is probability of 10-40% loss in crop production in India with the expected temperature increase by 2080-2100. Rice yields in northern India during last three decades are showing a decreasing trend (Aggarwal et al., 2000). Further, the IPCC (2007) report also projected that cereal yields in seasonally dry and tropical regions like India are likely to decrease for even small local temperature increases. wheat production will be reduced by 4-5 million tonnes with the rise of every 10C temperature throughout the growing period that coincides in India with 2020-30. However, grain yield of rice declined by 10% for each 1ºC increase in growing season. A 1ºC increase in temperature may reduce rapeseed mustard yield by 3-7%. Thus a productivity of 2050-2562 kg/ha for rapeseed mustard would have to be achieved by 2030 under the changing scenario of climate, decreasing and degrading land and water resources, costly inputs, government priority of food crops and other policy imperatives from the present level of nearly 1200 kg/ha. Diseases and pest infestation In future, plant protection will assume even more significance given the daunting task before us to feed the growing population under the era of shifting climate pattern, as it directly influence pest life cycle in crop calendar (Mukherjee, 2019). Every year, about USD 8.5 billion worth of crops are lost in India because of disease and insects pests and another 2.5 billion worth of food grains in storages. In the scenario of climate change, experts believe that these losses could rise as high as four folds. Global warming and climate change would lead to emergence of more aggressive pests and diseases which can cause epidemics resulting in heavy losses (Mesterhazy et al., 2020). The range of many insects will change or expand and new combinations of diseases and pests may emerge. The well-known interaction between host × pathogen × environment for plant disease epidemic development and weather based disease management strategies have been routinely exploited by plant pathologists. However, the impact of inter annual climatic variation resulting in the abundance of pathogen populations and realistic assessment of climatic change impacts on host-pathogen interactions are still scarce and there are only handful of studies. Further emerging of new disease with climate alteration in grain crop such as wheat blast, become challenging for growers and hamper food chain availability (Mukherjee et al., 2019). Temperature increase associated with climatic changes could result in following changes in plant diseases: Extension of geographical range of pathogens Changes in population growth rates of pathogens Changes in relative abundance and effectiveness of bio control agents Changes in pathogen × host × environment interactions Loss of resistance in cultivars containing temperature-sensitive genes Emergence of new diseases/and pathogen forms Increased risk of invasion by migrant diseases Reduced efficacy of integrated disease management practices These changes will have major implications for food and nutritional security, particularly in the developing countries of the dry-tropics, where the need to increase and sustain food production is most urgent. The current knowledge on the main potential effects of climate change on plant patho systems has been recently summarized by Pautasso et al. (2012). Their overview suggests that maintaining plant health across diversified environments is a key requirement for climate change mitigation as well as the conservation of biodiversity and provisions of ecosystem services under global change. Changing in weed flora pattern under different cropping system become very challenging to the food growers, and threat to our food security issue. It has been estimated that the potential losses due to weeds in different field crops would be around 180 million tonnes valued Rs 1,05,000 crores annually. In addition to the direct effect on crop yield, weeds result in considerable reduction in the efficiency of inputs used and food quality. Increasing atmospheric CO2 and temperature have the potential to directly affect weed physiology and crop-weed interactions vis-à-vis their response to weed control methods. Many of the world’s major weeds are C4 plants and major crops are C3 plants (Mandal and Mukherjee, 2018). The differential effects of CO2 on C3 and C4 plants may have implications on crop-weed interactions. Weed species have a greater genetic diversity than most crops and therefore, under the changing scenario of resources (eg., light, moisture, nutrients, CO2), weeds will have the greater capacity for growth and reproductive response than most crops. Differential response to seed emergence with temperature could also influence species establishment and subsequent weed-crop competition. Increasing temperature might allow some sleeper weeds to become invasive (Mukherjeee, 2020; Science Daily, 2009). Studies suggest that proper weed management techniques if adopted can result in an additional production of 103 million tonnes of food grains, 15 million tonnes of pulses,10 million tonnes of oilseeds, and 52 million tonnes of commercial crops per annum, which in few cases are even equivalent to the existing annual production (Rao and Chauhan, 2015). There is tremendous scope to increase agricultural productivity by adopting improved weed management technologies that have been developed in the country. Conclusion The greatest challenge before us is to enhance the production of required amount of food items viz., cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetable, underutilized fruit etc to keep pace with population growth through employing suitable crop cultivars, biotechnological approaches, conserving natural resources and protecting crops from weeds, insects pests and diseases eco-friendly with climate change. Research is a continuous process that has to be pursued vigorously and incessantly in the critical areas viz., evolvement of new genotype, land development and reclamation, soil and moisture conservation, soil health care, seeds and planting material, enhancing fertilizer and water use efficiencies, conservation agriculture, eco-friendly plant protection measures etc. Due to complexity of crop environment interaction under different climate situation, a multidisciplinary approach to the problem is required in which plant breeders, agronomists, crop physiologists and agrometeorologists need to interact for finding long term solutions in sustaining crop production. References: Abbade, E. B. 2017. Availability, access and utilization: Identifying the main fragilities for promoting food security in developing countries. World Journal of Science, Technology and Sustainable Development, 14(4): 322–335. doi:10.1108/WJSTSD-05-2016-0033 Aggrawal, P.K., Bandyopadhyay, S. and Pathak, S. 2020. Analysis of yield trends of the Rice-Wheat system in north-western India. Outlook on Agriculture, 29(4):259-268. Christensen, J.H., Hewitson, B., Busuioc, A., Chen, A. and Gao, X, 2007. Regional Climate Projections. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, United Kingdom. Debnath, S., Mandal, B., Saha, S., Sarkar, D., Batabyal, K., Murmu, S., Patra, B.C., Mukherjee, and Biswas, T. 2021. Are the modern-bred rice and wheat cultivars in India inefficient in zinc and iron sequestration?. Environmental and Experimental Botany,189:1-7. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2021.104535) 2007. Climate Change 2007- Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 976pp. Mandal, B and Mukherjee, D. 2018. Influenced of different weed management Practices for Higher Productivity of Jute (Corchorus olitorius) in West Bengal. International Journal of Bioresource Science, 5 (1): 21-26. Mesterhazy, A., Olah, J. and Popp, J. 2020. Losses in the grain supply chain: causes and solutions. Sustainability, 12, 2342; doi:10.3390/su12062342. Mukherjee D. 2019. Effect of various crop establishment methods and weed management practices on growth and yield of rice. Journal of Cereal Research, 11(3): 300-303. http://doi.org/10.25174/2249-4065/2019/95811. Mukherjee, D. 2014. Climate change and its impact on Indian agriculture. In : Plant Disease Management and Microbes (eds. Nehra, S.). Aavishkar Publishers, Jaipur, India. Pp 193-206. Mukherjee, D. 2017. Rising weed problems and their effects on production potential of various crops under changing climate situation of hill. Indian Horticulture Journal, 7(1): 85-89. Mukherjee, D., Mahapatra, S., Singh, D.P., Kumar, S., Kashyap , P.L. and Singh, G.P. 2019. Threat assessment of wheat blast like disease in the West Bengal". 4th International Group Meeting on Wheat production enhancement through climate smart practices. at CSK HPKV, Palampur, HP, India, February, 14-16, 2019. Organized by CSK HPKV, Palampur and Society of Advancement of Wheat and Barley Research (SAWBAR). Journal of Cereal Research, 11 (1): 78. Mukherjee, D. 2020. Herbicide combinations effect on weeds and yield of wheat in North-Eastern plain. Indian Journal of Weed Science, 52 (2): 116–122. Pautasso, M. 2012. Observed impacts of climate change on terrestrial birds in Europe: an overview. Italian Journal of Zoology, 38:56-74. .Doi:10.1080/11250003.2011.627381 Rao, A.N. and Chauhan, B.S. 2015. Weeds and weed management in India -A Review. 25 Asian Pacific Weed Science Society Conference, at Hyderabad, India, Volume: 1 (A.N. Rao and N.T. Yaduraju (eds.). pp 87-118.

Sustainable horticultural practices address the global issues of food security, pest and disease management, soil health, water pollution, depletion of biodiversity, etc. with environment–friendly approaches. Increasingly, the adoption of such strategies is benefitting agricultural production including that in orchards. Even though several Integrated Pest Management (IPM), disease, and weed management strategies have been in use for the control of pests, diseases, and weeds in apple orchards, they are still not the most favored methods of control. There are various economic and acceptance concerns regarding their use, particularly in developing nations. A more sustainable system for apple orchards management, thus, should be adopted. Here, we review various management methodologies, including the sustainable biocontrol methods, employed in the apple orchards. Reviewing these methods, we draw attention towards integrating sustainable IPM methodologies with biocontrol strategies like the use of pest-resistant cultivars, employing natural parasites and enemies of apple pests, use of agro-based pesticides, integration of technological advances that can provide real-time data to farmers and orchard scouting leading to the development of sustainable management of apple orchards. Such systems will not only reduce dependence on chemical control methods but will also minimize ecotoxicity. We also draw parallels from the biocontrol methods adopted in sustainable agri-production in other fruit orchards to suggest strategies that can be employed for sustainable apple production.

Pests and pathogens inflict considerable losses in global agri-food production and regularly trigger the (indiscriminate) use of synthetic pesticides. In the Asia-Pacific, endemic and invasive organisms compromise crop yields, degrade farm profitability and cause undesirable social-environmental impacts. In this study, we systematically assess the thematic foci, coherence and inclusiveness of plant protection programs of 11 Asia-Pacific countries. Among 23 economically important diseases and 55 pests, survey respondents identified rice blast, rice brown planthopper, citrus greening disease, Tephritid fruit flies and fall armyworm as threats of regional allure. These organisms are thought to lower crop yields by 20–35% and cause management expenditures up to US$2,250 per hectare and year. Though decision-makers are familiar with integrated pest management (IPM), national programs are invariably skewed toward curative pesticide-intensive control. Pesticide reductions up to 50–100% are felt to be feasible and potentially can be attained through full-fledged IPM campaigns and amended policies. To rationalize farmers' pesticide use, decision criteria (e.g., economic thresholds) wait to be defined for multiple crop x pest systems and (participatory) training needs to be conducted e.g., on (pest, disease) symptom recognition or field-level scouting. Efforts are equally needed to amend stakeholder perceptions on ecologically based measures e.g., biological control. Given that several Asia–Pacific countries possess robust techno-scientific capacities in various IPM domains (e.g., taxonomy, molecular diagnostics, socioeconomics), they can take on an active role in regionally coordinated campaigns. As such, one can reinvigorate IPM and ensure that preventative, non-chemical pest management ultimately becomes the norm instead of the exception throughout the Asia–Pacific.

Abstract Background For the sake of environmental safety, many new insecticide generations developed. Sulphur formulations and other botanicals or formulated synthetic insecticides were recommended in many integrated pest management programs to protect, particularly, edible vegetables and fruit trees from insect and mite pests as well as plant pathogenic diseases. Such formulations, at the recommended application rates, proved to be safer for mammals. Regarding their safety to beneficial arthropods, diversified results were reported. This study was designed to investigate and evaluate the impact of indoxacarb and sulphur formulation against some natural enemies naturally prevailing in some vegetable crops. Results Application of indoxacarb and sulphur formulation in Okra fields to control aphid was carried out. The adverse effects of these applications against some important predators were investigated. The obtained results revealed that indoxacarb was more effective than sulphur application in all treatments. At the end of the experiment, the percentages of population reductions of Coccinella indoxacarb treatment reached ≈ 92 and 76% for larvae and adults, respectively. The corresponding figures for Chrysoperla were ≈ 79 and 82% for larvae and adults, respectively. Indoxacarb-induced reduction in the Paederus population reached about 80%, while sulphur formulation had negative effects. Both indoxacarb and sulphur formulations were harmful to the aphid, inducing about 97 and 26% reduction, respectively, for the mean number of aphid populations. Conclusion It could be concluded that indoxacarb is more hazardous towards different natural enemies prevailing naturally in open fields at anywhere season round the year, and care must be in consideration when we choose and select some insecticides to kill or to eradicate pests and simultaneously conserve the natural enemies.