Auswahl der wissenschaftlichen Literatur zum Thema „Free grammatical morphemes“

ABSTRACTThe use of Italian morphology was examined in 34 children ranging in age from 2;6 to 5;0. By the age of 3;6–4;0, high percentages of use in obligatory contexts were seen for a number of grammatical morphemes. Children age 2;6–3;0 showed percentages of use that were somewhat lower than those seen for the older children. In this age range, singular forms were used with higher percentages in obligatory contexts than plural forms, for several different types of grammatical morphemes. Greater control over singular forms in these younger children was corroborated by data from a comprehension task. Even at the younger ages studied, use of grammatical morphemes did not seem influenced by whether phonological eues to agreement were present, or whether the grammatical morphemes were homonymous. Percentages for grammatical morphemes in the form of free-standing morphemes were somewhat lower than percentages for morphemes taking the form of inflections, suggesting that the obligatory nature of inflections in Italian may be a more influential factor than the amount of morphological information contained in a grammatical morpheme.

Abstract The article presents a morphemic account of transcategoriality, with detailed illustrations (e.g. English but and even, French encore, tout, meme, Latin to French morpheme /tant/) of the approach. After making explicit the paradigmatic differences between exoskeletal and endoskeletal approaches, and showing that ultimately it can be summarized in terms of existence or not of grammar-free morphemes becoming lexemes through grammatical and contextual insertion, it turns to the issue of knowing what an exoskeletal non-categorial meaning can be. It introduces at this stage the notion of fractality, before making explicit and detailing the method which allows isolation of a morpheme’s indicational semantics. The whole approach is finally illustrated with the study of the whole distribution of French /tant/, first semantically in synchrony before extending the tests to Latin data, showing that polysemy, transcategoriality and plurisemy are various forms of the same issue.

This study highlights the analysis of Pakistani students for Derivational and Inflectional Morphemes at intermediate level. Derivational and Inflectional Morphemes are the elements which explores the field of morphology for daily language users. Morphology is the study of “morphemes”. Morphemes are the smallest units of language that have described into two categories as free and bound morphemes. The main issue that exists in this study is to analyze the derivational and inflectional morphemes used by Pakistani students. Through the perceptions and understanding of inflectional and derivational morphemes, this study can produce the vocabulary in which one word have multiple meanings. This research paper is associated with linguistics and field of socio linguistics. This paper is purely based on qualitative research approach. In this study, the researcher founds the prominent dimensions caused by the inflectional and derivational morphemes, when attached with other morphemes. If the derivational morpheme is attached with free morpheme, it will convey different meaning and a chance have that it will change even word class. While inflectional morpheme will play a grammatical role when will be attached with free morpheme.

Phonemes and segments are the key elements in the structure of Pashto words, playing an important role similar to other languages worldwide. Through the combination and arrangement of these segments, numerous morphemes and diverse words are generated. When assigning a vowel or consonant to the origin or base form of a word, it leads to the creation of new words and constructions that possess different forms, meanings, and belong to various grammatical categories. Structurally, at least one, two, three, or a maximum of four bound morphemes in the form of segments or phonemes could be added to the root or base morpheme, thus generating new lexemes and words. The addition of new phonemes and segments to the base or root form of a word alters its case, identification, quality, quantity, gender, number, tense, modification, meaning, and grammatical classification. Another important role of segments in the structure of lexemes is the syllabification of simple and complex words. The accumulation of each phoneme brings changes in the number of syllables within that word or phrase. Vowel segments primarily contribute to the syllabification of words. In conclusion, the hierarchical arrangement of segments generates new morphemes, while the combination of bound and free morphemes forms the basis for creating new simple, compound, and complex words in the Pashto language.

derivation and inflection Morpheme is one of the elements present in the field of morphology. Where the morphology is the study of morphemes, and morphemes are elements of language that have the meaning of the free element and bound elements. The problems that exist in this research is to analyze the morpheme of derivation and inflection contained in Jakarta Post. By understanding the derivation and morpheme inflection it can easily develop vocabulary, from one word can gain many meanings This research is a type of research belonging to linguistic field. The research also used qualitative descriptive research method. This research method is a method that refers to the form of words taken from the data source by explaining the intent of data intention. In addition, this research also uses research libraries (library research). This literature research only discusses existing data data by processing and developing data by using morphological theory that supports the research. The first step used by the author is to collect data taken from the source, after that the data are all collected then the writers classify the data in several groups. Since in this study only discusses the three topics of the problem, the first is to classify all types of derivation and morpheme inflection found in the Jakarta Post newspaper, the second is the function of each morpheme, and the last is the rule that belongs to the derivation and morpheme inflection The. Based on this study, the writers found the uniqueness caused by derivation and morpheme inflection when combined with other morphemes. If the morpheme derivation is compared with the free morpheme it will have a different meaning and sometimes even change the word class. While morpheme inflection when compared with free morpheme it will have a grammatical function.

The production of the grammatical morphemes studied by Brown and his colleagues was examined in free speech samples from a cohort of 4-year-olds with a history of slow expressive language development (SELD) and a control group of normal speakers. Results suggest that children with SELD acquire morphemes in an order very similar to that shown in previous acquisition research. Children who were slow to begin talking at age 2 and who continued to evidence delayed expressive language development by age 4 showed mastery of the four earliest acquired grammatical morphemes, as would be expected, based on their MLUs, which fell at Early Stage IV. Four-year-olds with normal language histories produced all but one of the grammatical morphemes with more than 90% accuracy, as would be expected based on their late Stage V MLUs. Children who were slow to acquire expressive language as toddlers, but who "caught up" in terms of sentence length by age 4 did not differ in MLU from their peers with normal language histories. However, they had acquired fewer of the grammatical morphemes. The implications of these findings for understanding the phenomenon of slow expressive language development are discussed.

This article shows how the psycholinguistic process of language transfer accounts for the many features of the grammatical morphology of language contact varieties that differ from those of their lexifiers. These include different grammatical categories, the use of contrasting morphological processes to express grammatical distinctions, lexifier grammatical morphemes with new functions, and new grammatical morphemes not found in the lexifier. After an introductory description of the general notion of language transfer, it presents five more specific types: transfer of morphological strategies, word order and grammatical categories, as well as direct morphological transfer and functional transfer. The article then gives some possible explanations for the distribution among different types of contact varieties of two kinds of functional transfer – functionalisation and refunctionalisation – and for the distribution of particular types of grammatical morphemes – i.e. free versus bound. The examples presented come from contact languages of the Australia-Pacific region: three creoles (Australian Kriol, Hawai‘i Creole and Tayo); an expanded pidgin (Melanesian Pidgin, exemplified by Vanuatu Bislama and Papua New Guinea Tok Pisin); a restricted pidgin (Nauru Pidgin); and an indigenised variety of English (Colloquial Singapore English).

Morphology is the study of the intertwined relationship of morphemes, or what we commonly refer to as "words.". Analysis of words enables us to experience how to break apart unfamiliar words in order to understand their overall meanings. It aids us in understanding how prefixes and suffixes can change a word's meaning and how much of our language is constructed. This paper aims to analyze morphologically the textuality of the poem Proem by Jose Garcia Villa by describing the segmentation of the content and function words in the textuality of the poem PROEM focusing on the affixation structuration of the lexical and grammatical morphemes. The linear morphologic segmentation of morphemic contents of the poem "PROEM" by Jose Garcia Villa reveals nineteen lexical morphemes. There are ten (10) simple form (roots), seven (7) complex forms (affixations and roots), one (1) compound form (two roots combined), and one (1) compound–complex form (two roots combined and affixation). On the other hand, there are seven (7) grammatical morphemes of three prepositions, two determiners and two conjunctions. It further reveals that words undergo changes in terms of their class after going through the process of affixation. The results prove that the poem "Proem" by Jose Garcia Villa follows morphologic segmentation linearity in its free verse textuality. This study thus recommends that a parallel morphological investigation be conducted on different textualities of poetry used and read by teachers and students in the process of academic discourse.

This study was intended to describe the category of inflectional and derivational morphemes found in Reading Texts of 2013 Curriculum English Textbook for the X Grade of Senior High Schools Published by Ministry of Education and Culture. Morpheme is used to refer to the smallest unit that has meaning or serves a grammatical function in a language. The morphemes which can meaningfully stand alone are called free morphemes while the morphemes such as –er and –s, which cannot meaningfully stand alone are called bound morphemes. The design of this study was descriptive qualitative. The results of this study show that Derivational prefixes consist of inter-, eco-, un-, ar-, pre-, re-, pro-, be-, de-, in-, dis-, a-, ex-, auto-, mis-, agri-, em-, ap-, im- and al-. While, Derivational suffixes consist of four categories. Thus are nominal, verbal, adjectival, and adverbial suffixes. First, nominal suffixes, namely –ism, -ation, -al, -ing, -ist, -or, -ity, -er, -ance, -ment, -ion, -ess, -ium, -ature, -ry, -ant, -ce, -ive, -cy, -y, -r, -ge, and -ness. Second, Verbal suffixes, namely –n and –ize. Third, Adjectival suffixes, namely –al, -ly, -ous, -ing, -able, -ic, -ish, -ive, -ian, -ny, -less, -ed, -ary, -nese, -y, and –ful and the last is adverbial suffix –ly. Otherwise, the categories of inflectional morphemes that found in texts consist of Noun suffixes (plural) such as; –s, -ies, and –es, Noun suffixes (possessive) e.g; –s’ and -’s, Verb suffixes (3rd person singular) are –s and –es, Verb suffixes (past tense) are –ed and –d, Verb suffixes (past participle) such as; –n, -d, and -ed, Adjective suffixes (comparative) are –er, - r, and –ier and Adjective suffixes (superlative) are –st and –est. Therefore, based on the result of finding verb suffixes are not found.

Subjects with brain damage resulting in agrammatic aphasia frequently omit or substitute function items (function words and inflectional affixes). However, they show only mild deficits in using meaningful content words. Agrammatics' performance on comprehension tests reveals a rather complex pattern. They usually understand active sentences correctly, but perform on chance level on passives. The same contrast is observed for more complex sentence types, such as subject vs. object clefts or relatives. This complex comprehension pattern suggests that agrammatism is a syntactic disturbance that selectively affects particular sentence structures. Nevertheless, it is possible that both the production and comprehension patterns go back to an access problem for grammatical morphemes. If an agrammatic aphasic comprehends only 50% of these morphemes, she or he may well be problem-free in understanding the resulting “pruned” active sentences in which some of the grammatical morphemes are missing. In contrast, she or he is likely to arrive at the wrong meaning when confronted with “pruned” passives. This hypothesis raises the question of how fully competent speakers interpret ungrammatical “pruned” strings derived from well-formed sentences by systematically deleting function items. Experimental data demonstrate that competent speakers approximate the agrammatic comprehension pattern when being presented with “pruned” strings. This argues that agrammatism can, indeed, be viewed as a deficit in processing function words and inflectional affixes, which may manifest itself in production and/or comprehension tasks. Assuming that cortical cell assemblies with distinct topographies correspond to content words and grammatical morphemes, it is possible to explain agrammatism in terms of lesions to these neuronal networks. This neurobiological model can explain additional aspects of agrammatics' performance.

Lorsqu’elle apparait dans les premiers mois de l’enfant, la surdité moyenne (pertes auditives entre 40dB et 70dB) peut entrainer des difficultés dans l’acquisition du langage, notamment en ce qui concerne la phonologie et la morphologie (Briscoe et al., 2001; Norbury et al., 2001; Tuller & Delage, 2014). Cette thèse étudie les réalisations des morphèmes grammaticaux libres en position prénominale et préverbale chez ces enfants, en étudiant l’influence de facteurs pragmatiques, morphologiques et phonologiques et l’interaction entre différents niveaux de difficulté. La variabilité des résultats des enfants sourds moyens ayant été relevée auparavant (Halliday et al., 2017; Koehlinger et al., 2013; Moeller et al., 2010; Tomblin et al., 2015), une comparaison avec celle des enfants normo-entendants est proposée. Un groupe d’enfants sourds moyens de moins de 6 ans et deux groupes d’enfants normo-entendants, d’âge similaire et plus jeunes, ont été enregistrés deux fois à un an ou un an et demi d’écart, dans différentes tâches : tests de langage, narration et jeu symbolique. Les enfants sourds moyens ont des difficultés en production (vocabulaire, morphosyntaxe et phonologie) plus souvent qu’ils en ont en compréhension. Dans les deux sessions, leur inventaire phonologique est comparable à celui d’enfants normo-entendants plus jeunes, en revanche leurs schémas de transformations diffèrent. Les facteurs pragmatiques comme le statut discursif de l’expression référentielle ou le type de référence ont une influence similaire chez les enfants sourds moyens et les enfants plus jeunes. Cependant, des facteurs morphologiques, comme le genre du nom, n'ont d’influence que dans les productions des enfants sourds moyens. Pour approfondir le lien entre phonologie et morphologie, la production des phonèmes a été analysé selon le type de mot ou selon la catégorie de la forme produite. Il apparait que les formes dont la cible est un pronom ou un déterminant sont plus souvent transformées que celles dont la cible est un lexème ou un autre type de morphème prélexical. À tous les niveaux de l’analyse, la variation interindividuelle diffère de celles des enfants normo-entendants tant dans la dispersion des productions du groupe que dans son évolution
When moderate hearing loss (between 40dB and 70dB of loss) occurs in the first few months of a child's life, it can cause some difficulties in language acquisition, and particularly in phonology and morphology (Briscoe et al., 2001; Norbury et al., 2001; Tuller & Delage, 2014). This thesis investigates the realizations of free grammatical morphemes in prenominal and preverbal positions in those children’s productions, by examining the influence of pragmatic, morphological, and phonological factors as well as the interaction between different levels of difficulty. Variability in the performance of children with moderate hearing loss (Halliday et al., 2017; Koehlinger et al., 2013; Moeller et al., 2010; Tomblin et al., 2015) was addressed through a comparison with the variations in normal-hearing children’s productions. A group of children with moderate hearing loss under 6 years old, and two groups of normal-hearing children, one similar in age and one younger, were recorded one or one and a half years apart in different tasks: language tests, narrative and symbolic play. The children with moderate hearing loss had difficulties in production (vocabulary, morphosyntax, and phonology) more often than they had in comprehension. In both sessions, their phonological inventory was comparable to the younger normal-hearing children one, but their transformation patterns differed. Pragmatic factors such as the discursive status of the referential expression or the type of reference had a similar impact on the average child with moderate hearing loss and the younger children. However, morphological factors such as the noun gender impacted only the production of children with moderate hearing loss. To further investigate the link between phonology and morphology, phonemes production was analysed according to the category of the produced form. It appears that, when pronouns or determiners were targeted, the forms were more often transformed than when the target was another type of prelexical morpheme. At all levels of analysis, the inter-individual variation differed from that of normal hearing children, both in its spread and in evolution

The introduction states the main question of the book and sets the theoretical basis of the study; namely that every language codes a unique semantic structure in its grammatical system. This semantic structure consists of functional domains and subdomains, and each subdomain consists of a finite number of functions. The functional domains, subdomains, and functions can change over time. Even if languages have identical functional domains, the internal composition of these domains may vary. Every language contains a finite number of coding means such as lexical categories and derivational morphology, linear orders, phonological means, inflectional morphology, deployment of lexical items to code grammatical functions, including serial verb constructions, adpositions, and free grammatical morphemes. The role of the formal means is to allow for the realization of the functions from the semantic structure of the language and to assure the principle functional transparency.

Abstract Verbal suffixes that encode grammatical notions of mood, modality, tense, aspect, and voice have been found to obey a relative order that is largely consistent across languages (Bybee 1985).1 This order appears to reflect, in a mirror fashion, that of the corresponding free morphemes (auxiliaries and particles), in VO languages, suggesting the existence of a layered constitution of the clause (Foley/van Valin 1984, Dik 1989).2 In Cinque (1999), I have proposed that the layered structure of the clause is much richer than previously thought. Each of the ordered categories of mood, modality, tense, aspect, and voice break down into a number of distinct grammatical markers, which are also ordered among one another. If we put together these different orders, we reach some forty or so grammatical layers for the clause.3 Within this picture of a rigid and invariant universal structure for clauses, “mobile” suffixes constitute a particularly severe challenge, as they seem to point to an at least partially undetermined layered structure. On the basis of a number of representative cases, however, I will conclude that it is rational not to abandon the stronger assumption that the grammatical markers of mood, modality, tense, aspect, and voice enter an invariant and rigid universal order.

Abstract The limited goal of this chapter is to analyze the order of the mood, modality, tense and aspect, verbal suffixes of Turkish in the light of my (1999) proposal on the functional structure of the clause. My hope is that the exercise, besides explaining away certain apparent counterexamples to a rigid hierarchy of functional projections, may shed a partly new light on this area of the grammar of Turkish. In Cinque (1999), I examined the relative order of free (particles) and bound (suffixes) grammatical morphemes corresponding to mood, modality, tense, aspect, and voice distinctions in the languages of the world. The recurrent picture that one finds in this domain is that they not only are rigidly ordered with respect to one another (as partly anticipated in such works as Bybee 1985, Foley and Van Valin 1984, and Dik 1989), but also each of the mood, modality, tense, aspect, and voice categories is made up, at a finer level, of a number of distinct heads, which also appear to be rigidly ordered. The striking match between the order of these grammatical heads and the order of the corresponding adverbs was further taken there to suggest a rich and articulated functional structure above the lexical VP of the clause, where each adverb class corresponds to a mood, modality, tense, aspect, or voice head in a one-to-one fashion (as does the specifier to a head in a classical X-bar structure-Chomsky 1970, Kayne 1994).

Lexemes denoting ‘small’ typically undergo a range of semantic or functional extension, either as free-standing lexical forms, or weakly-grammaticalized derivational morphemes, or even fully grammatical forms (such as classifiers). There is a body of literature analyzing diminutives in individual languages and across languages. However, comparative analyses between typologically and genealogically distinct languages have been largely underrepresented. This research analyzes an isolating, Kra-Dai language (Thai) and an agglutinating, Transeurasian language (South Korean). A comparative analysis reveals that the smallness concept in Thai forms an elaborate conceptual network in five major domains, i.e., YOUNG and LOWER DEGREE, SMALL SIZE, LOW DENSITY, and LOW CONFIGURATIONAL COMPLEXITY; whereas the South Korean network involves WEAK and INFERIOR, NON-HUMAN, MEMBER, and PARTIAL. Semantic extension directionalities in Thai and South Korean diminutive lexemes exhibit certain similarities and also a number of differences in the motivating inference patterns, e.g., ‘small therefore cute’ in Thai and ‘small therefore contemptible’ in South Korean. in particular. Thai diminutives lean toward the more neutral or positive meanings, whereas South Korean diminutives lean toward the largely negative and pejorative meanings including animal and animal body-part naming. Drawing upon corpus data, this paper examines the conceptual extension patterns behind the evaluative morphopragmatics of diminutives from crosslinguistic and grammaticalization perspectives.