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1
Leonard, Carrie A., und Robert J. Williams. „Fallacious beliefs: Gambling specific and belief in the paranormal.“ Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement 51, Nr. 1 (Januar 2019): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000113.
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Casey, John. „Beliefs, Commitments, and Ad Baculum Arguments“. Languages 7, Nr. 2 (27.04.2022): 107. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/languages7020107.
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Typically, an ad baculum argument is one where an arguer threatens a respondent in order to induce them to adopt a standpoint. It is a fallacy, a common account goes, because the power to impose a standpoint is irrelevant to its truth or acceptability. However, fallacies, if they are to be anything, ought at a minimum to be persuasive, and it is hard to see how an ad baculum might persuade. Employing an ad baculum just underscores how terrible someone’s reasons are. Despite this, cases of fallacious ad baculum arguments seem to exist, and this is a fact that requires some explanation. This paper offers an account where the real target of an ad baculum is an audience downstream from the initial ad baculum exchange. This means that the ad baculum consists of misrepresenting the quality of evidence by means of the forced adoption of a particular standpoint.
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Bruckner, Michael. „Do You Really Want to Know? Challenging Pragmatism and Clearing Space for the Intrinsic Value View“. KRITERION – Journal of Philosophy 30, Nr. 1 (01.01.2016): 1–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/krt-2016-300104.
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Abstract Pragmatic theories of epistemic normativity ground norms of belief formation in true belief's instrumental value as a means to promoting our desires. I argue that advocates of this view face a dilemma: either they agree that epistemic norms prescribe truth-conducive procedures of belief formation, which is untenable against the backdrop of their theory, or they dismiss the truth-conduciveness criterion and thereby render themselves incapable of explaining an intuition that most of us share: in cases where false beliefs generate the same pragmatic output as true ones, truth-conducive procedures of belief formation are still preferable to fallacious ones. After establishing this objection, I make a case for the position that regards the intrinsic value of true belief as the source of epistemic normativity by showing how it meets the challenge that pragmatism falls victim to.
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Khdairi, Iman M. „The Logic Game, Fallacy in Selected Poems by John Donne“. Cihan University-Erbil Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 5, Nr. 1 (10.05.2021): 32–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.24086/cuejhss.v5n1y2021.pp32-34.
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The aim of this paper is to analyze three seduction poems by John Donne regarding his use of fallacy as a technique for seduction. These poems are “The Flea”, “Confined Love” and “To His Mistress Going to Bed”. Donne tries to manipulate reasoning in the arguments with the women in those poems cleverly through false beliefs i.e., fallacies, to convince them of the legitimacy and sanctity of sexual intercourse, whether it is premarital or adultery. He deploys strong fallacious arguments with the women, who are presented as cautious or dismissive, in all three poems to achieve his aim of convincing those women to voluntarily agree to his sexual desire.
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Ward, Andrew C. „The Value of Genetic Fallacies“. Informal Logic 30, Nr. 1 (19.03.2010): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.22329/il.v30i1.1237.
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Since at least the 1938 publication of Hans Reichenbach’s Experience and Predication, there has been widespread agreement that, when discussing the beliefs that people have, it is important to distinguish contexts of discovery and contexts of justification. Traditionally, when one conflates the two contexts, the result is a “genetic fallacy”. This paper examines genealogical critiques and addresses the question of whether such critiques are fallacious and, if so, whether this vitiates their usefulness. The paper concludes that while there may be one or more senses in which genealogical critiques are fallacious, this does not vitiate their value.
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Birrell, Ross. „The Radical Negativity and Paradoxical Performativity of Postmodern Iconoclasm: Marcel Duchamp and Antonin Artaud“. Theatre Research International 25, Nr. 3 (2000): 276–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0307883300019738.
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‘Iconoclasm grew from the destruction of religious images and opposition to the religious use of images to, literally, the destruction of, and opposition to, any images or works of art and, metaphorically, the “attacking or overthrow of venerated institutions and cherished beliefs, regarded as fallacious or superstitious”’. Dario Gamboni.
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Afiyo, Assivon. „CONTRIBUTION DES VALEURS RELIGIEUSES AU DEVELOPPEMENT SOCIAL“. International Journal of Advanced Research 12, Nr. 01 (31.01.2024): 269–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.21474/ijar01/18118.
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The influence of religion on the development of a continent has always been a subject of reflection. In the African context, the vertiginous scale of the religious phenomenon links the underdevelopment of Africa to its belief that the failure to adopt an attitude of detachment from religious beliefs deemed superstitious and fallacious is preventing Africa from emerging. Despite a view that relegates the religious to the rank of retrograde forces, in Africa religious actors have always been vectors of social change and have been important for development initiatives. The aim of this research work is to show the significant contributions of religion to African development. From there, to indicate that development is only possible because of respect for values common to humanity, and these values are those that religion proposes to us.
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Pimenova, Oxana. „Argument Continuities in theory and practice“. Journal of Argumentation in Context 11, Nr. 2 (06.10.2022): 200–242. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/jaic.21009.pim.
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Abstract Argumentation on some public policy issues is conjugated with disagreement and power differentials. Institutionally dominant arguers control the argumentation context through imposing authority rules which sometimes incentivize them to respond to opposing arguers in a fallacious way1 – with “the repeating tokens of the same counterarguments” and without considering the merits of opposing arguments. As produced in accordance with authority rules, such fallacies are embedded in the dominant argumentative discourse and easily pass unnoticed. To detect them, I introduce Argument Continuity (AC) – a new category of argumentative discourse analysis. AC is a set of the same arguments and counterarguments repeatedly produced/reproduced by the dominant arguer through an adversarial reasoning process to disconfirm opposing arguments and dismiss them. ACs are distinguished from other fallacies by their continuous nature and recursive way of production. ACs have their own life cycle – a chain of reasoning dynamics developing in a path-dependent fashion and increasing the cost of adopting a certain argument over time. I test the life cycle of ACs in a single case study – in consultations held by the Crown with Indigenous peoples of Canada over a controversial resource development project. Although ACs are not specific to the Crown-Indigenous relationships, they reveal how dominant arguers treat disagreement from epistemically diverse arguers. Based on observed evidence, I develop three theoretical propositions of ACs, which can serve as guidelines for researching the disconfirming mode of reasoning in other contexts of communication permeated by beliefs clash and power asymmetries.
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Barker, Eileen. „Misconceptions of the Religious ‘Other’“. International Journal for the Study of New Religions 1, Nr. 1 (29.07.2010): 5–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/ijsnr.v1i1.5.
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In a world in which we are faced with an ever-increasing religious diversity, the underlying assumption of this paper is that logical thought combined with accurate and reliable knowledge can make a significant contribution to the reduction of conflicts that arise through fallacious arguments and through both ignorance and misinformation of the beliefs and practices of religions other than one’s own. The paper summarizes some of the challenges of religious pluralism, demonstrating how tensions can arise and be exacerbated through the construction of negative images of ‘the other’, and outlines some of the common misconceptions that have led to conflicts and the abuse of the human rights of members of minority religions.
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Armstrong, Tess, Matthew Rockloff, Matthew Browne und Alexander Blaszczynski. „Training gamblers to re-think their gambling choices: How contextual analytical thinking may be useful in promoting safer gambling“. Journal of Behavioral Addictions 9, Nr. 3 (12.10.2020): 766–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/2006.2020.00049.
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AbstractBackground and aimsHarmful gambling has been associated with the endorsement of fallacious cognitions that promote excessive consumption. These types of beliefs stem from intuitively derived assumptions about gambling that are fostered by fast-thinking and a lack of objective, critical thought. The current paper details an experiment designed to test whether a four-week online intervention to strengthen contextual analytical thinking in gamblers is effective in changing gamblers cognitions and encouraging safer gambling consumption.MethodsNinety-four regular gamblers who reported experiencing gambling-related harm were randomly allocated to either an experimental (n = 46) or control condition (n = 48), including 45 males, ranging from 19 to 65 years of age (M = 36.61; SD = 9.76). Following baseline measurement of gambling beliefs and prior week gambling consumption, participants in the experimental condition were required to complete an adaption of the Gamblers Fallacy Questionnaire designed to promote analytical thinking by educating participants on common judgement errors specific to gambling once a week for four weeks. Post-intervention measures of beliefs and gambling consumption were captured in week five.ResultsThe experimental condition reported significantly fewer erroneous cognitions, greater endorsement of protective cognitions, and reduced time spent gambling post-intervention compared to baseline. The control group also reported a reduction in cognitions relating to predicting and controlling gambling outcomes.ConclusionCognitive interventions that encourage gamblers to challenge gambling beliefs by reflecting on gambling involvement and promoting critical thinking may be an effective tool for reducing the time people invest in gambling activities.
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Stevens, Katharina. „Sophisms and Contempt for Autonomy“. Philosophy & Rhetoric 57, Nr. 3 (Dezember 2024): 333–46. https://doi.org/10.5325/philrhet.57.3.0333.
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ABSTRACT Argumentation theory tends to treat the distinction between intentional and unintentional fallacies—sophisms and paralogisms—as unimportant for the evaluation of argumentation. The article author believes this is so because argumentation theory tends to be focused on the epistemic functions of argumentation and fallacious arguments pose the same threat to the production of epistemic goods whether they are intentional or not, so the distinction is not needed for the epistemic evaluation of argumentation. This article argues that argumentation has a special connection to respect for autonomy, one that enables it to also produce distinctly moral goods. Sophisms, but not paralogisms, spoil these goods. Worse—sophisms produce potentially continuing moral harms, while paralogisms do not. Therefore, the paralogism/sophism distinction should be reintegrated into argumentation theory’s evaluative toolbox.
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Adler, Jonathan. „Reasoning and Lapses in James’ The Will to Believe“. History of Philosophy and Logical Analysis 15, Nr. 1 (05.04.2012): 387–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.30965/26664275-01501016.
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James’ The Will to Believe is the most influential writing in the ethics of belief. In it, James defends the right and rationality to believe on non-evidential grounds. James’ argument is directed against Clifford’s “Evidentialism” presented in The Ethics of Belief in which Clifford concludes that “[i]t is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone, to believe anything upon insufficient evidence”. After an overview of the James-Clifford exchange and James’ argument, I reconstruct his argument in detail. Subsequently, I examine four steps in James’ argument, and try to show that these amount to fallacies – enticing to reason, but not cogent.
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Fait, Paolo. „The “false validating premiss” in Aristotle’s doctrine of fallacies“. History of Philosophy and Logical Analysis 15, Nr. 1 (05.04.2012): 238–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.30965/26664275-01501010.
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In Sophistical Refutations 8 Aristotle claims that every sophistical refutation depends on a false belief which is implicitly held by the victim of the fallacy and can normally be elicited from him as an explicit additional premiss. In this case the fallacious argument will be turned into a valid one, albeit with a false premiss (a FVP “False Validating Premiss”, as I call it). The paper discusses the nature of the FVP and tries to discover how it works when it tacitly causes the false appearance of a fallacious argument.
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Desmond, Matthew, und Mustafa Emirbayer. „WHAT IS RACIAL DOMINATION?“ Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 6, Nr. 2 (2009): 335–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1742058x09990166.
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AbstractWhen students of race and racism seek direction, they can find no single comprehensive source that provides them with basic analytical guidance or that offers insights into the elementary forms of racial classification and domination. We believe the field would benefit greatly from such a source, and we attempt to offer one here. Synchronizing and building upon recent theoretical innovations in the area of race, we lend some conceptual clarification to the nature and dynamics of race and racial domination so that students of the subjects—especially those seeking a general (if economical) introduction to the vast field of race studies—can gain basic insight into how race works as well as effective (and fallacious) ways to think about racial domination. Focusing primarily on the American context, we begin by defining race and unpacking our definition. We then describe how our conception of race must be informed by those of ethnicity and nationhood. Next, we identify five fallacies to avoid when thinking about racism. Finally, we discuss the resilience of racial domination, concentrating on how all actors in a society gripped by racism reproduce the conditions of racial domination, as well as on the benefits and drawbacks of approaches that emphasize intersectionality.
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Kelleher, Martin G., und Igor R. Blum. „Facts and Fallacies About Restorative Philosophies for the Management of the Worn Dentition“. Primary Dental Journal 9, Nr. 1 (März 2020): 27–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2050168420911018.
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This article addresses facts and fallacies about managing worn teeth and challenges some traditional concepts and beliefs about occlusion. Whilst it is accepted that many of the historic occlusal concepts were well intended, closer examination reveals that many were unnecessarily destructive of sound tooth tissues and did not deliver all of their purported benefits. Those fallacies make them less appropriate in the litigious environment of contemporary dental practice. This paper discusses the disadvantages of ‘subtractive’ dental procedures for the management of tooth wear, and highlights the benefits of proven minimally destructive ‘additive’ techniques.
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Seremeta, Ermioni, Monique Flecken und Corina Andone. „Fallacies and biases“. Pragmatics & Cognition 31, Nr. 1 (11.10.2024): 244–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/pc.00046.ser.
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Abstract When processing political arguments, people are strongly affected by their prior ideological beliefs. Political cognition often relies on two types of ideological biases. Firstly, confirmation bias leads addressees of political communication to accept arguments that affirm their preferred ideological positions. Secondly, disconfirmation bias probes reasoners to reject arguments that provide attitudinally incongruent evidence. Here, we report the findings of an experiment aimed at investigating the role of biased reasoning on perceptions of argument soundness. We focused on the processing of the strawman fallacy to determine whether strawman effectiveness is contingent upon the activation of different ideological biases. We examined argument comprehension, argument evaluation and fallacy identification by means of a memory task, a rating task and an interview. Our data suggests that ideological biases and fallacy effect are associated with deliberative cognitive settings and marks a distinction between evaluative attitudes and the capacity to identify fallacies in political argumentation.
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Double, Richard. „Informal fallacies in James's the will to Believe“. Think 2, Nr. 6 (2004): 29–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1477175600002773.
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LIAN, Zelei. „Debate over Post-Mortem Existence and Thrifty Burial in Wang Chong’s Lunheng“. Asia-Pacific Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 3, Nr. 1 (15.03.2023): 069–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.53789/j.1653-0465.2023.0301.009.
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Han China （202 BCE-220 CE） is a haunted world filled with spirits, demons, and ghosts of all kinds, whose influence is felt everywhere. In a time when variegated theories on the spirit world and mortuary traditions vie with each other for prominence, Wang Chong (27-ca. 100 CE), a most original philosopher, offers his systematic treatment of these contentious issues. Writing in a lively style with passion, reason, and patience, Wang Chong actively engages himself in these debates and applies organized and meticulous inquiry to tell fallacies of belief from what he believes to be the truth. This paper examines Wang Chong’s arguments on post-mortem existence and thrifty burial in detail and pays special attention to the strengths and weaknesses of his thesis.
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Agustin, Karina Estiani, Novita Triana und Nasrullah -. „Logical fallacy in speakers’ arguments: what do we learn from final round debate of NUDC“. Journal of English Teaching, Applied Linguistics and Literatures (JETALL) 7, Nr. 2 (31.10.2024): 205. https://doi.org/10.20527/jetall.v7i2.20713.
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In debate, speakers often employ logical fallacies to bolster their statements in order to secure victory by persuasively introducing a collection of factual or belief errors. Numerous studies have analyzed the use of logical fallacies, primarily in presidential debates and public figures’ speeches. However, there has been limited research specifically investigating the logical fallacies in students' debates. Therefore, this research aimed to examine the arguments presented by the speakers in the final round debate at NUDC. The objective is to identify and categorize the logical fallacies present in the arguments. The study employed descriptive-qualitative method. The data was taken from recorded video and transcript of the argument featuring eight speakers among NUDC’s finalists. The data are reduced and organized into arguments containing only logical fallacies. They are classified into Damer’s category of arguments. The study reveals that eight fallacies were identified. The most prevalent types of fallacies were those that violated the relevant criterion. Meanwhile, the most frequently occurred fallacy types are manipulation of emotion, appeal to common opinion, and causal oversimplification. The findings suggest that students should be taught to construct effective arguments that are based on evidence and logic, rather than relying on emotional appeals or popular opinions.
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Shukla, Smita, und Priya M. Vaidya. „Analysis of the Role of Philosophical Counselling in Nurturing Dynamic Leadership“. International Journal of Philosophical Practice 10, Nr. 1 (2024): 212–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/ijpp202410112.
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The need to nurture dynamic leadership in all possible ways is felt all the more today in the world. Leadership must be aligned with the world where it can be stated that the world is too complex and is rapidly changing and hence, one person alone cannot provide all the answers. Dynamism in thought, word and action can certainly benefit the leader, the organization as well as the country in diverse ways. Leader can no longer be a person - a person who is in charge of a group and instead, the thought is that leadership can come from anyone. This means we need many leaders who are able to offer dynamic leadership that is needed in the modern age. Fallacious thinking most often leads to rigidity, self-centeredness, vindictiveness, biases, indifference in context to leadership are explicit today. For example, corruption, lack of commitment, opportunistic leadership etc. The possibility of nurturing dynamic leadership thought is an important proposition that this paper raises. This implies orienting leaders to eliminate fallacies and sharpen logical thinking in a gradual way. A good leader should exude integrity, self-awareness, courage, respect, empathy, and gratitude besides being an agile, effective delegator, and show the direction of growth. It is a belief that these key leadership qualities can be learned and improved through professional coaching, mentoring and counselling. Research indicates that value-based leadership generally leads to better decision-making, increased support for decisions and leader transparency, better follower morale, and opportunities to build trustworthy relationships. There is also a discussion that the leaders who appreciate the influence of servant leadership and emotional intelligence in their relationships have the potential to develop high-quality interpersonal relationships with all stakeholders. Hence, in view of leadership styles this paper is also an exploration of leadership styles that can be mentored through philosophical counselling.
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Ruiz-Palomino, Estefanía, Rafael Ballester-Arnal, Cristina Giménez-García und María Dolores Gil-Llario. „The teenage love: Do Spanish early-middle adolescents believe in the romantic love?“ Revista de Psicología Clínica con Niños y Adolescentes 8, Nr. 2 (Mai 2021): 51–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.21134/rpcna.2021.08.2.7.
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Romantic beliefs are associated to attachment anxiety, acceptability of abusive relationships and justification of violent behavior. Adolescence is a crucial stage for the consolidation of identity. The aim of this study is to analyze the myths of romantic love and examine gender differences among 448 Spanish early-middle adolescents (M = 12.92; SD = 0.85) that were attending the first and second year of the Spanish secondary education. The Myths, Fallacies and Misconceptions about Romantic Love Scale by Luzón et al. (2011) was administered in the classrooms during tutoring hours and was supervised by a group of psychologists. Results showed that out of the total of 18 myths of romantic love in the evaluation, the average number that the adolescents said they believed in was 9.03 (SD = 3.13). The highest scores were obtained in factors named “Love implies possession and exclusivity” and “True love is predestined”. The better-half myth, the myth of jealousy and the idea of love between couples is the fundamental reason behind the existence were the most frequent beliefs. Statistically significant gender differences were found. Adolescent males reported that they believed in a higher number of myths of romantic love and obtained the highest percentages in most beliefs in myths. Findings show shows that biases and fallacies related to romantic love have already been formed in early adolescence and that appears differentially according to gender. These results can be useful in the planning and design of preventive programs
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BEAUMONT, TIM. „J.S. Mill on Calliclean Hedonism and the Value of Pleasure“. Dialogue 58, Nr. 3 (10.04.2018): 553–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0012217318000173.
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Maximizing Hedonism maintains that the most pleasurable pleasures are the best. Francis Bradley argues that this is either incompatible with Mill’s Qualitative Hedonism, or renders the latter redundant. Some ‘sympathetic’ interpreters respond that Mill was either a Non-Maximizing Hedonist or a Non-Hedonist. However, Bradley’s argument is fallacious, and these ‘sympathetic’ interpretations cannot provide adequate accounts of: Mill’s identification with the Protagorean Socrates; his criticisms of the Gorgian Socrates; or his apparent belief that Callicles is misguided to attempt to show that the pleasures of the intelligent can be more valuable than the pleasures of fools without also being more pleasurable.
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HERSHENOV, DAVID B., und ADAM P. TAYLOR. „Split brains: no headache for the soul theorist“. Religious Studies 50, Nr. 4 (03.04.2014): 487–503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0034412514000109.
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AbstractSplit brains that result in two simultaneous streams of consciousness cut off from each other are wrongly held to be grounds for doubting the existence of the divinely created soul. The mistake is based on two related errors: first, a failure to appreciate the soul's dependence upon neurological functioning; second, a fallacious belief that if the soul is simple, i.e. without parts, then there must be a unity to its thought, all of its thoughts being potentially accessible to reflection or even unreflective causal interactions. But a soul theorist can allow neurological events to keep some conscious thoughts unavailable to others.
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Washburn, David A. „What Monkeys Can Do“. Teaching of Psychology 24, Nr. 1 (Februar 1997): 61–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009862839702400118.
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Many students believe that nonhuman animals are either irreconcilably different from humans or are comparable to humans in almost every way. It is important to identify and challenge these fallacious biases, particularly for classes in which animal behavior is discussed. A computerized (MS-DOS) laboratory exercise addressed this and other course goals. Student evaluations indicated that the activity is useful for augmenting textbook information, challenging these misconceived notions, and spawning classroom discussion about the existence and meaning of important species similarities and differences.
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Hasanović, Bilal. „MESSAGE CONVEYED THROUGH SOME AYATS THAT INCLUDE DERIVED FORMS OF THE TERMS CALL, INVITE, REQUEST“. Zbornik radova Islamskog pedagoškog fakulteta u Zenici (Online), Nr. 7 (15.12.2009): 197–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.51728/issn.2637-1480.2009.197.
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Qur’anic terms de'ā, jed'ū, da'vetun, du'āu and their derived forms have been used in over two hundred ayats that speak about belief in Allah, Righteous Path and Truth. In these ayats people are invited to advocate Truth, to do good deeds, and to avow that they are Muslims. They emphasize Allah’s closeness to people. He requests for people to address Him, to honestly believe in Him, to believe their prayer will be answered. These ayats also speak about man’s ingratitude towards Allahu, dž.š., when He saves him form difficulties; about man’s backslide into previous fallacies. They further speak about man’s inability to create even a smallest insect. Individuals and groups are urged to invite people to preach about good deeds and to condemn bad ones, and to communicate with each other in a best possible way. The ayats further speak about Allah’s, dž.š., beautiful names, their meaning and the possibility of their use, and about man’s inability to compose anything even remotely close to Qur’an. In the end, the last short ayat speaks about unrivaled phenomenon of Qur’anic Revelation. Key words: de'ā, jed'ū, da'vetun, du'ā'u, Allah, Prophet, Qur'an, Hadith, Righteous Path, mission, phenomenon, cosmos.
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Shrestha, Rabindra Man. „Dental Journalism: Finding Fact, Fiction, Fallacies, Fraud…“. Orthodontic Journal of Nepal 5, Nr. 1 (07.02.2015): 5–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ojn.v5i1.14491.
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According to an opinion poll doctors topped the list among various professionals whom the public believe the most in telling truth; while journalists were on the bottom of the list. The MORI poll carried on behalf of British Medical Association showed that 87% believe doctors don’t lie, while 85% assume journalists don’t report truth. Surfacing amidst the trust bestowed upon the doctors and mistrust for the journalists, this article attempts to explain various aspects of dental journalism.
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Djuric, Drago, und Sladjana Djuric. „Political beliefs, “catch-all” populism, and political fideism: The leader-centric propaganda model“. Theoria, Beograd 66, Nr. 3 (2023): 141–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/theo2303141d.
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In this paper, we will attempt to consider the issue of constructing and justifying political beliefs under the conditions of populist politics and authoritarian regimes. We will address the non-ideological nature of the so-called ?catch-all? populism, attempts to exclude the educated and intellectual elite from public political life, and the use of certain informal logical fallacies in the development of a populist propaganda model. We will also point out the similarities between religious and political propaganda. In this regard, we will try to interpret the leader-centric propaganda model from the perspective of Leibnizian theodicy and, relying on Wittgenstein?s religious fideism, introduce the category of political fideism as a way to better understand the effects of populist-leader propaganda.
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Tang, Winson Y. H. „The Case of Mr. H: Applying Buddhism in LBT“. International Journal of Philosophical Practice 4, Nr. 4 (2018): 55–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/ijpp2018445.
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In this paper, I discuss how the six-steps procedure of LBT can be applied to the case of Mr. H., who believes that it is reasonable for him to feel hopeless for his future. During the practicum session, we explore his emotional reasoning, identify and refute cardinal fallacies in the premises, and identify guiding virtues according to the fallacies. Further, according to Mr. H’s preference, we explore and apply the uplifting philosophy associated with the ideas of Buddhism. I conclude the paper with reflections on how both Mr. H and myself learnt from this valuable experience.
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Conces, Rory J., und Matthias J. Walters. „Something Called the ‘False Dilemma Fallacy’ (FDF): A Return to Formalization Just This Time“. Informal Logic 43, Nr. 2 (15.06.2023): 280–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.22329/il.v43i2.7171.
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This work is a revision of the False Dilemma Fallacy (FDF). The formalized model (FM)of this fallacy has as its centerpiece a valid disjunctive syllogism, but the disjunctive premise is presumed to be false, thus making the argument unsound. Our revised model (FM2.0) focuses on the formal structure by comparing the given vs. the real argument, which is unsound because of its invalidity. This approach we believe is more pedagogically useful and a better explanation of the fallacious nature of the FDF. It extends the identity of “formal fallacy” to the FDF. The abstract is formatted in two columns. The English abstract goes on this side.
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Sony, Michael, und Neeta Baporikar. „Fallacies in Decision Making From an Asian Perspective“. International Journal of Asian Business and Information Management 12, Nr. 3 (Juli 2021): 117–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijabim.20210701.oa8.
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Decision making is integral for organizational success, and for that, the basic tenet is rationality. Yet, no decisions in the workplace are purely rational. Irrational decision-making behaviours are the irrational beliefs of employees. Irrational employee behaviours can cause a billion dollar revenue loss. The purpose of this paper is to study the complex employee phenomenon of workplace irrational decision making and unearth its dimensions. Hence, this study is envisaged as a lived experience using interpretative phenomenological analysis. Participation was by 123 employees working in various capacities in Western India through theoretical sampling frame. The results indicate that it is a multidimensional phenomenon, and prominent are religious, pseudo-scientific, and sorcery-based behaviours. Thus, these findings can help the organizations to understand the irrational behaviours of employees and aid managers to recognize the decisions of their employees to mitigate the bias in irrational decisions.
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Aytaç, Uğur. „Two Conceptions of Legitimacy: A Response to Fabian Wendt's Moralist Critique of Political Realism“. KRITERION – Journal of Philosophy 31, Nr. 3 (01.09.2017): 57–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/krt-2017-310304.
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Abstract Fabian Wendt [20] argues that political realism is not capable of explaining how the state's moral right to rule over its subjects is generated. I believe that Wendt's criticism is not sound because his position relies on the false implicit assumption that realism and moralism ask the same philosophical questions on state authority. I contend that it is fallacious to evaluate the realist account of legitimacy by the standards of moralism, and vice versa, as these two accounts arrive at different conceptions of legitimacy by raising different sets of philosophical questions. The two sets of philosophical questions are not reducible to each other. The realist account of legitimacy does not aim to explain what the moralist account of legitimacy aims to explain.
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Kelleher, Martin G. D., Hui Lynn Ooi und Igor R. Blum. „Facts and Fallacies About Occlusal Philosophies for Full Mouth Rehabilitation“. Primary Dental Journal 10, Nr. 1 (März 2021): 101–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2050168420981529.
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This article reviews various full mouth rehabilitation occlusal concepts along with their main beliefs and controversies. Many of those occlusal teachings were well-meant at the time they were introduced. However, closer examination reveals that many of them involved serious destruction of sound tooth tissue – without delivering many of their purported benefits. The biologic and structural disadvantages of ‘subtractive’ dental procedures, which were, and still are, undertaken to provide traditional full mouth rehabilitation are discussed. Those approaches are contrasted with the proven advantages of minimally destructive additive techniques, which can solve frequently encountered clinical problems previously deemed to require traditional ‘full mouth rehabilitations’. Pragmatic clinical cases are used to illustrate how to solve common clinical problems by using minimally destructive means, without causing structural damage to residual sound tooth tissue.
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Neuringer, Charles. „The Meaning Behind Popular Myths about Suicide“. OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying 18, Nr. 2 (März 1988): 155–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/rghw-w8jt-8j6v-lqaj.
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The realization that another person chooses to end his life is both horrifying and mysterious to most human beings, because suicide defies the prime law of nature (i.e., survival) and raises doubts about the worth of living. In order to reduce psychological perturbation, we develop a set of myths (or false beliefs) about suicide which serve to deflect us from facing basic issues about life and death and thus maintain a sense of inner comfort. Several common human-serving fallacies about suicide are examined as to their validity and are discussed in terms of how they operate to reduce anxiety about questions of life and death.
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Weinstock, Michael P. „Psychological Research and the Epistemological Approach to Argumentation“. Informal Logic 26, Nr. 1 (10.02.2008): 103. http://dx.doi.org/10.22329/il.v26i1.435.
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Much psychological research on argumentation focuses on persuasion and pragmatics. However, one strand investigates how average people understand the nature of knowledge and knowing, and how these epistemological orientations underlie skilled argumentation. The research reviewed addresses the question whether the normative emphasis of the philosophical epistemological approach to argumentation matches psychological findings. The empirical research reviewed concerns the relationship between personal episte- mological understanding and three aspects of argument: argument construction, identification of informal reasoning fallacies, and orientation toward explanation or evidence. Findings suggest that people develop an epistemological approach toward argumentation in which beliefs about knowledge justification requirements are related with skilled argumentation.
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Harris, Keith. „What's Epistemically Wrong with Conspiracy Theorising?“ Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplement 84 (November 2018): 235–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1358246118000619.
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AbstractBelief in conspiracy theories is often taken to be a paradigm of epistemic irrationality. Yet, as I argue in the first half of this paper, standard criticisms of conspiracy theorising fail to demonstrate that the practice is invariably irrational. Perhaps for this reason, many scholars have taken a relatively charitable attitude toward conspiracy theorists and conspiracy theorising in recent years. Still, it would be a mistake to conclude from the defence of conspiracy theorising offered here that belief in conspiracy theories is on an epistemic par with belief in other theories. I argue that a range of epistemic errors are pervasive among conspiracy theorists. First, the refusal of conspiracy theorists to accept the official account of some target event often seems to be due to the exercise of a probabilistic, and fallacious, extension of modus tollens. Additionally, conspiracy theorists tend to be inconsistent in their intellectual attention insofar as the effort they expend on uncovering the truth excludes attention to their own capacities for biased or otherwise erroneous reasoning. Finally, the scepticism with which conspiracy theorists tend to view common sources of information leaves little room for conspiracy theorists to attain positive warrant for their preferred explanations of target events.
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Iqbal, Muhammad Mazhar, und Anwar Shah. „Economic Rationale of the Prohibition of Interest“. Islamic Studies 58, Nr. 4 (31.12.2019): 503–17. https://doi.org/10.52541/isiri.v58i4.731.
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Conventional economist, in particular neo-classical, assumes that self-interest is the guiding principle of economic behaviour and there exist no fallacies of composition. That is, whatever is in the interest of an individual is also in the interest of a society. Keynesian school of thought, on the other hand, though admits fallacies of composition such as “paradox of thrift” and “liquidity trap,” but they believe that such anomalies can be resolved by appropriate government intervention. History has, however, shown that government intervention, on average, worsens the issues of an economy instead of resolving it. One such issue which could not be resolved through government intervention is of “interest.” In this paper we investigate that why interest requires divine intervention for its prohibition. After explaining the economic rationale of prohibition of interest from Islamic perspective, we show through numerical illustration that how interest-based investment project, on one side, allows individual lenders to shift risk to borrowers and on the other side, generates a negative externality in the shape of financial and bankruptcy risk, which is an addition to the investment risk for the stakeholders of interest based investment. This might be one of the reasons that all divine religion including Islam give more weight to the societal or other stakeholders’ interests than the interest of lenders only and prohibit interest based lending completely. We conclude that Islam not only admits the existence of fallacies of composition, as do Keynesian school of thought, but also takes steps to resolve such fallacies through divine rules.
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EDWARDS, PAUL J. „SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTION NOISE REVISITED: WHERE HAVE ALL THE PHYSICAL NOISE SOURCES GONE?“ Fluctuation and Noise Letters 01, Nr. 03 (September 2001): C15—C19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219477501000421.
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The distinction between "physical" and "equivalent" noise sources in bipolar junction transistors and other semiconductor devices has become blurred in the current engineering textbooks. An unfortunate consequence of this is the emergence in the literature of fictitious noise sources such as the "the collector-current shot noise" and the "base-current shot noise". These are often assigned a physical reality and incorrectly treated as real physical noise sources, independent of circuit topology. Text-books have encouraged successive generations of students in this belief. Non-physical noise sources such as these are convenient and legitimate, even essential, for the effective modeling and simulation of circuit noise. However their naïve use in teaching and research is likely to continue to give rise to fallacious concepts and misleading conclusions. The physical. The physical modeling of the light-emitting diode, the photon transport transistor and the bipolar junction transistor are briefly discussed to illustrate this view.
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Bednarik, Robert G. „Brain Disorder and Rock Art“. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 23, Nr. 1 (Februar 2013): 69–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s095977431300005x.
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Prompted by numerous endeavours to link a variety of brain illnesses/conditions with the introduction of palaeoart, especially rock art, the author reviews these proposals in the light of the causes of these psychiatric conditions. Several of these proposals are linked to the assumption that palaeoart was introduced through shamanism. It is demonstrated that there is no simplistic link between shamanism and brain disorders, although it is possible that some of the relevant susceptibility alleles might be involved in some shamanic experiences. Similarly, no connection between rock art and shamanism has been credibly demonstrated. Moreover, the time frame applied in all these hypotheses is fallacious for several reasons. These notions are all based on the belief that palaeoart was introduced by ‘anatomically modern humans’ and on the replacement hypothesis. Finally, the assumption that neuropathologies and shamanism preceded the advent of palaeoart is also suspect. These numerous speculations derive from neglect of the relevant empirical factors, be they archaeological or neurological.
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Webster, J. „Zoomorphism and anthropomorphism: fruitful fallacies?“ Animal Welfare 20, Nr. 1 (Februar 2011): 29–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0962728600002402.
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AbstractZoo- and anthropomorphism may both be scientific heresies but both may serve as a basis for thought (and real) experiments designed to explore our ability to assess quality of life as perceived by another sentient animal. Sentience, a major contributor to evolutionary fitness in a complex environment, implies ‘feelings that matter’. Strength of motivation is a measure of how much they matter. Since humans and most domestic animals share the property of sentience, it follows that some aspects of feeling may be similar, and where we differ, the differences may be of degree rather than absolute. One of the assumed absolutes that I shall challenge is the concept that non-human animals live only in the present. I explore how domestic animals may experience the feelings of hunger, pain, fear and hope. Hunger is indisputably a primitive sensation. Pain and fear are primitive sensations with emotional overtones. The problem is to discover how they may affect quality of life. Acute pain and fear are positive signals for action to avoid harm. These actions and their consequences (‘how well did I cope?’) will be committed to memory and affect how an animal feels when they recur, or it fears they may recur. Hope (and its antithesis, despair) are considered by many philosophers (who do not own dogs) as emotions restricted to humans since only we can imagine the future. However, by application of zoomorphism we may classify hope with hunger as a primitive feeling of dissatisfaction with the status quo. Either may lead to action directed towards the goal of feeling better or encourage the belief that things will get better (food will arrive). Both are feelings of expectation for the future modulated in the light of past experience. With all these four emotions quality of life may be expressed in terms of how well the animal feels it can cope, both in the present and in the future. When it feels it cannot cope, then it will suffer.
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Bouissac, Paul. „How plausible is the motherese hypothesis?“ Behavioral and Brain Sciences 27, Nr. 4 (August 2004): 506–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x04250117.
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Falk's hypothesis is attractive and seems to be supported by data from primatology and language acquisition literature. However, this etiological narrative presents a fairly low degree of plausibility, the result of two epistemological fallacies: an implicit reliance on a unilinear model of causality and the explicit belief that ontogeny is homologous to phylogeny. Although this attempt to retrace the early emergence of prelinguistic capacities in hominins falls short of producing a compelling argument, it does call attention to an aspect of linguistic behavior which may indeed have evolved under the pressure of nurturing constraints.
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Moniz, Melemaikalani. „Decolonizing the Mind as an Exercise of Ea“. International Journal of Legal Information 51, Nr. 1 (2023): 35–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jli.2023.12.
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Native Hawaiians believe that every person is born with a bowl of perfect light. It is in our bowl of perfect light that our mana or supernatural divine power grows in strength to gift us the capacity to defy what we've been indoctrinated to believe. While we alone place stones into our bowl of light, the effect of colonization is that we become weighed down by illusions and fallacies created by colonizers to compel us to betray our light. When we choose to grow our light, however, only a simple overturning of the bowl releases the stones. After the stones are released, our bowl of light can once more become free.
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Jilek, Wolfgang G. „Culture and Psychopathology Revisited“. Culture 3, Nr. 1 (02.12.2021): 51–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/1084158ar.
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The author presents examples of pathogenic influence of culture. He identifies specific pathogenic factors associated with rapid socio-cultural change affecting North American Indians and African populations and sketches the resulting typical psychopathological conditions: anomic depression in Amerindians, transient psychotic reactions (bouffée délirante) in Africans. Witchcraft and sorcery beliefs often characterize the clinical picture of psychotic reactions in “marginal” Africans and in transplanted South Europeans of tradition-directed background. Examples are provided which illustrate the emergence, metamorphosis and epidemic spreading of so-called “culture-bound syndromes” under changing socio-economic, cultural and political conditions. Ritualized possession and trance states, as well as religious rituals in general, are to be separated from psychopathological phenomena in order to avoid eurocentric and positivistic fallacies in psychiatric diagnosis.
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Goychuk, Igor. „Molecular machines operating on the nanoscale: from classical to quantum“. Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology 7 (03.03.2016): 328–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.3762/bjnano.7.31.
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The main physical features and operating principles of isothermal nanomachines in the microworld, common to both classical and quantum machines, are reviewed. Special attention is paid to the dual, constructive role of dissipation and thermal fluctuations, the fluctuation–dissipation theorem, heat losses and free energy transduction, thermodynamic efficiency, and thermodynamic efficiency at maximum power. Several basic models are considered and discussed to highlight generic physical features. This work examines some common fallacies that continue to plague the literature. In particular, the erroneous beliefs that one should minimize friction and lower the temperature for high performance of Brownian machines, and that the thermodynamic efficiency at maximum power cannot exceed one-half are discussed. The emerging topic of anomalous molecular motors operating subdiffusively but very efficiently in the viscoelastic environment of living cells is also discussed.
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Watson, Brenda. „THE DEFENSE OF ATHEISM“. Think 13, Nr. 37 (2014): 19–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1477175613000420.
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Reginald Williams in ‘The Case Against Theism’ (Think Autumn 2011) argued that the ‘empirically verifiable’ psychological need ‘to believe that good things exist when in fact they don't’ offers ‘the best reason anyone should expect’ for endorsing atheism over theism. My article outlines six objections to his thesis, questioning how empirically verifiable the evidence he adduces is, and pointing out various logical fallacies such as illicit use of generalizations and begging the question. It concludes that atheism needs defending on stronger grounds.
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Jansen, Henrike, und Maarten van Leeuwen. „‘Ik spreek namens miljoenen Nederlanders’ : Wilders’ presentatie van het populistische argument in het politieke debat“. Tijdschrift voor Taalbeheersing 42, Nr. 2 (01.07.2020): 205–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.5117/tvt2020.2.007.jans.
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Abstract ‘I speak on behalf of millions of Dutch people’: Wilders’ presentation of the populist argument in political debateThis study explores the ways in which the Dutch populist politician Geert Wilders formulates populist arguments, i.e. the argument by which it is claimed that if many people hold a certain standpoint, this standpoint should be accepted. A corpus study of 27 texts taken from the website of Wilders’ political party (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="www.pvv.nl">www.pvv.nl</ext-link>) reveals four characteristics of this presentation, which show a significant deviation of the way this type of argument is described in the handbooks: 1) absence of indicators, 2) implicit standpoint, 3) a wide range of verbs to indicate what ‘the people’ think or belief, 4) use of a construction in which the speaker functions as a mouthpiece (‘in the name of the people I say’). We claim that these characteristics makes a populist argument hard to identify and hypothesize that they may function as a disguised way for presenting a fallacious populist argument.
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Seyedy, Mahmud, Muhammad Bahrami und Muhammad Gorgin. „Criticism of the Ash'arites Theory on the Uncreatedness of Positive Attributes of God based on the Foundations of Transcendental Wisdom“. Kufa Journal of Arts 1, Nr. 45 (28.10.2021): 597–614. http://dx.doi.org/10.36317/kaj/2020/v1.i45.1748.
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Divine attributes and their relation to essence is one of the most fundamental theological issues in the Islamic world that the Qur'anic verses in this regard have led to its emergence among Muslim thinkers. Meanwhile, the Ash'arites believe that the divine positiveattributes are different fromessence and uncreated in time, and they have various arguments due to comparing the present with the absent, to carry attributeson each other and on divine essence, and on the uncreated essence of God. These arguments seem to be fallacious. Because the problem of the reasons for the first part is the lack of a comprehensive commonality between the two sides of the comparison, namely the uncreated and created being. The reference of attributes to one another and to the essence also implies the extensionalobjectivity and their conceptual difference, not the uncreatedness and the differences. The uncreatedness of God also requires the revoke of Mu’tazilite theory on the createdness of attributes, and it hasnothing to do with theiruncreatedness and differences
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Wibowo, Setyo. „Permasalahan Iman : Kritik Atas Iman Dalam Filsafat Barat dan Tawaran Jawaban“. Kanz Philosophia : A Journal for Islamic Philosophy and Mysticism 3, Nr. 1 (24.06.2013): 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.20871/kpjipm.v3i1.38.
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<div><p><strong>Abstract :</strong> Faith becomes problematic in our modern world. In the age of secularization and emancipation man masters the Nature with his growing reason and ever developing technology. This new situation brings with itself a discredit toward faith and religion. Without refusing the existence of God, Immanuel Kant declares that theology is a paralogism (a fallacious reasoning). Auguste Comte corners the religion in the realm of infantile age to be overcomed by the progress of science. Meanwhile Friedrich Nietzsche, from his own view, analyses that the phenomenon of fanatism in religion hides the uncontrallble “need to believe” typically found among the weaks.The central critique of Martin Heidegger toward ontotheological metaphysics shows that theology defined as science does not think. Man of faith has already all the answer before a question is posed, therefore he cannot truly pariticipate in the question of Being. This article tries to consider these objections against faith. As an answer, this article offers to acknowledge “the act of believe” as an universal disposition in man. Much wider than his need to possess knowledge, man is driven by a desire for the infinite. Faith resumes this human desire for infinite.</p><p><em>Keywords : Emancipation, theology, metaphysics, faith, knowledge, way of belief, act of belief, passivity, infinite horizon, anthropological disposision.</em></p><p><em><br /></em></p><p><strong>Abstrak :</strong> Iman menjadi problem di dunia modern. Gerak sekularisasi dan emansipasi manusia berkat perkembangan rasionya, yang tampak dalam penguasaan manusia atas alam lewat teknologi, membuat keyakinan pada Tuhan dianggap ketinggalan roh jaman. Meskipun tidak menolak Tuhan, Immanuel Kant menganggap bahwa teologi adalah sebuah paralogisme. Auguste Comte tegas-tegas mengatakan bahwa jaman teologi dan agama adalah era kekanak-kanakan yang harus dilampaui demi kemajuan jaman. Friedrich Nietzsche memperingatkan bahwa fanatisme dalam agama adalah tanda besarnya kebutuhan manusia untuk percaya, yang tidak lain adalah kelemahan diri manusia. Kritikan besar Martin Heidegger kepada metafisika onto-teologis semakin menunjukkan inferioritas iman di depan pemikiran. Beriman artinya tidak bisa berpikir secara sungguh-sungguh. Artikel ini hendak menimbang keberatan-keberatan atas iman di atas dan sekaligus menawarkan bahwa “tindak percaya” adalah sesuatu yang secara antropologis menjadi disposisi setiap manusia. Lebih luas daripada obsesi pada “pengetahuan”, manusia memiliki hasrat akan ketakterbatasan yang menemukan ekspresinya dalam apa yang kita sebut sebagai iman.</p><p><em>Kata kunci : Emansipasi, teologi, metafisika, iman, pengetahuan, cara beriman, tindak percaya, pasitivitas, horison ketakterbatasan, disposisi antropologis.</em></p></div>
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Nekhaev, Andrei V. „Kripke’s Evil Demon, Cartesian Semantics and Epistemic Supervenience“. Epistemology & Philosophy of Science 61, Nr. 2 (2024): 60–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/eps202461223.
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In his article Evgeny Borisov offers an original solution to Kripke’s sceptical problem of meaning. Its conceptual core is the point of view of the participant of speech acts. He believes that first-person statements of speech act participants like “I know for certain that the expression ‘e’ is used by me in the meaning of m” cannot carry any epistemic fallacies. As a criticism, I propose to point out that non-factual Cartesian semantics have serious epistemic flaws that make it vulnerable to sceptical attacks and accusations of petitio principii.
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Nalin, David R. „The History of Intravenous and Oral Rehydration and Maintenance Therapy of Cholera and Non-Cholera Dehydrating Diarrheas: A Deconstruction of Translational Medicine: From Bench to Bedside?“ Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease 7, Nr. 3 (12.03.2022): 50. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7030050.
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The “bench to bedside” (BTB) paradigm of translational medicine (TM) assumes that medical progress emanates from basic science discoveries transforming clinical therapeutic models. However, a recent report found that most published medical research is false due, among other factors, to small samples, inherent bias and inappropriate statistical applications. Translation-blocking factors include the validity (or lack thereof) of the underlying pathophysiological constructs and related therapeutic paradigms and adherence to faulty traditional beliefs. Empirical discoveries have also led to major therapeutic advances, but scientific dogma has retrospectively retranslated these into the BTB paradigm. A review of the history of intravenous (I.V.) and oral therapy for cholera and NDDs illustrates some fallacies of the BTB model and highlights pitfalls blocking translational and transformative progress, and retro-translational factors, including programmatic modifications of therapeutic advances contradicting therapeutic paradigms and medical economic factors promoting more expensive and profitable medical applications inaccessible to resource-limited environments.
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Brodeur, Jean-Paul. „Provocations“. Théories et recherches 19, Nr. 1 (16.08.2005): 141–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/017230ar.
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This paper is an attempt at the refutation of certain fallacies, which have gained a wide currency in legal and criminological thinking. These fallacies are the following. First, the mistaken interpretation of universal statements such as “Any person condemns murder” as the expression of a cross-cultural consensus about the blameworthiness of a certain type of behaviour; such statements, it is argued, are mere tautologies reflecting the cogency of our linguistic customs. Second, the erroneous belief that criminology can dogmatically account for the sum of the facts which appertain to its field of study, by means of a single, all-encompassing explanation; arguments are given to show that the fate of criminological studies is fragmentation. Third, it is argued that the criminal justice system should be conceived as an apparatus for social provocation rather than as institutionalized social reaction. Fourth, it is pointed out that we must draw an unambiguous distinction between the legal notion of a sentence and the intuitive notion of punishment; stressing this difference leads the author to compare briefly the main tenets of what he respectively calls dogmatic and sceptical criminology. Finally, the necessity to recognize as separate issues the justification and the allocation of criminal sanctions is proven and it is shown how the penal fascination with capital punishment is responsible for blurring the distinction between these issues.