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1
McCleary, Richard, David McDowall und Bradley J. Bartos. External Validity. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190661557.003.0009.
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A threat to external validity is any factor that limits the generalizability of an observed result. Unlike all threats to statistical conclusion and internal validities and some threats to construct validity, threats to external validity cannot ordinarily be controlled by design. Nor is there any disagreement on how threats to external validity should be controlled. In most instances, it can only be controlled by replication?—across subjects, situations and time frames. This seldom happens, unfortunately, because the academic incentive structure discourages replication. The contemporary “reproducibility crisis” was spurred by a collaborative group of social scientists attempting to replicate one hundred experimental and correlational studies published in three mainstream psychology journals. Sixty percent of replications failed to reproduce the published effect. Failures to control for threats to external validity that stem from uncontrolled variations in persons, situations, and time frames, parsimosniously explain the failure rate in this replication study.
2
Akyüz, Yilmaz. External Vulnerabilities. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198797173.003.0004.
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The deepened financial integration of EDEs has heightened their susceptibility to global financial shocks and increased the instability in their credit, assets, and currency markets. It has led to significant loss of autonomy over monetary policy and the entire spectrum of interest rates. At the same time, these countries are said to have become more resilient because they have adopted more flexible exchange rate regimes, accumulated large stocks of international reserves, and reduced their exposure to the exchange rate risk by shifting from foreign currency to local currency debt. This chapter critically examines these contentions and concludes that none of these practices provides adequate protection against external financial shocks, taking into account the new vulnerabilities entailed by the increased depth and changed pattern of integration, particularly greater presence of foreigners in domestic financial markets and of the nationals of emerging economies in markets abroad.
3
Metcalf, Michael, John Reid und Malcolm Cohen. Operations on external files. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198811893.003.0012.
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The means whereby an external file can be positioned or flushed are described, followed by full instructions on how to open or close a file, specifying as necessary any properties that are required. It is possible to inquire about these properties, and how this may be done is also described.
4
Slavin, Tanya. Verb stem formation and event composition in Oji-Cree. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198778264.003.0012.
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This chapter investigates the structure of the verb stem in Oji-Cree, a dialect of the Algonquian language Ojibwe. It argues that a stem constitutes an independent semantic domain that corresponds to an event. This conception of stems explains why certain roots, called weak roots, must be preceded by modifiers, thereby satisfying a so-called left-edge requirement, while other roots, called strong roots, have no such requirement. Weak roots are semantically deficient and the obligatory pre-radical modifier is necessary to create a complete event. In contrast, an (optional) modifier before a strong root has scope over a complete event. The difference is illustrated by the morpheme /caaki/ ‘all’. When it combines stem-internally, its scope is restricted to internal arguments. However, when it combines stem-externally, it can have a quantificational reading with scope over an external argument. The semantic difference between stem-internal and stem-external composition is also correlated with some phonological differences.
5
Wood, Jim, und Alec Marantz. The interpretation of external arguments. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198767886.003.0011.
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This chapter examines the syntactic and semantic properties of heads, e.g. Voice, Appl, and little p, that add participants to events. Instead of assuming that such heads exist as distinct primitives in the functional lexicon, it is proposed that there is one such head, which can get different interpretations depending on how it is merged into the structure. The chapter’s approach attributes the relative uniformity of the expression of argument structure to the principles that interpret syntactic structure semantically; thus, syntax is truly autonomous, with the atoms of syntactic representations carrying no inherent semantic values. Once syntactic heads are absolved from the necessity of explicitly carrying certain features relevant to their interpretation, a sparse inventory of functional heads can be developed. The system is applied to a set of constructions that present distinct challenges to theories that demand a kind of transparent reflection of argument structure in underlying syntactic representations.
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Eckes, Christina. EU Powers Under External Pressure. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198785545.001.0001.
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This book argues that external actions of the European Union result in an acceleration of national politics being locked into a tightening net of EU law. It brings to light the -hidden effects of EU external actions on, for example, the interpretation of organizational principles, pre-emption, and international obligations of the Member States. It then connects these effects to the broader debate on the democratic crisis, by engaging with the basic structures of the EU legal order and the Union’s relations with its citizens. The focus of this book is on the ‘outside-in’ effects of EU external relations. More specifically, the book sheds light on how the Union’s external actions affect the power division between the EU and its Member States, the structures that shape the relationship between the Union and its citizens, as well as the autonomy, effectiveness, and legitimacy of EU law. It examines, for example, the interpretation and potential of organizational principles, such as loyalty, subsidiarity, primacy, and coherence, in the context of external relations. It analyses how the choice of an external legal basis affects Member States’ powers. It traces how the European Parliament represents EU citizens in external relations. The book then analyses these legal findings through the lens of ‘structure of bonding’, that is, basic structures that have the potential to frame and affect the Union’s relations with its citizens. It shows how bonding structures could be used to justify that the Union takes external actions, including where they constrain Member States.
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Tesón, Fernando R. Between Internal and External Threats. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190202903.003.0009.
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How should we think about the morality of intervention? Since the morality of intervention is about striking a balance between internal and external threats to people’s rights and safety, a theory of intervention must take into account the nature and imperfections of our world, military capabilities, and the state system. This rules out certain alternative—more abstract or “idealized”—ways of thinking about these questions.
8
Allen, Cynthia L. Dative External Possessors in Early English. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198832263.001.0001.
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This book presents the results of a corpus-based case study of diachronic English syntax. Present Day English is in a minority of European languages in not having a productive dative external possessor construction. This construction, in which the possessor is in the dative case and behaves like an element of the sentence rather than part of the possessive phrase, was in variation with internal possessors in the genitive case in Old English, especially in expressions of inalienable possession. In Middle English, internal possessors became the only productive possibility. Previous studies of this development are not systematic enough to provide an empirical base for the hypotheses that have been put forward to explain the loss of external possessors in English, and these earlier studies do not make a crucial distinction among possessa in different grammatical relations. This book traces the use of dative external possessors in the texts of the Old and Early Middle English periods and explores how well the facts fit the major proposed explanations. A key finding is that the decline of the dative construction is visible within the Old English period and seems to have begun even before we have written records. Explanations that rely completely on developments in the Early Middle English period, such as the loss of case-marking distinctions, cannot account for this early decline. It does not appear that Celtic learners of Old English failed to learn the external possessor construction, but they may have precipitated the decrease in frequency in its use.
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Wouters, Jan, Frank Hoffmeister, Geert De Baere und Thomas Ramopoulos. The Law of EU External Relations. 3. Aufl. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198869481.001.0001.
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This unique compilation of materials, cases, and commentary on EU external relations law is both a valuable teaching tool for (post-)graduate courses and seminars on the foreign relations of the European Union, as well as an indispensable first initiation in the legal foundations of the external action of the Union for diplomats, civil servants, attorneys, and other practitioners. Apart from making accessible key primary materials such as EU Treaty provisions; judgments and opinions of the Court of Justice; legislation; agreements; and more obscure documents revealing the law in practice, the book includes concise, expert legal analysis of these materials. The third edition of the book incorporates more than ten years of fascinating dynamics since the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty. Apart from analysing the general basis of the Union’s external action and its relationship to international law, the book explores the law and practice of the EU in more specialized fields of external action, such as common commercial policy, neighbourhood policy, development cooperation, cooperation with third countries, humanitarian aid, external environmental policy, and common foreign and security policy, as well as EU sanctions. The chapters contain numerous cross-references with a view to facilitating the establishment of connections between different issues and fields of law. Annotations and materials are kept to what is strictly necessary to place them in their context and to clarify links to documents presented elsewhere in the book.
10
Stoneman, Paul, Eleonora Bartoloni und Maurizio Baussola. The Extent of Product Innovation. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198816676.003.0004.
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This chapter analyses data on indicators of the prevalence of product innovation. Analysis of survey data indicated that, in the three years before the 2012 CIS survey, about 25 per cent of all firms in the twenty-seven EU member states undertook product innovation. New-to-firm was more frequent than new-to-market. Differences across sectors, regions, and firm size are analysed. Further international comparisons are made. This analysis is supplemented by consideration of the extent of new product launches in a series of different industries using other data. It is observed that many new products are not significantly different from existing products. A prior study of barcode data indicates that over a nine-year period there was a 78 per cent entry rate for new products and a 72 per cent exit rate. The possibility of industry life cycles to which product innovation activity may be linked is also discussed.
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Palmer, Fiona M. Cultural demand and supply in an imperial trading centre. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199352227.003.0002.
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The Liverpool Philharmonic Society lies fifth in line among the oldest concert-giving organisations in Europe. This chapter, tapping the Society’s archive, examines the fundamental internal and external hierarchies which governed and shaped the early development of the Society’s orchestra. To what extent were core values dictated by external supply and demand and to what extent by the personal interests of the leading figures in the Society? What conclusions can be reached about the elements of Liverpool’s activities that were independently governed by local demands? Probing the social expectations and financial structures that underpinned the Society’s regulations, committees, income, expenditure, venues, audience, performers, repertoire and programming is revealing. It allows us to contextualize the issues facing those who promoted ‘the Science and Practice of Music’ in this prosperous commercial port. The operational models established in these early years laid the foundation for a Society whose orchestra continues to the present day.
12
McDermid, Douglas. Reid and the Problem of the External World. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789826.003.0004.
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The main purpose of this chapter is to understand how Thomas Reid (1710–96) understood what we now call ‘the problem of the external world’: the problem of whether we can have any knowledge of a material world if we have non-inferential knowledge of nothing but the subjective contents of our own minds. According to Reid, this sceptical problem is ill-posed: we do not need to prove the existence of the external world of matter any more than we need to prove the existence of the internal world of mind, since our belief in both is the direct effect of principles which we have by our very constitution. Hence Reid’s brand of common sense realism is best seen not as a solution to the problem of the external world, but as a denial of the Cartesian and representationalist assumptions which made that problem seem possible and urgent in the first place.
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Bátiz-Lazo, Bernardo. A Window to Internal and External Change in Banking. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198782810.003.0001.
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Chapter 1 (‘A Window to Internal and External Change in Banking’) provides a wide-arch view of the themes in the book. It highlights how in spite of being deeply embedded in our culture as an object of everyday life, the interaction with ATMs is largely inconsequential for most people. This chapter also forwards a case to study the ATM to better understand the possibilities for technological change to bring about a cashless economy. Another argument put forward is that the ATM is essential to appreciate the technological and organizational challenges that gave rise to self-service banking. As a result, the case is made that business histories of the late twentieth century will be incomplete without proper consideration to the impact of computer technology on the different aspects of business organizations.
14
Rinard, Susanna. External World Skepticism and Inference to the Best Explanation. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198746904.003.0013.
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The chapter presents three problems for IBE responses to skepticism. First, that the external world skeptic should also be a skeptic about the past. IBE responses that appeal to features of our experiences over time—such as their continuity or regularity—will be dialectically ineffective against such a skeptic, since they suspend judgment on propositions about their past experiences. Second, the chapter raises doubts about the claim that postulating external, mind-independent physical objects is the best way to explain our experiences. It is suggested that an idealist alternative may constitute an even better explanation. Finally, the chapter outlines what is, in the author’s view, the central problem for IBE responses to skepticism by formulating a principle in the spirit of the principle of indifference, and using it to make a case for the claim that explanatory goodness is not a guide to the truth.
15
Relatório Financeiro do Diretor e Relatório do Auditor Externo. 1º de janeiro de 2020 a 31 de dezembro de 2020. Pan American Health Organization, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.37774/9789275723982.
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Em 2020, a OPAS continuou a ser uma voz que representa a autoridade em termos de saúde na Região, oferecendo orientação política, estratégica e técnica para responder à pandemia da COVID‐19 entre os mais altos níveis de governo, agentes não estatais e a ONU e os Sistemas Interamericanos. Em linha com seus princípios de solidariedade e equidade, a OPAS instou pela unidade ao abordar o impacto da pandemia e ao oferecer acesso equitativo às ferramentas de resposta à COVID‐19, ao mesmo tempo em que defendeu a continuidade dos serviços de saúde essenciais para salvar vidas e mitigar os efeitos devastadores da pandemia sobre as conquistas obtidas a duras penas na saúde pública regional. A pandemia chamou a atenção para a necessidade de esforços acelerados, orientados por dados de qualidade, para reorganizar e ampliar a prestação de serviços de saúde para fazer face às necessidades impostas pelos casos de COVID‐19, incluído o atendimento intensivo, enquanto se mantinham os serviços essenciais de saúde em áreas como o diagnóstico e tratamento do câncer, a saúde mental, outras doenças não transmissíveis e as imunizações. Por meio de cooperação técnica, a OPAS continua a ser um catalisador para melhorar a saúde e o bem‐estar dos povos das Américas em colaboração com os Estados Membros e com os parceiros. As demonstrações financeiras e as notas às demonstrações financeiras foram preparadas em conformidade com as Normas Internacionais de Contabilidade do Setor Público (IPSAS) e o Regulamento Financeiro e as Regras Financeiras da OPAS.
16
Furst, Eric M., und Todd M. Squires. Active microrheology. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199655205.003.0007.
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Active microrheology uses external forces (most typically magnetic or optical) to force microrheological probes into motion. These techniques short-circuit the Einstein component of passive microrheology. Active microrheology provides an additional handle to probe material properties, and has been used both to extend the range of materials amenable to microrheological analysis, and to examine material properties that are inaccessible to passive microrheology. Three main topics are presented: the use of active microrheology to extend the range of passive microrheology, while maintaining many of the advantages (small sample size, wide frequency range, etc.); its use to complement passive microrheology in active systems, which convert chemical fuel to mechanical work, in order to elucidate the power provided by molecular motors, for instance; and its application (and potential limitations) to investigate the non-linear response properties of materials, including shear thinning and yielding.
17
Dubber, Markus D. America’s Internal Penal Exceptionalism. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198744290.003.0006.
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Part III of Dual Penal State uses dual penal state analysis to generate a comparative-historical account of American penality. With comparative glimpses at Germany and, to a lesser extent, England, it distinguishes between two responses to the shared challenge of legitimating state penal power in a modern liberal democratic state: (1) the failure to appreciate the legitimatory challenge of modern state penal power in particular (United States) and of modern state power in general (England); and (2) the failure to address the legitimatory challenge of modern state penal power as an ongoing existential threat to the legitimacy of the state (Germany). Chapter 5 differentiates between external and internal American penal exceptionalism. External exceptionalism focuses on the comparative harshness of American state punishment compared to other countries’ criminal justice systems. Internal exceptionalism, by contrast, highlights the exceptional status of state penal power within the American legal-political project.
18
Kelemen, R. Daniel. The Court of Justice of the European Union. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198795582.003.0010.
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This chapter focuses on the European Court of Justice (ECJ). Like any court, the ECJ has faced constraints in its external context, including constraints imposed by national governments and national courts. But overall, the ECJ has benefitted from a remarkably benign external environment. The ECJ has found much support from key actors including national governments, national courts, and members of the European legal field. In recent years the ECJ faces contextual challenges in its relationship with member governments, national courts, and the European legal field. New member governments with fragile democracies and questionable commitments to the rule of law may increasingly test the extent to which they can defy or evade EU law without incurring a robust response. Moreover, the growth and diversification of the European legal field and the encroachment of EU law on increasingly sensitive policy areas is likely to provoke more intense criticism of the Court.
19
Thurner, Paul W., und Wolfgang C. Müller, Hrsg. Comparative Policy Indicators on Nuclear Energy. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198747031.003.0003.
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This chapter provides an overview of the relevance of nuclear energy worldwide and especially in Europe (EU-27 + Switzerland) in the most recent decades. It presents the number of reactors currently connected to the grid and under construction as well as their capacities. It differentiates between nuclear energy’s contribution to gross inland energy consumption and to electricity production. These patterns are contrasted with the import dependency of countries. Counter-intuitively, it can be shown that import dependency does not explain the observed extent of the usage of nuclear energy. Rather there seem to be positive feedback processes between enhanced nuclear power usage, economic growth, and further reliance on external resources.
20
Ichikawa, Jonathan Jenkins. Evidence. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199682706.003.0004.
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This chapter offers a contextualist interpretation of Timothy Williamson's identification of evidence and knowledge (E=K); the result is a contextualist approach to “evidence” that matches the book's contextualist approach to “knows”. The resultant view is an attractive version of E=K that is resistant to many challenges in the literature. Evidence itself also has an important role to play in the book's relevant alternatives approach to knowledge; substantive questions about the nature and extent of basic evidence are foregrounded. The chapter departs from previous contextualist theories in embracing an externalist, disjunctivist conception of basic evidence, according to which perception directly delivers propositions about the external world as basic evidence.
21
Bongini, Paola, Annalisa Ferrando, Emanuele Rossi und Monica Rossolini. The Capital Markets Union and Firms’ Access to External Market-Based Finance. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198815815.003.0013.
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Firms’ access to capital markets among Eurozone countries is a challenging issue for the EU Capital Markets Union (CMU) agenda. We contribute to the current debate on the CMU by identifying the characteristics of firms that can be deemed ‘suitable’ for market-based finance. Using survey-based research, we show which firm-specific attributes and country-specific features foster a firm’s likelihood of accessing non-bank sources of finance. Our results reveal that a few Eurozone countries appear to have achieved high access to capital market financing, but there is substantial unexploited potential among firms fit for market-based finance. Our research also indicates that the macro business environment and conditions—such as GDP growth, the degree of development of domestic financial markets, and the quality of the legal and judicial enforcement system—significantly impact firms’ market suitability. Our results therefore can be linked to a number of goals of the CMU Action Plan.
22
Mizrahi, Vivian. Perceptual Media, Glass and Mirrors. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198722304.003.0012.
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In this chapter, I argue that perceptual media like air or water are imperceptible. I show that, despite their lack of phenomenological features, perceptual media crucially affect what we see by selecting what is perceptually available to the perceiver. In the second part of the chapter, I argue that mirrors are visual media like air, water, and glass. According to this account, mirrors are transparent and invisible and cannot therefore have a distinctive look or appearance. In the last part of the chapter, I extend the general account of perceptual media to the sense organs themselves by showing that perceptual media not only include external entities causally involved in the perceptual process but also comprise the perceptual system itself.
23
Orentlicher, Diane. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190882273.003.0001.
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This chapter previews the book’s recurring themes, highlighting the dynamic nature of an international court’s impact in countries directly affected by its work. The ICTY’s local impact has been a function not only of its own performance, but also of evolving social and political conditions in Bosnia and Serbia. Those conditions have, in turn, have been influenced by the policies of external actors, including the European Union and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The introduction also highlights the book’s contributions to two related questions: (1) What goals should be ascribed to international criminal courts?; and (2) Under what conditions, and to what extent, can international justice advance aims widely associated with home-grown measures of transitional justice?
24
Stoneman, Paul, Eleonora Bartoloni und Maurizio Baussola. Empirical Evidence on the Determination of the Extent of Product Innovation. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198816676.003.0008.
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This chapter considers determinants of product innovation across and within firms. Firms that are innovative in one dimension are also innovative in others; thus both what distinguishes the innovating firm and the literature based upon the analysis of various innovation indicators can give insight into the determinants of product innovation. It is concluded that (i) technological characteristics of industries matter; (ii) firm and market characteristics are related, but not linearly, to innovation; (iii) the two most important firm characteristics are internal finance and sales; (iv) there is an inverted U-curve relationship between competition and R&D; (v) competition in foreign markets is predominantly found to have positive effects on innovation at home; (vi) there are various spillover effects. Survey data on the constraints to innovation indicate that the issues considered to be of main importance are (i) innovation costs; (ii) risk and finance; and (iii) the availability of qualified labour.
25
Benvenisti, Eyal, und Georg Nolte. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198825210.003.0001.
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The Introduction describes the term “community interests” for the purpose of exploring the extent to which states owe duties toward those who are affected by their actions and omissions. It argues that the relevant “communities” which are envisaged by the book extend beyond the “international community of states” to cover individuals and groups, even when their interests were not taken into account at the negotiation table or in policymaking bodies. The community can also be humanity at large, as reflected in the concept of crimes against humanity. As far as “community interests” are concerned, the Introduction explores questions related to the identification of these interests, the prioritization among them and their achievement. The Introduction outlines a typology of duties states might have toward others.
26
Griller, Stefan, Walter Obwexer und Erich Vranes. Mega-Regional Trade Agreements. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198808893.003.0001.
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This chapter examines the extent to which mega-regional agreements constitute new orientations for EU external relations. It focuses on CETA, TTIP, and TiSA, which are the most important instruments in the context of mega-regional initiatives from the viewpoint of the EU, placing them, however, in the broader context of other mega-regional initiatives such as TPP and the RCEP. This chapter explains the main motivations underlying the worldwide move to regional agreements in the course of the last ten to fifteen years and expounds the main functions of mega-regional agreements. Furthermore, it sketches out the principal (geo-)political implications of today’s prime mega-regional projects. Finally, this introductory chapter argues that the reorientation attempted with these initiatives calls for a re-evaluation in view of the problematic experiences made during the negotiations on CETA and TTIP, in particular.
27
Brunsson, Nils. Reform and Power. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198296706.003.0007.
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The essential idea behind organizational reform is that reformers are powerful — that they can freely choose and create new forms that improve operations and lead to better results. Drawing on observations in previous chapters, this chapter examines the extent to which this idea is a realistic one. It begins by examining the assumption of the reformers’ power over organizational forms and operations, discussing the causes of reforms, their contents, and their consequences. It then considers the role of reforms in image building, and questions the assumption that reforms are primarily a matter of change. It is argued that reformers have limited power in reform processes. Reforms are initiated by other processes than by the intervention of reformers. The content of reforms is decided by institutionalized belief systems and by standards produced by external experts rather than by reformers.
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MacNaughton, Gillian, und Mariah McGill. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190672676.003.0022.
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For over two decades, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) has taken a leading role in promoting human rights globally by building the capacity of people to claim their rights and governments to fulfill their obligations. This chapter examines the extent to which the right to health has evolved in the work of the OHCHR since 1994, drawing on archival records of OHCHR publications and initiatives, as well as interviews with OHCHR staff and external experts on the right to health. Analyzing this history, the chapter then points to factors that have facilitated or inhibited the mainstreaming of the right to health within the OHCHR, including (1) an increasing acceptance of economic and social rights as real human rights, (2) right-to-health champions among the leadership, (3) limited capacity and resources, and (4) challenges in moving beyond conceptualization to implementation of the right to health.
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Kenny, Neil. Relevance Theory and the Effect of Literature on Beliefs. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198794776.003.0005.
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To what extent does literature affect our beliefs about the real world? Relevance theory offers new ways of exploring that old question. That is partly because relevance theory embraces the whole communications circuit: it tracks the communication of meaning from author via text to reader, rather than focusing on just one of those phases. It can also describe how unintended meaning can be inferred by readers. The question of the effect of literature upon beliefs is explored through one case study (Adventures of Tom Sawyer) and through various notions drawn from relevance theory: cognitive environments; contextual assumptions; implicatures; internal and external relevance; epistemic vigilance. It is argued that the evanescence or durability of any effects that literature may have upon readers’ beliefs can be investigated by combining those relevance-theoretic notions with ones drawn from certain other cognitive or literary-critical approaches: immersion; kinesis; perceptual simulation; tagging.
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Silva, Sandra Célia Coelho Gomes da. Dupla quarentena: (Re)signific(ação). Brazil Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.31012/978-65-5861-036-6.
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Essa obra é o resultado de duas fases de distanciamento social sem isolamento social de vida, emergidas por questões de doença(acidente) e manutenção da saúde.. Daí o nome Dupla Quarentena, instigando uma reflexão a partir de situações experienciadas e ressignificadas, abordando um processo de reabilitação interno e externo, resultante de uma caminhada nesses dois âmbitos. Não perdendo os parâmetros acadêmicos, esse livro é um pouco de minha trajetória de distanciamento social, durante essas duas fases de vida que me trouxeram muitas inquietações, reflexões, ressignificações materializadas em ações. O que me levou a um procedimento de transformação, mudança e autoconhecimento. As reflexões apresentadas na obra, serão desenvolvidas, por meio das seguintes palavras ACIDENTE/INCIDENTE, FAMIL(ARES), (RE)ADPT(AÇÃO), AMIZADES, DISTANCIAMENTO, CON(VIVENDO), (RE)APRENDENDO, RESILIÊNCIA, DESAFIO e GRATIDÃO, que me levaram, ou melhor, me levam a externar esse momento, advindas das situações vivenciadas, as quais sintetizo em DUPLA QUARENTENA: (RE) SIGNIFIC(AÇÃO) e que sirva para você como um estímulo a REFLEXÃO.
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Bobzien, Susanne. Determinism, Freedom, and Moral Responsibility. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198866732.001.0001.
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This volume assembles nine of the author’s essays on determinism, freedom, and moral responsibility in Western antiquity, ranging from Aristotle via the Epicureans and Stoics to the third century. It is representative of the author’s overall scholarship on the topic, much of which emphasizes that what commonly counts as ‘the problem of free will and determinism’ is noticeably distinct from the issues the ancients discussed. It is true that one main component of the ancient discourse concerned the question how moral accountability can be consistently combined with certain causal factors that impact human behaviour. However, it is not true that the ancient problems involved the questions of the compatibility of causal determinism with our ability to do otherwise or with free will. Instead, we encounter questions about human rational and autonomous agency and their compatibility with preceding causes, external or internal; with external impediments; with divine predetermination and theological questions; with physical theories like atomism and continuum theory, and with sciences more generally; with elements that determine character development from childhood, such as nature and nurture; with epistemic features such as ignorance of circumstances; with necessity and modal theories generally; with folk theories of fatalism; and also with questions of how human autonomous agency is related to moral development, to virtue and wisdom, to blame and praise. In Classical and Hellenistic philosophy, these questions were all debated without reference to freedom to do otherwise or free will—. This volume considers all of these questions to some extent.
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and, Bruno. Attention and Learning. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198725022.003.0009.
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Attention can be defined as a multifaceted gateway to consciousness. We use attention to focus on specific sensory signals (selective attention), to allocate resources to concurrent relevant sources (divided attention), to switch between tasks (alternate attention), to maintain focus on a task for a prolonged period (sustained attention), to ready ourselves for a quick response to sudden novel information (alertness); and all these processes, to some extent, control what sensory signals are processed up to the level of conscious awareness. The multifarious functions of attention often involve multisensory interactions, and in this chapter, will we discuss three broad issues in studying multisensory attention. We will start by considering multisensory spatial attention to signals within different sensory channels in a goal directed manner, in comparison to conditions whereby attention is automatically engaged by external multisensory signals. Next, we will discuss multisensory non-spatial attention. In conclusion, we will discuss the implications for multisensory learning and memory.
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Aase, Tor H., Hrsg. Climate Change and the Future of Himalayan Farming. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199475476.001.0001.
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The book asks to what extent Himalayan farmers and their institutions are prepared to face a future when external production conditions change. Because farming is particularly sensitive to climate, the main aim here is to relate present farming practices to projected future climate changes. Intensive, coordinated studies of six farming communities along the Himalayan range, from China in the east to Pakistan in the west, focus on their potentiality to adapt to climate changes that are projected for 2030, 2050, and 2100. But since climate projections are just projections, and since the context of farming is wider than just climate, the book also asks about farmers’ capacity to adapt to uncertainty in general. For that purpose, theories of ‘flexibility’ that have been applied in ecology, economics, and management science are accommodated to the present topic of farming systems. The assertion is that farmers and farming systems that are flexible are best prepared to face a future of climate change and other uncertainties.
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Reich, Arie, und Hans-W. Micklitz, Hrsg. The Impact of the European Court of Justice on Neighbouring Countries. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198855934.001.0001.
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This book explores the impact of the judgments of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) outside the borders of the EU on the legal systems of countries in the European neighbourhood. Considering that ‘export’ of some of the acquis communautaire to neighbouring countries appears to be an EU policy objective, and that legal approximation provisions are included in all of the EU’s agreements with these countries, one must ask whether this objective applies also to EU case law, or only to written laws and regulations. If actual harmonization of rules and standards is desired, the rules must be interpreted and implemented similarly to how this is done in the EU. And where CJEU judgments are cited and followed in neighbouring countries, what are the factors bringing about such influence? Is it a result of these international obligations of legal approximation, or are other, more unilateral and spontaneous modes of influence of CJEU judgments at work, such as territorial extension or the ‘Brussels Effect’? We have brought together scholars from the countries involved who have each explored, documented, and analysed the extent of citing of CJEU judgments in their respective country and assessed what influence such judgments have had on their legal systems. The contributions cover the legal systems of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Israel, Jordan, Russia, Switzerland, Tunisia, Turkey, and Ukraine, and also the Eurasian Economic Union. There are also chapters on the modes of external influence of the CJEU, and on how the CJEU uses external sources.
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Munro, James. Conclusion. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198828709.003.0010.
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Chapter 10 summarizes the main conclusion of this book that the objects traded within emissions trading schemes—namely, carbon units—are subject to the disciplines of international economic law in a series of complex and asymmetrical ways. The significance of this conclusion is underlined by the volume and extent of prima facie inconsistencies exhibited by emissions trading schemes with international economic law and identified in this book. While the evidence available and justifications in respect of some of these inconsistencies suggests that they might be saved by certain public policy-related exceptions in international economic law, it is equally apparent that many would not be shielded. Chapter 10 also passes comment on the potential means by which jurisdictions might inoculate their emissions trading schemes from the reach of international economic law, such as by insulating schemes from external transactions, denuding carbon units of proprietary status, and framing international trade in carbon units as a matter of mutual recognition of respective jurisdictions’ technical regulations or standards under international economic law.
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Weir, Richard D., Trevor A. Kinley, Richard W. Klafki und Clayton D. Apps. Ecotypic variation affects the conservation of North American badgers endangered along their northern range extent. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198759805.003.0019.
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This chapter is based on ecological information on 82 radio-tagged badgers (39 F, 43 M) among three study populations in British Columbia, Canada between 1996 and 2010, data that were collected to learn more about the ecology of badgers and consider how variation in their ecology might inform regional conservation strategies. The widely spaced, lower density prey and distribution of soil deposits suitable for digging in British Columbia likely required badgers to use substantially larger areas, relative to the core range, in which to acquire sufficient energy to survive and reproduce. Strikes from automobiles were the primary cause of death among all radio-tagged badgers and this source of mortality is pervasive throughout the limited distribution of badgers in British Columbia. Despite their potential for high fecundity, populations of badgers in British Columbia likely remain at considerable risk compared to those in the core of the species’ range.
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Fields, Keota. Berkeley’s Semiotic Idealism. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198755685.003.0005.
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This chapter proposes an interpretation of Berkeley as a semiotic idealist. According to semiotic idealism internal ideas are signs for external divine ideas, and sensible objects are composite entities with external divine ideas as their essential parts and internal ideas of the imagination and (where applicable) sensations as their contingent parts. Signification is the ontological glue that unifies these parts into individuals. Divinely instituted normative linguistic rules govern the use of internal ideas as signs for external divine ideas. This semiotic relation gives objective form and meaning to internal ideas. Furthermore, Berkeley explicitly links this semiotic relation with rewards and sanctions, and claims that such connections allow us to make predictions about advantageous and disadvantageous courses of action. Sensible objects turn out to be values (rather than facts) because they are sources of pleasure and pain, guides to human flourishing, and sources of external meaning for Berkeley.
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Lourenço, Luciano, und Adélia Nunes. Catástrofes Mistas. Uma perspetiva ambiental. Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.14195/978-989-26-1901-9.
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Os riscos mistos, de componente ambiental, associam-se a fenómenos potencialmente perigosos com causas combinadas, ou seja, para a sua manifestação concorrem condições naturais e ações antrópicas. Nesta obra analisam-se mais de uma dezena de riscos, que se integram em duas tipologias principais: os riscos mistos de componente atmosférica, associados sobretudo às alterações na composição química da atmosfera, e os riscos mistos de componente geodinâmica, que se relacionam com forças e processos que atuam sobre a Terra (geodinâmica interna, como por exemplo o risco de sismicidade induzida, e geodinâmica externa, com destaque para os riscos de erosão, desertificação, salinização, poluição e incêndios florestais). Em todas as tipologias de risco, aqui analisadas, o contributo do ser humano, através das suas ações e atividades, constitui um elemento comum, ampliando, de forma inequívoca, as suas causas e consequências. Por conseguinte, todos os autores são unânimes quanto à necessidade de implementação de medidas e ações integradas na salvaguarda dos principais recursos naturais.
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Wallin, Martin W., Georg von Krogh und Jan Henrik Sieg. A Problem in the Making: How Firms Formulate Sharable Problems for Open Innovation Contests. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198816225.003.0006.
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Crowdsourcing in the form of innovation contests stimulates knowledge creation external to the firm by distributing technical, innovation-related problems to external solvers and by proposing a fixed monetary reward for solutions. While prior work demonstrates that innovation contests can generate solutions of value to the firm, little is known about how problems are formulated for such contests. We investigate problem formulation in a multiple exploratory case study of seven firms and inductively develop a theoretical framework that explains the mechanisms of formulating sharable problems for innovation contests. The chapter contributes to the literatures on crowdsourcing and open innovation by providing a rare account of the intra-organizational implications of engaging in innovation contests and by providing initial clues to problem formulation—a critical antecedent to firms’ ability to leverage external sources of innovation.
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Green, Lawrence W., und Mona Nasser. Furthering Dissemination and Implementation Research. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190683214.003.0018.
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This chapter raises questions about the reliability of much “evidence-based practice” disseminated from the original studies and systematic reviews of those studies, insofar as they were often conducted and reviewed with inadequate attention to external validity. Important issues are raised for dissemination and implementation researchers. Indeed, the pressure on investigators to provide for increasingly rigorous controls on threats to internal validity, and to exclude studies that fall below standards for internal validity, has made many such sources of evidence more suspect in their external validity and less credible to the practitioners or policymakers who would adopt them. Greater attention is needed to ways to incorporate considerations of external validity into studies and in systematic reviews of studies to produce more generalizable evidence, and greater attention to practice-based evidence that can complement the more formal evidence-based practices in the process of implementing and evaluating the dissemination and implementation process
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Adelstein, Richard. Externality. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190694272.003.0006.
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This chapter identifies the environmental conditions favorable to voluntary exchange and those susceptible to external cost imposition, and the consequences of each for efficiency. When someone takes a legally recognized right from another without consent or compensation, an external cost is imposed. Externality is theft. There’s no externality until the law gives the cost bearer a right to be free of the costs imposed, so imposing an external cost means stealing this right, or entitlement, which always creates an injustice for the law that requires a liability proceeding to force the cost imposer to compensate the owner and complete the unfinished involuntary exchange begun by the theft. But externality isn’t always inefficient, and forcing thieves to pay a compensatory liability price won’t necessarily deter the thefts. Absolute deterrence of externality would deter these thefts whether they’re efficient or not, but tort and criminal liability seek only full compensation, not absolute deterrence.
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Ramchand, Gillian. The event domain. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198767886.003.0010.
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This chapter focuses on the phrase structural representation of the most embedded portion of a natural language sentence. It is argued that this corresponds to the core event building domain, and that it has both syntactic and semantic integrity within the sentence. However, the little v label across frameworks and research programs has also been used as the locus for the external argument, as well as for the first cyclic domain for syntactic locality. However, empirical evidence points clearly to a separation of the different functions often ascribed to “little v.” Specifically, it is argued that event structure decomposition head (roughly, Cause) must be clearly separated from, and hierarchically lower than, the head providing the choice of external argument. However, it will be shown from the evidence of the English progressive that this external argument locus is much more abstract and cannot be identified with the traditional category of Voice.
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Wedgwood, Ralph. Why Does Rationality Matter? Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198802693.003.0009.
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Internalism implies that rationality requires nothing more than what in the broadest sense counts as ‘coherence’. The earlier chapters of this book argue that rationality is in a strong sense normative. But why does coherence matter? The interpretation of this question is clarified. An answer to the question would involve a general characterization of rationality that makes it intuitively less puzzling why rationality is in this strong sense normative. Various approaches to this question are explored: a deflationary approach, the appeal to ‘Dutch book’ theorems, the idea that rationality is constitutive of the nature of mental states. It is argued that none of these approaches solves the problem. An adequate solution will have to appeal to some value that depends partly on how things are in the external world—in effect, an external goal—and some normatively significant connection between internal rationality and this external goal.
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Akyüz, Yilmaz. Deepening Integration. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198797173.003.0003.
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After recurrent crises with severe consequences in the 1990s and early 2000s EDEs have become even more closely integrated into what is now widely recognized as an inherently unstable international financial system. This chapter discusses the factors accelerating global financial integration of EDEs, including monetary policies in major advanced economies, notably the United States. It examines capital inflows and outflows, external balance sheets, the size and composition of gross external assets and liabilities, distinguishing between equity and debt, private and public sectors, local currency and foreign currency debt, bond issues and bank loans, and cross-border and local lending by international banks. It provides data and information on the currency composition of external debt, and non-resident participation in domestic financial markets of emerging economies. These are used to identify the changes in the depth and pattern of integration of emerging economies into the international financial system since the early 1990s.
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Akyüz, Yilmaz. Crisis Management and Resolution. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198797173.003.0005.
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This chapter argues that the conventional approach to the management and resolution of external financial crises in emerging economies is inefficient and inequitable and needs to be reformed. Such reforms need to account for increased complexities arising from deepened integration, notably the difficulties in differentiating between external and domestic debt in terms of their holders, currency denomination, and governing laws. Effective debt resolution mechanisms would be needed to bail-in creditors whether the crisis is one of liquidity or solvency, or due to private or sovereign debt, or locally or internationally issued external debt, particularly since crises caused by excessive private borrowing lead to large increases in public debt. Debt workouts should include temporary standstills, protection against creditor litigation, lending into arrears and debt restructuring and combine statutory and voluntary elements, including collective action clauses, duly reformed to avoid the kind of predicaments encountered during the Argentinian restructuring.
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Archibugi, Daniele, und Marco Cellini. Democracy and Global Governance. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198793342.003.0004.
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The chapter explores the methods to introduce democratic devices in global governance. The first part makes an attempt to define what a democratic deficit is. The second part provides some benchmark to identify when and how international organizations, the most important and visible part of global governance, correspond to the values of democracy. The third part presents the internal and external levers. The internal lever is defined as the ways in which democratization within countries helps to foster more transparent, accountable, and participatory forms of global governance. The external lever is defined as the ways in which international organizations contribute to promote democratic transition and consolidation in their members. Neither the internal nor the external levers work effectively if they are left to intergovernmental bargaining only. An active participation of non-governmental actors is needed to ensure efficiency. The chapter finally discuss a list of proposals to democratize global governance.
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Shadlen, Kenneth C. Coalitional Clash, Export Mobilization, and Executive Agency. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199593903.003.0005.
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This chapter analyzes over-compliance in Brazil’s introduction of pharmaceutical patents in the 1990s. Extensive legislative deliberation and societal mobilization delayed and diluted this outcome, but could not prevent it. Brazil’s national pharmaceutical sector was able to tap into a network of social movements around the environmental and ethical dimensions of patenting to resist over-compliance. Yet, ultimately, the Executive secured over-compliance by using the country’s vulnerability to trade sanctions to mobilize exporters in support of this campaign. Comparative perspective reveals the conditional importance of external pressures and Executive preferences. Like Argentina, Brazil was subject to threats of trade sanctions and considerable intervention by the United States, and by mid-1990s both countries had Presidents that were committed to satisfying these external demands. What sets Brazil apart, however, was a different social structure that allowed the Executive and its societal allies to use these external pressures to build a broad coalition for over-compliance.
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Cremona, Marise, und Joanne Scott, Hrsg. EU Law Beyond EU Borders. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198842170.001.0001.
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This book addresses the impact of EU law beyond its own borders, the use of law as a powerful instrument of EU external action, and some of the normative challenges this poses. The phenomenon of EU law operating beyond its borders, which may be termed its ‘global reach’, includes the extraterritorial application of EU law, territorial extension, and the so-called ‘Brussels Effect’ resulting from unilateral legislative and regulatory action. It also includes the impact of the EU’s bilateral relationships, and its engagement with multilateral fora and the negotiation of international legal instruments. The book maps this phenomenon across a range of policy fields, including the environment, the internet and data protection, banking and financial markets, competition policy and migration. It argues that in looking beyond the undoubtedly important instrumental function of law we can start to identify the ways in which law shapes the EU’s external identity and its relations with other legal regimes, both enabling and constraining the EU’s external action.
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Hodin, Jason, Matthew C. Ferner, Andreas Heyland und Brian Gaylord, Hrsg. I Feel That! Fluid Dynamics and Sensory Aspects of Larval Settlement across Scales. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198786962.003.0013.
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A commonality among oceanic life cycles is a process known as settlement, where dispersing propagules transition to the sea floor. For many marine invertebrates, this transition is irreversible, and therefore involves a crucial decision-making process through which larvae evaluate their juvenile habitat-to-be. In this chapter, we consider aspects of the external environment that could influence successful settlement. Specifically, we discuss water flow across scales, and how larvae can engage behaviors to influence where ocean currents take them, and enhance the likelihood of their being carried toward suitable settlement locations. Next, we consider what senses larvae utilize to evaluate their external environment and properly time such behavioral modifications, and settlement generally. We hypothesize that larvae integrate these various external cues in a hierarchical fashion, with differing arrangements being employed across ontogeny and among species. We conclude with a brief discussion of the future promises of larval biology, ecology, and evolution.
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Bierma, Lyle D. Font of Pardon and New Life. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197553879.001.0001.
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This book is a study of the historical development and impact of John Calvin’s doctrine of baptismal efficacy. The primary questions it addresses are (1) whether Calvin taught an “instrumental” doctrine of baptism, according to which the external sign of the sacrament serves as a means or instrument to convey the spiritual realities it signifies, and (2) whether Calvin’s teaching on baptismal efficacy remained constant throughout his lifetime or underwent significant change. Secondarily, the work also examines whether such spiritual blessings, in Calvin’s view, are conferred only in adult (believer) baptism or also in the baptism of infants, and what impact Calvin’s doctrine of baptismal efficacy had on the Reformed confessional tradition that followed him. The book examines all of Calvin’s writings on baptism—his Institutes, commentaries on Scripture, catechisms, polemical writings, and consensus documents—chronologically through five stages of his life and then analyzes the doctrine of baptismal efficacy in eight of the major Reformed confessions and catechisms from the age of confessional codification. It concludes that Calvin did indeed hold to an instrumental view of baptism; that this doctrine underwent change and development over the course of his life but not to the extent that some in the past have suggested; that his view of the efficacy of infant baptism was consistent with his doctrine of baptism in general; and that versions of Calvin’s teaching can be found in many, though not all, of the major Reformed confessional documents of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.