Auswahl der wissenschaftlichen Literatur zum Thema „Exportation de normes“

L’article analyse les effets des brevets comme indicateurs pour les innovations et les normes concernant le volume du commerce franco-allemand. Les résultats montrent en premier lieu que c ’est la capacité d’innovation de l’Allemagne qui peut expliquer le succès de ses exportations vers la France, et non sa puissance en matière de normes. En deuxième lieu, il apparaît que les exportations françaises vers l’Allemagne dépendent du fonds de normes internationales en vigueur dans ce pays. Enfin, les résultats du modèle de commerce intra-branche confirment bien que les normes internationales ont pour effet de développer le commerce.

South Korea has pursued a multidimensional public diplomacy strategy in which Korean television exports and capitalization have emerged as a public and commercial cultural diplomacy tool over the last two decades. This article examines the widespread influence of Korean television content, including digital serial delivery, cultural exportation, cultural interactions, and capitalization—that is, content sales, indirect advertising, and media-induced tourism. Empirical data was obtained from Turkey’s audience members using the online survey tool. As a result of the social and cultural impact, the respondents’ opinions on Korean serials are both animated and rational. The creation of audience members’ social, psychological, and cultural experiences with K-Dramas clarifies their intimacy and activeness. Unlike local or other international content, a significant number of respondents claim that Korean TV serials are not only a source of entertainment but also have profound edifying aspects. According to the results, “Cultural Proximity” and “Content Availability” are two of the most important factors in choosing Korean TV serials over foreign content. The “content availability” is based on the emergence and expansion of Streaming TV; however, in cultural proximity, similarities in family norms and values in both nations are notable.

In August 2012 Russia entered the World Trade organization (WTO) and took all the obligations on establishment of this organization according to the Marrakesh agreement. As a participant of the international trade system, Russia obtains a legitimate access to a very much unified legal space and international legal protection guaranteed by WTO norms, which should finally promote development of Russian foreign trade and Russian interests abroad. Thus, annually, within the framework of the world trade, economic participant benefit from application of simplified customs procedures $ 900 bn. Within Russia, according to the data of the Economic Cooperation and Development organization, this benefit may be $18 bn. concerning protection of rights of intellectual property, the Russian Federation has not taken any additional obligations, – and During the period of negotiations the national legislative base was brought in line with the WTO norms. This article is going to consider questions of creation and usage of the intellectual capital in export-oriented innovative enterprises related to development of science and high-technology production, exportation of developed technologies and high-tech products.

AbstractThe emergence and importance of private standards in contemporary regulatory governance have been the subject of extensive debate. Recent studies have attempted to explore several dimensions of private regulation, such as its growth or effectiveness. By contrast, this article focuses on the regulatory diffusion of private standards. There has been a broad range of literature on diffusion and reception of norms—for instance, the scholarship of legal transplants or law's migration addressed how international treaties or foreign national laws were received in States. However, norm exportation and importation does not only occur between States; this article focuses on regulatory diffusion between private actors. To do so, it examines the case of GLOBALG.A.P., a private food safety scheme started in Europe that has influenced private standard initiatives beyond Europe. This article concludes by emphasizing that successful regulatory diffusion requires taking local contexts into account and preserving diversity.

De nombreux États cherchent le moyen de renforcer leurs capacités d’évaluation des exportations de minéraux. Madagascar est conscient de la nécessité d’acquérir des connaissances et des compétences pour contrôler la qualité de minéraux et de métaux précieux comme l’or de façon efficiente et en temps opportun.A Madagascar, l’or commercialisé est supérieur ou égal à la pureté 18 Karat (Kt). Ce seuil constitue la base de calcul des frais retenus par l’administration. Alors que, d’après le régime de l’or, l’exportation de l’or ne peut se faire qu’à 24Kt de pureté. L’or exporté de Madagascar doit être considéré en quantité qu’en qualité pour contribuer davantage à la caisse de l’Etat.L’objectif de cet article est d’analyser le contrôle administratif sur la qualité des produits aurifères exportés de Madagascar par la méthode d’évaluation du guide IGF-OCDE afin de déterminer la conformité du système de contrôle administratif existant par rapport au cadre législatif Malgache et la norme internationale.Les résultats ont conclu que le contrôle administratif actuel sur la qualité de produit aurifère exporté de Madagascar présente un risque de sous-évaluation de produit, un risque de perte de redevances et ristournes minières (RRM) élevées causé par le point et le processus de contrôle ainsi qu’un risque de non fiabilité des résultats d’analyse sans un laboratoire accrédité et normalisé au niveau national et international.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate the relationship between board size (B-SIZE) and financial and reputational corporate performance in top companies ranked by the Business Monitor of Corporate Reputation – MERCO in Colombia. Design/methodology/approach This paper conducts correlations and cluster analysis in order to classify firms based on performance and control variables, using a sectional sample of 84 large companies in Colombia over the period 2008-2012. Findings This research founds that large boards are associated with high performance on corporate reputation, as stated by the resource dependence theory, and a low-financial performance, as predicted by the agency theory. However, the results indicate that there is no relation between financial and reputational performance. Research limitations/implications This research considered only large companies listed by MERCO. Therefore, the results can only be generalized for top firms in Colombia according to this list. However, results add empirical evidence to theoretical debate between B-SIZE and firm performance considering financial and reputational indicators. Practical implications According to the OECD manual of good corporate governance practices, the optimal B-SIZE has between five to nine core members. The board structure has a direct impact over the firm’s financial and reputational performance and must be carefully analyzed by shareholders to balance the size according to expected results and firm’s features like family ownership, exportation activities and norms of stock markets. Originality/value This paper contributes to the existing literature on the relationship between B-SIZE and corporate performance with the evaluation of financial and reputational results for the case of an emerging economy. In Latin America, this analysis must go beyond OECD recommendations, and shall consider the context of an emerging country based on empirical evidence.

Nigeria industrial growth has turned the country into an indispensable economic support for its neighbours. Only for the case of Cameroon, Nigeria has been the leading supplier with respectively 22% and 17.8% of imports in 2011 and 2012 with trade amounting to 328 billion FCFA per annum. This results in part from Nigerian companies’ exportations in local markets. Nigerian trademarks related to cosmetics, furniture, electronics, and pharmaceutical goods abound in neighbouring countries. However, a strengthening of Nigerian companies in regional markets encompasses strategies to avoid infringing on the trademark rights. Such strategies should include the consideration of special trademarks features by different institutions of the intellectual property (IP) system in the relevant neighbour export markets. This is by the mere fact that the legal status of those goods, although physical property, relies mainly on the material law applicable, which is trademark in the present case. Because the principle of territoriality requires that trademark protection be sought in the place where the goods are sold—and trademark applications filed in each country in which protection is sought—, Nigerian companies planning to outsource some business activity in neighbour markets will seek compliance with trademarks norms applicable in the Organisation africaine de la propriété intellectuelle (OAPI) of which those countries—Benin, Cameroon, Chad, and Guinea—are part. The trade partnership between companies from a common law trademark background on one hand, and civil law intellectual property community on the other, inevitably raises some frictions and trademarks issues. This article analyses the trademark challenges arising from Nigerian companies’ business decision to enter OAPI markets and export goods and services. The article firstly underlines the issues to be taken into consideration, including registration and enforcement of the companies’ marks in OAPI. Then the paper simultaneously reviews the dissimilarities issues between the Nigerian Trademark Act and the OAPI Trademark System to which the Nigerian companies are confronted. If trademark protection makes it easier for an enterprise to access transnational markets, the establishment of a Trademark Community with neighbouring countries helps for sure national industries to establish partnerships with other firms for sustainable development in the areas such as production, marketing, distribution or delivery of goods and services. In light of the trademark harmonisation in the European Union internal market, the present paper concludes by recommending the creation of a Trademark Community in the West and Central African region between Nigeria and its neighbouring countries.

This paper examines the argumentative retort “Just Google it” in response to cases of epistemic exploitation. Critical assessments of the reply often examine the phrase from an argumentation theory standpoint, which views it as at best rude and at worst a violation of argumentative norms. However, these critiques ignore one of the functions of the term—to avoid epistemic exportation. The response may be a useful tool for Black individuals to offload some epistemic burdens concerning racial arguments, but due to racially biased search engine algorithms, the phrase has the high potential to exacerbate racial disagreements. Directing disagreeing interlocutors to “Google” anti-Black oppression and having them self-research unjust institutions runs the substantial risk of reinforcing an interlocutor’s original stance, due to the ways in which search engine algorithms utilize word embedding. Rather than using the phrase “Just Google it,” this paper concludes with a few alternative suggestions to combat epistemic exploitation.

Dans cette thèse, j'ai abordé les dispositions d'application des droits de propriété intellectuelle de trois accords d'association (AA), que l'Union européenne (UE) a conclus avec la Géorgie, la Moldavie et l'Ukraine au début des années 2010. J'ai puisé dans ces AA en tant que représentants de la politique extérieure souvent critiquée de l'UE en matière de propriété intellectuelle (PI), lancée en 2004, qui consiste à exporter les règles internes de l'UE en matière de propriété intellectuelle par le biais d'accords commerciaux. Cette analyse m'a permis d'aborder la question fondamentale de cette thèse : y a-t-il quelque chose de bon dans les accords commerciaux de l'UE ? La réponse claire, appuyée par cette thèse sur l'exemple des AA, est « oui ». L'enquête générale, qui a conduit à ces conclusions, était triple. Premièrement, j'ai analysé la politique générale de l'UE envers la Géorgie, la Moldavie et l'Ukraine concernant l'application des droits de propriété intellectuelle, ainsi que sa perception dans la littérature académique. Deuxièmement, après avoir retracé les critiques académiques existantes sur les accords commerciaux de l'UE, j'ai examiné si ces critiques étaient justifiées, telles qu'appliquées aux trois AA. Troisièmement, sur la base de cette analyse, j'ai identifié des problèmes supplémentaires auxquels les pays tiers pourraient être confrontés lors de la mise en oeuvre d'un accord commercial avec l'UE
In this thesis, I have addressed the IPR enforcement provisions of three Association Agreements (AAs), which the European Union (EU) concluded with Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine in the early 2010s. I drew on these AAs as representatives of the EU's often criticized external intellectual property (IP) policy, launched in 2004, which consists of exporting the EU's internal IP rules through trade agreements. Said analysis allowed me to approach the fundamental question of this thesis: is there something good with the EU trade agreements? The plain answer, supported by this thesis on the example of the AAs, is “yes”. The general investigation, which led to these conclusions, was threefold. First, I analyzed the general policy of the EU towards Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine regarding the enforcement of IPRs, as well as its perception in the academic literature. Second, after tracing existing academic criticism of the EU's trade agreements, I examined whether such criticism was justified, as applied to the three AAs. Third, based on this analysis, I identified additional problems that third countries might face when implementing a trade agreement with the EU

Padrões e regulamentações técnicas, sanitárias e fitossanitárias são utilizadas com o objetivo autêntico de mitigar o risco à vida e à saúde humana, das plantas e animais, além de preservar o meio ambiente. Além disso, constituem normas comuns para as características dos produtos, tal como a qualidade. No entanto, tem sido cada vez mais freqüente o emprego dessas medidas como instrumentos de política comercial para proteger mercados da importação estrangeira. Tem-se observado que esses requisitos técnicos vêm assumindo importância cada vez maior na restrição do acesso de produtos exportados in natura, como é o caso das frutas, pelos países em desenvolvimento para os mercados de países desenvolvidos. O presente trabalho buscou identificar a importância dessas exigências na definição do volume de exportações brasileiras de frutas para grandes mercados importadores, como é o caso dos Estados Unidos e da União Européia. O estudo enfocou, a princípio, a Produção Integrada de Frutas (PIF) brasileira, tendo-se conduzido uma análise descritiva, acompanhada da interpretação de seus objetivos, metas, contexto institucional, procedimentos e desenvolvimentos recentes. Essa avaliação visou destacar os principais aspectos que podem vir a estimular a exportação de frutas para mercados de países desenvolvidos, mais exigentes quanto a aspectos de qualidade e sanidade dos produtos. Concluiu-se que a forma de condução da produção integrada para as frutas no Brasil atende, em grande parte, aos requisitos exigidos nos principais mercados importadores. No entanto, para que a iniciativa venha a se constituir em uma forma efetiva para diferenciar os produtos nos mercados estrangeiros, ainda é necessário conquistar o reconhecimento internacional. Para a PIF, a análise sugere que embora importantes desenvolvimentos técnicos já tenham sido alcançados, falta um maior empenho político para que a iniciativa venha a ser reconhecida no âmbito legal por instituições internacionalmente reconhecidas, para a obtenção de um selo que ateste sua adequação à normalização internacional. Procurou-se também identificar tendências futuras para as exigências de segurança alimentar nos países selecionados, onde os consumidores são mais conscientes e exigentes quanto à qualidade e inocuidade dos alimentos. Para tanto, realizou-se um levantamento e análise das notificações apresentadas à OMC pelos EUA e União Européia, no âmbito do Acordo SPS/OMC, a partir de 1995, quando esse passou a prevalecer. Essa pesquisa enfocou as notificações referentes às frutas. Uma análise prévia indicou que as medidas referentes aos agroquímicos eram mais freqüentes na regulamentação internacional sobre a produção e comercialização de frutas. Foram selecionadas, portanto, as notificações relacionadas a limites máximos de resíduos (LMR), para fins de comparação com os padrões desenvolvidos pela Comissão do Codex Alimentarius, organismo de referência internacional. Essa avaliação buscou verificar se as exigências apresentadas pelos países importadores estavam de acordo com as normas estabelecidas por esse organismo. Os resultados indicaram que grande parte das notificações para frutas relacionadas a LMR, tanto para os EUA, como para a UE, continha medidas que não constavam no Codex, o que sugere que esses países vêm se empenhando, de forma pró-ativa no desenvolvimento de novas normas sanitárias e fitossanitárias. Isso foi interpretado como uma resposta às exigências dos respectivos mercados consumidores. Essa avaliação indicou que um importante gargalo da Produção Integrada de Frutas no Brasil, que deve ser observada pelos técnicos e regulamentadores, é a baixa compatibilidade entre o uso de agroquímicos e seus resíduos, aos padrões internacionalmente aceitáveis, devendo-se buscar um aumento na justaposição, tanto ao tipo do produto como ao nível em que esses são empregados na produção. A análise das notificações indicou ainda, que uma tendência da regulamentação fitossanitária dos países analisados enfatiza o uso de defensivos agrícolas. Isso permite concluir que um aspecto de importância fundamental para a expansão das exportações brasileiras de frutas para os principais mercados importadores, constitui-se no desenvolvimento de análises de risco, adequação e desenvolvimento de mecanismos para a certificação de que os produtos atendem aos requisitos estabelecidos pelos mercados internacionais.
Sanitary and phytosanitary norms and regulations are used, in principle, with the legitimate objective to mitigating any risk to human, plant and animal health and life, while preserving the environment. In addition, these can be used to constitute common patterns for products, such as quality. However, it has been increasingly frequent the use of these measures as a trade policy instrument to protect market from imports. It has been observed that technical requirements have been increasingly important to restrict market access to exported fresh products, as fruits, by developing countries to developed countries markets. This work identifies the importance of these requirements to define the Brazilian export volumes of fruits to the major importing markets, such as the United States and European Union. The study primarily focused the Brazilian Integrated Fruit Production system in terms of its objectives, targets, institutional framework, and recent developments. This evaluation was conducted to stress the major aspects that may stimulate fruit exports for developed countries’ markets, which are more demanding with respect to quality and sanitary aspects of the products. It was concluded that the procedures employed in Brazilian integrated food production fulfill a great part of the requirements of the most important importing markets mentioned above. However, the initiative will only become effective to differentiate products in the external markets, when international recognition is reached. The analysis suggests that despite reaching important technical developments, there is still a need of greater political efforts for the recognition of the initiative by international organizations.The work has also identified future trends for food safety requirements in the countries selected for the analysis, where consumers are more aware and demanding with respect to safety of food. This was conducted by researching the SPS notifications presented by the United States and European Union to the World Trade Organization (WTO), in the context of the SPS Agreement, starting from 1995, when it became effective. A previous analysis indicated that the measures related to limits upon agricultural chemicals were the most frequent objective of international regulation applied to production and trade of fruits. Therefore the notifications about Maximum Residual Levels (MRLs) were selected and compared to the patterns developed by the Commission of Codex Alimentarius, an institution for international reference, as established by the SPS Agreement of the WTO. The requirements presented by the importing countries in the notifications to the WTO were confronted with the Codex patterns. The results indicated that a great part of the notifications for fruits related to MRL, either for the USA or for the EU, included measures that were different from the Codex patterns. This was interpreted as a suggestion that these countries have been strongly involved in developing sanitary and phytosanitary norms in a proactive manner. This was considered a result of the demands and requirements of the countries’ consumers.This evaluation indicated that an important bottleneck of the Brazilian Integrated Fruit Production, which should be observed by policymakers and technicians, is the low compatibility between the agrochemical products used and the authorized residuals, with the international accepted patterns. This requires efforts to match both, the product as the level by which these are applied in production.The analysis of the notifications also indicated that there is a trend in the phytosanitary regulation that emphasizes the use of agricultural chemicals. This leads one to conclude that an aspect of fundamental importance for the expansion of Brazilian fruit exports for the major importing markets is the development of mechanisms that certify that these products are according to their requirements.

De 1998 à 2009, les exportations de bétail de la Corne de l'Afrique subissent un embargo sanitaire de l'Arabie Saoudite, principal partenaire de ce commerce. Depuis 1991 tous les États de la Corne ont connu des recompositions territoriales ou politiques et le commerce de bétail, qui représente une importante source de revenus, concentre des enjeux de contrôle territorial direct ou indirect. Le Somaliland, désuni de la Somalie en 1991, est central dans ce système commercial. Son port est le débouché de 80% du bétail exporté depuis la Corne de l'Afrique. Avec l'utilisation des nouvelles normes sanitaires, ce commerce devient un instrument de déstabilisation du Somaliland dont l'existence va à l'encontre de représentations géopolitiques tenaces. L'introduction de ces normes permet à l’Éthiopie, fédération ethnolinguistique depuis 1991, d'accéder à des financements. Elle doit alors faire le choix de rééquilibrer à l'est de son territoire ou d'accentuer un inégal développement, fruit d'une histoire tumultueuse avec le monde somali. La mondialisation des normes sanitaires impose de nouvelles contraintes alors que les régulations par les États et leur maîtrise des territoires sont en construction. L'objectif de cette thèse est de montrer comment ces contraintes deviennent des outils qui servent des stratégies géopolitiques nées de représentations spatiales bien ancrées. Les grands négociants somali ont, par leur mobilité et leur sociabilité réticulaire, des clés leur permettant de garder une emprise sur le commerce de bétail et ses déclinaisons géopolitiques : faisant le lien entre les territoires, ils offrent une lecture à la complexité de problématiques régionales
Between 1998 and 2009, Horn of Africa's main livestock importer, Saudi Arabia, imposed a ban on its livestock for sanitary reasons. Since 1991, all the states of the Horn of Africa underwent major territorial and political changes. Livestock trade being one of the main income source, it is an issue for direct or indirect territorial control at different scales. Somaliland, who disunited from Somalia in 1991, is a central element of this commercial system. Its port Berbera is used as an outlet for 80% of the exported livestock. With the introduction of new sanitary standards, and since Somaliland's very existence lies in opposition to persistent geopolitical representations, livestock trade becomes a tool used to destabilize Somaliland. Meanwhile, the introduction of those standards grants Ethiopia access to international fundings which can be used either to rebalance its territory to the east or to increase an unequal development which takes its roots in its stormy history with the Somali world. Globalisation of sanitary standards leads to new trade requirements whereas state regulations and territorial control have not yet been achieved in the region. The point of this thesis is to show how the requirements/constraints become tools that in turn serve geopolitical strategies born from sociospatial representations. Mobile Somali livestock traders' networked sociability enables them to keep a grip on the trade and its geopolitical translations. Acting as ties connecting the territories and the scales, the traders provide an understanding to the complex regional problematics

La création du GATT en 1947 par les pays occidentaux a consacré un nouvel ordre commercial international. Son but consistait à faciliter les échanges commerciaux et poursuivre le développement économique. Pour cela, la réglementation du GATT visait surtout à l'application d'une politique commerciale qui consiste à démanteler les obstacles aux échanges, proscrire toute discrimination commerciale entre les pays membres et entre les marchandises importées et les marchandises locales. En ce sens l'article 1er du GATT de 1947 (devenu OMC en 1995) pose le principe cardinal du traitement de la nation la plus favorisée, c'est-à-dire un traitement égal à tous les pays participant au GATT. Mais l'arrivée des nouveaux pays indépendants dans les années 1960 a changé la nature juridique du GATT parce qu'au point de vue économique il y avait trop de disparités entre les pays. Il y a eu donc la nécessité de tenir compte de la réalité économique de ces pays, de faire en sorte qu'ils puissent rattraper le retard dans le processus de développement, et de pouvoir aussi équilibrer les échanges commerciaux. L'adoption en 1964 de la Partie IV du GATT, intitulée commerce et développement, consacre la non réciprocité commerciale en faveur des pays en développement, et officialise par la même occasion une dualité des normes parce que les deux catégories de parties contractantes appliquent différemment les principes du Gatt. Il devient alors pertinent d'étudier cette asymétrie juridique qui devait compenser l'inégalité de développement des pays insuffisamment développés. Selon le credo des libéraux de l'époque, les PED peuvent se développer économiquement par des échanges commerciaux. Mais, en dépit des traitements préférentiels qui sont accordés aux pays en développement, ils n'arrivent pas à se développer, leur balance commerciale est déficitaire, leur productivité est faible. En faisant une étude globale sur la situation des pays en développement, nous traiterons en particulier le cas du Niger et du Bénin. Cette recherche sert: d'abord à voir les effets du libéralisme économique sur les pays économiquement faibles, ensuite susciter l'intérêt à étudier le développement économique des pays en dehors d'une dualité des normes qui n'apporte pas de résultats escomptés.
The creation of GATT in 1947 by western countries has set a new international order trade that would facilitate trade exchanges and moves forward economic development around the world. For that reasbn GATT regulations aimed above aIl at the application of a trade policy that consists of getting rid of the hindrances to the exchanges, and proscribe discriminatory trade exchanges between countries and imported and exported local merchandizes. Indeed article 1 in GATT regulations in 1947 (became WTO in 1995) poses the cardinal mIe of treatment of the nation which is more privileged, that is an equal treatment for aIl countries that are members of GATT. But the arrivaI of the new independent countries III 1960 has changed the juridical nature of GATT because economically the gap was too huge between the countries. So it is important to take into account the economic reality of the poor countries to set a strategic policy that will help them out. With that policy they will be able to catch up with the new era of development and trade exchanges around the world will be fair. The adoption in 1964 of the Part 4 of GATT regulations entitled trade and development favours the non-reciprocity trade to developing countriesand makes official at the same occasion a duality of norms because the two categories of members put into the application the mIes ofGATT differently. This research aims at studying this asymmetrical politic that would compensate the inequality of the development of poor countries, and would also provide them an economic development by the means of trade exchanges. ln spite of the preferential treatments given to the developing countries, theyare not yet making any progress because their trade balance is deficient, and their productivity is worthless. In doing a broader research on the situation of developing countries, we will focus particularly on the situations of Niger and Benin. This research would serve first to analyse the effects of the economic liberalism on the poor countries; secondly create the interest to study the economic development of the countries out of the asymmetrical politic that do not bring any attempted results.
"Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des Études supérieures En vue de l'obtention du grade de Maîtrise en droit des affaires (LL.M.)"

The constitutional principle of the separation of powers and the doctrine behind the principle are as fundamental as they are complex. Three main reasons are behind this complexity. Firstly, a doctrine and a proper theory based on which the doctrine and the principle are developed hide behind the principle. Secondly, by its nature, the concept of the separation of powers is related to the more general constitutional principle of the rule of law. Even though the rule of law appeared mainly after the separation of powers, as a more abstract principle, it also encompasses its constitutional requirement. At the same time, the substance of the separation of powers concerns the institutional organisation of the state despite its above-mentioned relation to the more general principle of rule of law.1 Thirdly, the functions of the branches of power that are to be separated according to the principle are radically different. Regarding the three main branches, it is obvious that while the judiciary asks for complete independence, a logical gap exists between legislative and executive powers,2 with the first one being general when the legal norms are adopted and the second one being concrete when it proceeds to the implementation of the norms. Hence, their separation is not so evident, and the principle may require an equilibrium by balancing those powers.3 Finally, the last reason for the complexity inherent in the concept of separation of powers is due to the different approaches used for the interpretation of the principle. On one hand, it can convey the institutional meaning of separation of bodies, and on the other hand, it can be more functional if an equilibrium is to be maintained while exercising different state functions.4 As with all constitutional principles, the founding theory of the separation of powers should be analysed in the larger context in which it developed. It is strongly linked to what Montesquieu thought to be the English constitutional regime, even though he was obviously misreading the actual political context. It was implemented – not for the first time but with the most important consequences – in the newly established constitutional regime of the United States of America, and of course, the impact of the American context was greatly influenced the result of its implementation. When it comes to analysing the separation of powers in the context of contemporary states of the Central European region, those contextual facts should also be noticed. In addition, for this region of interest, in a comparative constitutional study, it is also important to notice that a voluntary implementation of an already well-developed principle in a new or different political context can lead to confusing results. Central European states have a particularly rich constitutional heritage, e.g. the Constitution of Poland and Lithuania was among the first to implement the separation of powers5 as contemporary constitutional regulation, and the principle could be reintroduced in the very foundations of the legal order of Poland when socialist regime disappeared. When doing so, the constituent power of Central Europe could not only use the well-established theory and doctrine of the separation of powers, but it was also aware of and used the already existing constitutional solutions of other constitutional states for the implementation of the principle. However, the exportation of constitutional models to a different context can result in discrepancies in the political praxis. According to the main hypothesis of this chapter, the separation of powers as implemented in the Central European region leads to the rise of strong executive powers. This pheonomenon is independent of the presidential or the parliamentary character of the regimes. On the contrary, a strong executive power is even more common in parliamentary regimes. In addition, if there is a general, international tendency towards the strengthening of executives for many reasons,6 the emergence of strong executives in the region can also be read as a consequence of Central European traditions and a special need for such strong governments in the particular political context of the region. On one hand, Central European states have struggled with important political, social and economic challenges during their modern history, often demanding a strong and stable executive. They did so to spare themselves of political difficulties which can result from a permanent governmental crisis due to the lack of strong leadership. Some of them also had a negative historical memory of the excessively strong parliamentarism causing such difficulties.7 On the other hand, a permanent need for reforms – especially after the change of regimes – also required a strong political executive that would be able not only to propose but especially to implement such reforms with success. Thus, even for states such as Hungary or Croatia, which benefitted from an important tradition of parliamentarism under the dualist regime of the Habsburg empire, after the cataclysms of the twentieth century, a stronger executive seemed to be a good solution. However, implementing the separation of powers can be difficult in such a political and constitutional background and may call for special arrangements to guarantee the very fundamental aim of the principle: creating a legal obstacle to the concentration of power.