Zeitschriftenartikel zum Thema „England – Religion – 16th century“

The death of Henry VIII in January 1547 entailed a departure from a rather rigid line in religious policy, which, in turn, led to a freer dissemination of ideas in the field of religion. This spread was characterized not only by the increased number of published texts, but also by the boldness of the authors' statements, the brightness of the images they used. The article is devoted to the study of textual means of spreading of reformation ideas in the society of England in the middle of the 16th century. The object of the study is genrediverse works: the sermon “About the plow”, written by Hugh Latimer, one of the leaders of the promotion of religious transformations in England, and the satirical work “Doctor Double Ale”, published by the London doctor Luke Shepherd. Sermons and satirical works of the middle of the 16th century, given the rather large literacy of the population of the foggy Albion, should have found a warm response from those to whom the writings were addressed. However, despite the fact that these works were created in line with the official policy of religious transformations, it is quite difficult to talk about the degree of their direct influence on its implementation.

The most difficult aspect of the problem of the Church of England’s identity is constituted by a lack of specific confessional orthodoxy in the reformed English Church forming the core of her identity. One of many reasons for it lies in the fact that there are no explicit doctrinal sources. The Church of England’s doctrine is dispersed over several documents, called “historical formularies”, that are either political, like the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion, or liturgical, like the Book of Common Prayer and the Ordinal, in nature, but are neither discursive nor analytical in character. In this article, the author attempts to verify and falsify the validity of the claim that the Church of England’s hamartiology and soteriology are fundamentally Calvinistic. To achieve that goal, he turns to “Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity” by Richard Hooker, a prominent 16th-century English theologian, who played a pivotal role as the primary apologist of the “Elizabethan settlement” and a “Founding Father” of the Church of England’s orthodoxy, in order to analyse his hamartiological and soteriological views. Taking into consideration Richard Hooker’s “place of honour” in the political and religious history of the reformed English Church, the author concludes that the doctrine of the Established Church in England used by the Crown as a litmus test of political loyalty, was not Calvinistic either in its form or content, but preserving continuity with the pre-Reformation Latin theology, on the one hand, and, in the spirit of Christian Humanism, receiving and adopting Eastern Christian theological thought, on the other, it, somewhat unsuccessfully, tended towards a via media between Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodox, and radical reformers, i.e. was used as a negative identification tool marking the Christians of England along the “us — them” line.

In the seventeenth century, the search for the “forgotten” rights of the king were an important aid in organizing French expansion, mainly in the eastern and northeastern directions. At the sovereign courts of Lorraine, Alsace and Franche-Comté “chambers of annexations” (chambres d’annexion) were created in 1680 to organize search for archival documents supporting royal claims to neighboring lands. The idea of creating special institutions engaged in the search for documents revealing the precedents of relations with other countries and forgotten rights, that French king had supposedly enjoyed in those parts, was expressed back during the reign of Henry II. In 1556, Raoul Spifame, a lawyer at the Paris Parliament, published a book consisting of fictitious royal decrees, of which many would be implemented in the future. Among other things he ordered, on behalf of the king, the creation of thirty chambers, each specializing in the search for documents in the “treasury of charters” relating to a particular province. He had determined the composition of these chambers, the procedure for work and the form of reporting, — all this in order to arm the king with knowledge of his forgotten rights and the content of antique treaties and agreements. The nomenclature of “provincial chambers” is especially interesting, from the Chambers of Scotland and England to the Chamber of Tunisia and Africa, as well as the Chamber of Portugal and the New Lands. Much more attention was attracted by those lands to which a century later the French expansion would be directed: Franche-Comté, Artois and Flanders, Lorraine, the Duchy of Cleves. But more than half of chambers specialized in the Italian lands. This is not surprising, since in the 1550s France was entering the climax of the Italian Wars. Under Henry II (1547—1559) one of the four secretaries of state, Jean du Thier, was the person responsible for the southwestern direction of French policy. There is reason to believe that Spifame was associated with du Thier or with other members of the king’s “reform headquarters”. The large-scale transformations already at work were interrupted by the unexpected death of Henry II and the subsequent Wars of Religion. But continuity was inherent in the “spirit of the laws” of the Ancien Régime, so Spifame was able to predict future developments, including the creation of “chambers of annexation”.

This article considers how, impelled by confessional divisions caused by the Reformation, a general sense of pan-Protestant community grew across Europe, and its members launched a long battle against Roman Catholicism far beyond the 16th century. Indeed, it continued into the mid-18th century, the so-called Age of Reason. If it cannot necessarily be described as an open war of religion like the Thirty Years War, it was at least a cold war. From their points of view, the Protestant minorities threatened by the Roman Catholic Counter Reformation, such as the Waldensians in northern Italy and the Lithuanian Calvinists, stood on the front line in this war. Thus, financial support was regularly offered by the Protestant churches in Great Britain and Ireland to their distressed brethren across the continent, university scholarships were set up for students from Catholicdominated areas, and plans were drafted for a Protestant union in Europe, from a military level to an ecclesiastical one. It is in this context that we must understand how apparently strange a phenomenon as British support for the translation of the Bible into Lithuanian developed. The author sees Chylinski’s activities in the tradition of learning and charity exhibited in the 1650s by the three leading members of the Hartlib philosophical circle, namely, Samuel Hartlib (originally from Elbing), Jan Amos Comenius (from Moravia), and John Dury (born in Edinburgh, he spent his early life in various places in northern Europe), who were, in a sense, Protestant refugees to England from north-central Europe. After Chylinski, British support for Lithuanian Protestants did not end. She traces the work of Robert Boyle and the foundation of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (1699), which organised relief for Žemaitijan Calvinists in the early 1730s.

This article focuses on how literary works such as plays in 16th–17th century England dealt with the fictional presence of Sir Thomas More. Among Tudor statesmen, Thomas More had a special appeal as a topic of thought during the Elizabethan–Jacobean period, quite apart from his opposition to the marriage which led to the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The Marian, Elizabethan and Jacobean periods cover the range of the selected works. They compose a heterogeneous and intriguing group in which every piece has its own particular way of remembering Thomas More. Six works are presented here: the dialogue Il Moro (1556), by Ellis Heywood; a late morality play, The Longer Thou Livest the More Fool Thou Art (1569), by William Wager; a novel, The Unfortunate Traveller (1594), by Thomas Nashe; and three plays, Cromwell (1602), by an unknown dramatist, Sir Thomas More (1600–1603/4), by five different dramatists, and Henry VIII (1613), by William Shakespeare and John Fletcher. Due to the scope of this research, the article is written in two parts. This part explores the first three sixteenth century fictional works by Wager, Heywood and Nashe.

This article wishes to elucidate two capital mysteries of Thomas More’s Utopia, which have remained unsolved nearly five hundred years after its publication: who hides behind the fictional portrait of Raphael Hythloday? And can we discover a plausible model of the island of Utopia somewhere on earth, in Thomas More’s time? This study shows that the never really abandoned thesis of recognizing Erasmus in Hythloday, is today reinforced by new suggestions, even if Erasmus is to share the embodiment of Hythloday with a Portuguese adventurer-writer. Besides, and although Thomas More asserts that Raphael is back from the Southern hemisphere, this essay also wishes to point out the surprising similarities between the Utopian island, with its capital Amaurot, and 16th century Siam, a land which, in Hythloday’s view, offered a reversed image of England.

This article examines what the Church of England’s historic Thirty-nine Articles of Religion actually mean in context when they define the visible church as ‘a congregation of faithful men in which the pure Word of God is preached, and the sacraments be duly ministered according to Christ’s ordinance in all those things that of necessity are requisite to the same.’ The article clarifies the meaning of the words ‘a congregation’ here in their historical and polemical context during the Reformation, giving this significant attention for the first time in print, in order to correct common evangelical mis-readings and misappropriations of Article 19. It also unpacks the Anglican view of the marks of the church against the confessional divides of the 16th century, to locate this Article in its Reformed Protestant context against Rome. It outlines ten challenges which a properly understood Anglican ecclesiology presents for evangelicals today.

This article focuses on how artistic works such as plays and literature in 16th and 17th-century England dealt with the fictional presence of Sir Thomas More. Among Tudor statesmen, Thomas More had a special appeal as a topic of thought during the Elizabethan–Jacobean period, quite apart from his opposition to the marriage which led to the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The range of works considered covers the Marian, Elizabethan and Jacobean periods. These works compose a heterogeneous and intriguing group in which every piece has its own particular way of remembering Thomas More. Six works are presented here: the dialogue Il Moro (1556) by Ellis Heywood; a late morality play, The Longer Thou Livest the More Fool Thou Art (1569), by William Wager; a novel, The Unfortunate Traveller (1594), by Thomas Nashe; and three plays, Cromwell (1602), by an unknown dramatist, Sir Thomas More (1600–1603/4), by five different dramatists, and Henry VIII (1613), by William Shakespeare and John Fletcher. Due to the scope of this research, the article is written in two parts. This part explores the last three seventeenth-century fictional works by John Fletcher and Shakespeare, an anonymous play and the collaborative play by Anthony Munday, Henry Chettle, with additions by Thomas Heywood, Thomas Dekker and William Shakespeare.

A preoccupation with hybridity is natural in a period like ours marked by increasingly frequent and intense cultural encounters. Globalization encourages hybridization. However we react to it, the globalizing trend is impossible to miss, from curry and chips – recently voted the favourite dish in Britain – to Thai saunas, Zen Judaism, Nigerian Kung Fu or ‘Bollywood’ films. The process is particularly obvious in the domain of music, in the case of such hybrid forms and genres as jazz, reggae, salsa or, more recently, Afro-Celtic rock. New technology (including, appropriately enough, the ‘mixer’), has obviously facilitated this kind of hybridization.It is no wonder then that a group of theorists of hybridity have made their appearance, themselves often of double or mixed cultural identity. Homi Bhabha for instance, is an Indian who has taught in England and is now in the USA. Stuart Hall, who was born in Jamaica of mixed parentage, has lived most of his life in England and describes himself as ‘a mongrel culturally, the absolute cultural hybrid’. Ien Ang describes herself as ‘an ethnic Chinese, Indonesian-born and European-educated academic who now lives and works in Australia’. The late Edward Said was a Palestinian who grew up in Egypt, taught in the USA and described himself as ‘out of place’ wherever he was located.The work of these and other theorists has attracted growing interest in a number of disciplines, from anthropology to literature, from geography to art history, and from musicology to religious studies. In this issue, the contributions discuss Africa, Japan and the Americas as well as Europe and range from the 16th century to the 21st, from religion to architecture and from clothing to the cinema.

In this study, the researcher has mentioned the writers and their major works in Elizabethan age (1558-1603). The researcher has mentioned almost nineteen writers and their famous works. By reading this research paper, any general reader can easily understand that who are the major writers of the age and what are their famous works. The language and method of presenting the data are very easy. The researcher also has mentioned the major contributions of this era’s writers. As we know that University Wits also fall in this era, thus the researcher has mentioned them and their works too. S. Dutta (2014) declared that The University Wits is a phrase used to title a group of late 16th-century English pamphleteers and playwrights who were studied at the universities Cambridge and Oxford. They appeared famous worldly writers. This era has reminisced for its richness of drama and poetry. This era ended in 1603. Elizabeth turns out to be one of the greatest prominent royals in English history, mainly after 1588, when the English beat the Spanish Armada which had been sent by Spain to reestablish Catholicism and defeat England. All the way through the Elizabethan age, English literature has changed from a shell into a delightful being with imagination, creativeness, and boundless stories. It was not about mystery or miracle plays and the poetry was not nearby religion and the principles addressed in the Church.

ABSTRACT Richard Hooker explicitly rejected the charge of Pelagianism. In late 16th century Reformation England, this was no small charge. The extreme sensitivity of the question together with Puritan suspicions of actual or latent Catholic sympathies left Hooker on the defensive. This situation came together in the Christian Letter. Although Hooker’s marginalia is fragmentary, they reveal his considerable frustration at the question of his theological integrity. The anonymous author(s) of the Christian Letter attributed their suspicions to the density and ambiguity, as they saw the matter, of Hooker’s writing. For Hooker, this way of writing and thinking was simply what was needed in order to handle the subtleties of Christian theology, especially in times of religious disruption. Theology was not for him, a blunt instrument, but a reasoned and precise scalpel the wielding of which required a commensurate measure of skill to use properly. However, there were important points of departure between Hooker’s protagonist and his own outlook. The author of the Christian Letter had clearly set out to depict Hooker’s writing style as so excessively subtle and dependent on the Schoolmen that contrary motives might well lie behind it. If not Catholic, then Pelagian.

This article contributes to the assessment of the management of migrants at the end of the 16th century as part of the challenge, by both central and municipal authorities, for ending the civil war in the Spanish Low Countries. In particular, it questions to what extent experiences of exiles, returnees and migrants presented a challenge for families, economic regulation and public order in the French-speaking reconciled provinces (Hainaut, Artois and the Walloon Flanders), in the new framework of the pacification and religious normalization. It focuses on how did the towns, when confronted with various forms of mobility, attempt to apply the practice of reconciliation. On the one hand, the general policy of reconciliation tried to build a post bellum society under the Roman Catholic faith and the King’s sovereignty, not only by excluding those who refused to recant in order to conform to the rules of the pacification, but also by forgiving and reincorporating the migrants who crossed confessional boundaries. Then, it considers how, at their level, the municipal authorities had to take various patterns of migration into account, in particular those that connected most of the towns of the Union of Arras to the Protestant Refuge in England and the Dutch Republic, reducing the importance of the migrants’ religious status in their selection criteria. Finally, theses practices opened a space for discussion and a shy civic toleration between the Catholic aldermen, the ex-Calvinists who had chosen official reconciliation, and the textile workers migrants while still being accommodated and welcomed into the exile Protestant Churches, relegating the debate about personal confessional practices and religion from public space to the family sphere.

Образование региона Сидама в Эфиопии в 2020 г., запустившее процесс дробления административно-территориального деления страны, обычно рассматривается с точки зрения этнических и этнополитических процессов. Автором показано, что важную роль в политическом самоопределении сидама сыграл и религиозный фактор, действие которого усилилось в результате поляризации конфессионального пространства Эфиопии. Установлено, что распространение среди этого народа протестантизма, вдохновленного пятидесятническими доктринами, способствовало росту самосознания сидама, долгое время подвергавшихся политике амхаризации. К началу ХХI в. протестантизм, транслирующий идеи модернизации и демократизации среди своих последователей, стал крупнейшей конфессией в регионе. Консолидация сидама в ходе духовной и общественно-политической трансформации способствовала формированию мощной политической силы. В результате последовательной борьбы, лежащей преимущественно в правовом поле, сидама добились своего конституционного права на территориальное самоопределение.Актуальность исследования обусловлена растущим интересом к роли религии как политического фактора во всем мире, в частности, в постколониальной Африке. Пример сидама представляет собой, по сути, те процессы, которые происходили в Европе XVI в. – во времена зарождения и распространения протестантизма и возникновения на его идейной основе отделившихся от папского влияния протестантских национальных государств – Англии, Германских земель, Нидерландов. Пятидесятники – самое многочисленное на сегодняшний день протестантское учение. Это из позднепротестанских течений христианства, возникшее в США во второй половине XIX в. и оттуда распространившееся в другие страны.Новизна исследования состоит в том, что обозначенная проблема впервые исследуется в подобном ключе. The formation of the Sidam region in Ethiopia in 2020, which launched the process of crushing the country's administrative-territorial division, is usually considered from the point of view of ethnic and ethno-political processes. The author showed that a religious factor played an important role in the political self-determination of Sidam, whose action intensified as a result of polarization of the confessional space of Ethiopia. It has been established that the spread of Protestantism, inspired by five-tinding doctrines among this people, contributed to the growth of the Sidam's self -awareness, which had long been subjected to the policy of amcharization. By the beginning of the XXI century. Protestantism, broadcasting the ideas of modernization and democratization among its followers, has become the largest denomination in the region. The consolidation of Sidam during the spiritual and socio-political transformation contributed to the formation of powerful political power. As a result of the consistent struggle lying mainly in the legal field, Sidam achieved their constitutional right to territorial self-determination.The relevance of the study is due to the growing interest in the role of religion as a political factor around the world, in particular, in post-colonial Africa. The example of Sidam is, in fact, the processes that took place in Europe of the 16th century - during the origin and spread of Protestantism and the emergence of the Protestant national states that were separated from the Papal influence on its ideological basis - England, German lands, and the Netherlands. Pentecostal is the most wide-spread Protestant teaching today. This is from the Late Protestan movements of Christianity, which arose in the USA in the second half of the XIXth century. From there it spread to other countries.The novelty of the study is that the indicated problem is subjected to such study for the first time.

RÉSUMÉLe principal objectif de cet article est d’encourager une approche plus large, supraconfessionnelle, du mariage et de la famille à l’époque moderne. La conjugalité a été “désacralisée” par les réformateurs protestants du 16e siècle. Martin Luther, parmi d’autres, a refusé le statut de sacrement au mariage, tout en valorisant celui-ci comme une arme contre le péché. En réaction, le concile de Trente a réaffirmé avec force que le mariage est bien un des sept sacrements chrétiens. Mais, promouvant la supériorité du célibat, l’Église catholique n’a jamais beaucoup insisté sur les vertus de la vie et de la piété familiales avant le 19e siècle. En parallèle, les historiens décèlent des signes de “sacralisation” de la famille protestante à partir du 16e siècle. Leurs conclusions doivent être relativisées à la lumière de recherches plus récentes et plus critiques, centrées sur les rapports et les représentations de genre. Elles peuvent néanmoins inspirer une étude élargie et comparative, inexistante dans l’historiographie traditionnelle, des réalités et des perceptions de la famille chrétienne au-delà des frontières confessionnelles.MOTS-CLÉ: Époque Moderne, mariage, famille, protestantisme, Concile de TrenteABSTRACTThe main purpose of this paper is to encourage a broader supra-confessional approach to the history of marriage and the family in the Early Modern era. Wedlock was “desacralized” by the Protestant reformers of the 16th century. Martin Luther, among others, denied the sacramental status of marriage but valued it as a weapon against sin. In reaction, the Council of Trent reinforced marriage as one of the seven sacraments. But the Catholic Church, which promoted the superiority of celibacy, did little to defend the virtues of family life and piety before the 19th century. In parallel, historians have identified signs of a “sacralization” of the Protestant family since the 16th century. 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The article explores the Froben prints stored at the Rare Books Department of the Library of the Russian Academy of Science (Biblioteka Akademii Nauk) in Saint Petersburg. For three generations in the 16th century, Basel printers the Frobens influenced European intellectual life like no other publishing establishment, contributing to the spread of early Latin and Greek Christian literature, which determined both the development of theology and the humanities. Some copies of Froben prints are conspicuous for the history of their use which is intrinsically connected with various kinds of religious polemics in 16th and 17th century Eastern Europe. The focus of the article is the copies of Froben’s Opera omnia of St Augustine which underwent censorship in monastic libraries of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 16th and 17th century. The article traces the history of a number of Froben copies which belonged to notable Polish Protestants of the 16th and 17th centuries (Andrzej Trzecieski, Nicholas Radziwill the Black (“Czarny”), Andrzej Dobrzanski). The examination of the connections of Eastern European Protestants, which enabled vigorous exchange of books with Western Europe, bringing, for instance, a book from the library of the great Dutch cartographer Gerhard Mercator to the hands of a provincial Polish pastor, is carried out. Finally, the article addresses the marginalia left by Simeon of Polotsk on one of his books. These marginalia throw some new light on the question of Simeon’s genuine theological views. By examining the history of the copies from the Library of the Russian Academy of Science through the marginalia left in the 16th and 17th centuries by people of various religions, the article assesses Froben copies as a source on confessional and intellectual history of the period.

This might only be true for a small number of parishes. It would be better to talk about the religious particularities of the region which were discovered a the beginning of 16th century : priests living among the people, the worship of numerous relics, country chapels attended by peasants and so on... The catholic reform of the 17th century forbade such pratices but peoples attachement to them was still visible from time to time in spite of a latent anticléricalisme — itself part of the local religious tradition — which became more obvious a the turn of the 20th century.

Among the colonial powers of the early modern period, France was the last to emerge. Although, the French had not abstained from the exploration of fhe New World in the 16th century: G. de Verrazano discovered the site of New York (1524), during a voyage sponsored by King Francis I; Jacques Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence to Quebec and Montreal (1535). From the early 16th century, many ships from ports such as Dieppe, St. Malo, La Rochelle, went on privateering and or trading expeditions to the Guinea coast, to Brazil, to the Caribbean, to the Spanish Main. Many French boats did fish off Newfoundland. Some traded in furs on the near-by Continent. Moreover, during the 16th century, sporadic attempts were made to establish French settlements in «Equinoctial France» (Brazil), in Florida, in modern Canada, but they failed utterly. Undoubtedly, foreign wars against the Habsburgs, during the first half of the 16th and of the 17th centuries, civil «wars of religion» during the second half of the 16th century, political disorders like the blockade of La Rochelle or the Fronde during the first part of the 17th century, absorbed the attention and resources of French rulers, despite some ambitious projects, like those of Richelieu, for overseas trade. As for the port cities they tried to trade overseas but they were isolated and not strong enough (specially during die wars of religion) to create «colonies». Some small companies, which had been started in 1601 and 1604, to trade with the East Indies, were very short-lived, and the French did not engage seriously in Asian trade before 1664.

Summary In his Herm’œlogium; or an Essay at the Rationality of Speaking of 1659 Basset Jones intended to supplement William Lily’s (c. 1468–1522) popular 16th-century grammar, which had received the endorsement of Edward VI. Written in English and Latin, Lily’s grammar through its many editions not only set the standard for Latin grammars, but it also established the style for the first and subsequent grammars of English. Jones realized that Lily’s grammatical model, with its emphasis solely on the classification and arrangement of material according to the classic paradigms for conjugation and declension, ignored the philosophy of grammar which was necessary for an understanding of the relationship of language and thought.

Despite all contents of secularisation, a certain kind of religious element is important in every modern totalitarian system, like Communism or National Socialism. Therefore, totalitarian systems can be regarded as political religions. The following historical and philosophical reflections on the history of ideas of political religions will contain three major parts: First, early uses of the concept ‘political religion’ by Campanella and Clasen in the 16th and 17th centuries will be considered, then the interpretation of totalitarianism as political religion will be analysed, with regards to Eric Voegelin, Raymond Aron and several ramifications, and finally, the perspective of political messianism in Jacob Leib Talmon’s work will be discussed.

AbstractThis paper compares the shamanism of seventeenth-century Indians in southern New England with the religion of the New England Puritans. The paper identifies shamanic elements within Puritan religion, focusing particular attention on the visionary experiences and social control the Puritans gained through praying, preaching, reading, and writing. Although the literacy and moralism essential to Puritan religion were absent in seventeenth-century Algonquian shamanism, the powers of Puritan literacy and moralism can be understood in shamanic terms.

The article is devoted to the first research and introduction of facts about the personality of Aru Sultan, the first diplomatic representative of the Kazakh State in 1557-1576 at the Tudor court of Queen Elizabeth I of England, the first representative of the Islamic world and the first representative of the Turkic world in England in the 16th century.

Captured by the 16th-century Indian poetess Mirabai and her works (transcribed by Robert Bly), John Harbison was especially intrigued with the manner in which she combined religion with ritual and eroticism. He has stated:Her answers involved the ecstatic, the devotional and the artistic, but her independence and resolve and her dancer's vitality led my setting toward narrative and characterization, unusual territory for a song cycle.

Abstract Religion and Law in the Early Modern history. The devaluation of the canon law by Protestant Reformers promoted the system-oriented presentations of law based on Roman law. Also in ius publicum there is a significant majority of Protestant authors. The situation differs from natural law and law of nations where the discourse of the 16th century was broadly determined by Catholic authors, specifically by the so called Spanish late scholasticism. In the Spanish empire fundamental works on natural law and law of nations were created. This came to an end in consequence of a „re-theologisation“ of the judicial discourse in the Jesuit led Tridentine Counter- Reformation. During the 17th century - starting with Hugo Grotius (1625) - we see primarily Protestant authors in the field.

Britain has a long history of fighting for religious freedom. In the Middle Ages, the official church was the Roman Catholic Church, which dominated both spiritual and political life. During the Protestant Reformation, Protestantism prevailed and the (Protestant) Anglican Church became the official state church in England. The Presbyterian Church of Scotland became the official state church in Scotland. In England, the Anglican Church discriminated against members of other Christian churches, in particular, such as Baptists and Methodists (usually called dissidents or independent). Roman Catholicism was banned. Only at the beginning of the 19th century he was given the right to exist. Since then, in the United Kingdom, for almost 200 years, there has been freedom of religious faith and practice.

Abstract Using a dataset of territories and cities of the Holy Roman Empire in the sixteenth century, this article investigates the determinants of adoption and diffusion of Protestantism as a state religion. A territory’s distance to Wittenberg, the city where Martin Luther taught, is a major determinant of adoption. This finding is consistent with a theory of strategic neighbourhood interactions: introducing the Reformation was a risky enterprise for territorial lords and had higher prospects of success if powerful neighbouring states committed to the new faith. The actual spatial and temporal patterns of expansion of Protestantism are analysed in a panel dataset.

This paper argues that the Reformation and the adoption of Lutheranism as a state religion had a great and lasting impact on the history of the Aesopic fable in Sweden. During the 16th and early 17th century, it is shown, the genre was explicitly Lutheranized and ascribed vital functions in the process of Lutheran confessionalization within the Swedish national state. In particular, it is demonstrated how the fable – following the models of Melanchthon and Luther – was used in the teaching of classical languages at school and, in the Swedish language, served as an instrument for the moral and religious education of the common people.

The pre-Reformation and Reformation social and religious movements contributed to the development of biblical and religious as well as journalistic and polemical writings, which had a significantly positive impact on the increase in functional efficiency and standardisation of European languages. Translations of The Bible played a special role in the development of European languages as texts with the highest linguistic prestige. Not only did Luther’s Bible (1522–1534) contribute to the unification of German literary language, but its 16th-century translations had an outstanding influence on the development of Dutch and the Scandinavian languages, i.e. Danish, Swedish and Icelandic. The language of Protestant translations of The Bible was regarded in the 16th–17th centuries in France and England as a model of stylistic excellence. Prior to the 16th century, there were fairly rich Celtic writings (Irish, Scottish, Welsh and Cornish), but they were undoubtedly greatly enriched between the second half of the 16th century and the first quarter of the 19th century by Protestant translations of The Bible and other religious texts. The translation work by the Czech brothers (ideological supporters of the Reformation) – Blahoslav’s New Testament (1564) and the Kralice Bible (1579–1593) – is a symbol of the linguistic prowess of the 16th-century Czech language as well as the basis for its rebirth in the 19th century. The linguistic consciousness of the Slovaks was long influenced by the Kralice Bible. Hungarian and Polish Reformation translations of The Bible enriched the history of these languages considerably. A number of European languages owe their actual literary beginnings to the Reformation: Finnish and Estonian (Finnish languages), Latvian and Lithuanian (Baltic languages), Upper Lusatian, Lower Lusatian and Slovene (Slavonic languages). In Croatia, prints financed by Reformation supporters appeared in the 16th century. The Serbian Orthodox New Testament (1847) by Karadžić and The Old Testament (1868) by Daničić were published by the Protestant publishing house of the British Bible Society in London, which also published a translation of the Bulgarian Catholic Slaveykov Bible (1871).

From roughly the 16th century onwards, religiously oriented persons have engaged in what might appear to be a losing battle against the scientific community. With each new success of scientific explanation, religious traditionalists have been forced to either renounce or radically reinterpret doctrines which were previously regarded as "factual descriptions" of the way the world is. The situation just described has been changed by recent advances in the philosophy of science. The present view of the status of scientific explanation as found in such thinkers as Feyerabend, Goodman, and Von Fraasen is a far cry from the 17th-19th century respresentational realism. This raises the possibility that we need to reassess the relationship of religious assertions to scientific assertions.

In this article we unravel family religion as a crucial strand of evangelical piety in the late seventeenth century. We show how this programme was promoted in print and manuscript by a group of evangelical clergy from both sides of the conformist divide. Using the printed and manuscript memoirs of John Rastrick, a Lincolnshire clergyman, we explore the construction of clerical sociability through the printed text. In particular, we demonstrate that its heart was the communal reading of scripture and religious literature, confirming the household as the key locus for piety in this period. Whereas historians have traditionally been eager to categorize both clergy and laity in this period as either Anglican or nonconformist, we demonstrate that such a divide was often blurred in practice, in particular as represented through family religion. By focusing on issues such as sociability, the formation of identities, and reading practices, we also reconnect the second half of the century with its early Stuart past, suggesting that its influences and refractions fed into a continuity of evangelical identity, stretching from late sixteenth-century puritanism through the Civil War and Restoration to the onset of Evangelicalism in the eighteenth century. Though they were complex, these continuities help to show that a coherent style of evangelical piety was expressed across the ecclesiastical divide throughout the long seventeenth century.

A number of historians have indicated, perhaps unconsciously, that the concept of religious movement would be useful in reference to seventeenth-century English religious history. But while some have used the term “movement” in describing some religious initiatives, no one has explored the implications of that concept for understanding either religious life or the England of that day. Rather, we continue to force things into the terms of “church” and “sect,” with apologies for a loose fit. And yet a disestablished Catholicism, as well as Puritanism, Quakerism, and an emerging ideological “Anglicanism,” are transformed when understood as movements.

During the history of Mongolian Buddhism the State has always significant role in supporting religion and monasteries. Möngke Khan held the first religious dispute of Buddhist, Muslim and Christian monks in the 13th century and gently allowed all foreign devotees to practice their own religion and pray for the Mongolian State. This Mongolian court`s relationship deepened with Buddhism during the period of Khubilai Khan (13th century), Altan Khan and Ligdan Khan (16th century, 17th century), Avtai Sain Khan (16th century), and also with the Khalkha Khans during the Manchu period. The Eighth Bogd Jebtsundamba Khutugtu became the Bogd Khaan, the theocratic king of the sovereign Mongolia (1911-1921): his realm brought the Golden Age of Mongolian Buddhism and monasteries. The only political formation that ceased Buddhism and the operation of monasteries was socialism, when only one monastery, Gandantegchenlin Monastery could run operation from 1944 until the democratic changes in 1990 when religious practices became free again. The presentation will cite some examples from the supportive relation and fruitful cooperation of emperors, khans, nobles, statesmen with Buddhist monasteries, monk communities and monks, and also mention some present-day problems including similarities and differences. For instance, during the Manchu period monks were released from ‘state oblige’ including military services and taxation. In the 1930s when socialism started monks were enrolled to the army. Those monks, who did not want to perform military service had to pay military tax. Monks were registered based on their ranks, age, and incomes in the 1920s-1920 as the State and Religion become totally separated, and finally religion was ceased, and monasteries were destroyed. Religious practices became are free again in the 1990s, many monasteries were rebuilt, new monasteries were founded, and the number of monks is increased. However, as monasteries are handled equal to other organizations and enterprises they pay tax. Monks themselves have military obligation and pay different types of taxes. The presentation will raise some ideas about the old, current and future relations of the State and Monast