Dissertationen zum Thema „Energy arbitrage“

Since Engle and Granger formulated the concept of cointegration in 1987, the literature has extensively examined the unbiasedness of the commodity futures prices using the cointegration-based technique. Despite intense attention, many of the previous studies suffer from the contradicting empirical results. That is, the cointegration test and the stationarity test on the differential contradict each other. In marked contrast, my dissertation develops the no-arbitrage cost-of-carry model in the NYMEX light sweet crude oil futures market and tests stationarity of the spot-futures differential. It is demonstrated that the primary cause of the "cointegration paradox" is the model misspecifications resulting in omitted variable bias.

The global move to more sustainable and renewable energy sources causes increased fluctuations in theelectric market. That fact combined with the Swedish regulations on micro producers make high levels ofself-use critical and have increased the interest in energy storage of energy from intermittent sources.Cooperation with Eksta AB have provided the opportunity to evaluate an innovative energy storage conceptfor a future exploitation area of around 17,2 hectares planned residential and urban area. This bachelorthesis studies the potential of using stormwater management ponds for small-scale energy storage in theform of pumped hydro energy storage (PHES). The focus is on storage of surplus energy from a solarenergy system designed for micro production and local energy supply. However, it also evaluates thepotential of using the equivalent dimensions for energy storage which storage level only change whenbuying or selling electricity at market prices for arbitrage purposes.Potential in the form of financial benefit and increased self-use of solar energy are studied through aquantitative methodology that, in the case of storing surplus energy from a solar system, use a simulationmodel developed for this thesis that takes Eksta´s contractual electric specifications into account. Toevaluate the case of energy storage for arbitrage a simulation model is used in the form of an algorithmbaseddrive strategy named “Optimal”, which has been recreated from research in the field of energy storageand drive strategies. The level of innovation is high on account of including such as energy additions to thestorage from rain water management, energy losses from dispersion of stored stormwater to surroundingground layers, it´s novel focus on a stormwater pond for energy storage, the rarely studied combination ofPHES and small scale solar systems and finally that the dimensions of the pump and turbine that is neededin PHES is based on PaT (pump as turbine) technology, allowing the reverse drive of a centrifugal pumpto operate as a turbine.Sensitivity analysis is included to increase the understanding of PHES-stormwater systems in the case of Eksta and as a concept for energy storage. The work also includes a brief examination of relevant regulationsin order to supply a wider perspective.The result shows that the implementation of a PHES-stormwater system during the years 2018 and 2019increased the self-use of generated solar energy by 28,59 % and provide the joint financial benefit of 5989SEK. The simulation model of energy storage for arbitrage during the years 2018 and 2019 resulted in thecombined financial benefit of 699 SEK when “Optimal” operation strategy is used and 678 SEK with apractically applicable operation strategy.The main conclusion is that PHES-stormwater systems as an energy storage for small-scale solar surplushas high potential to increase the self-use of solar energy but relatively low potential to increase the financialbenefits of small-scale solar systems. From the sensitivity analysis it can be concluded that the simulatedPHES-stormwater system is sensitive to small and medium ranged changes in storage capacity, efficiency,rate of dispersion, set electrical buying price and selectivity of which hours to empty the storage. This whilebeing generally insensitive to small and medium ranged variations in installed peak effect of the solar system,filling/emptying time and the relative size of the turbine compared to the pump.The conclusion from the simulation of arbitrage application is that the potential for financial benefit inthese circumstances is extremely low. The sensitivity analysis lead to the conclusion that the system issensitive to small and medium ranged variations in storage capacity, efficiency, filling/emptying time andmarginal operation costs.Besides the limited financial benefit, other potential hindrances may be the legality of connecting the systemelectrically, lack of financial benefits given to larger but still small-scale solar systems and the eventuality ofdisrupting the main function of the stormwater pond, which is purifying stormwater.

Världens energibehov förväntas ökar samtidigt som miljökraven blir allt hårdare. För att komma till rätta med klimatförändringarna och utsläppen av växthusgaser måste användningen av fossila bränslen minska samtidigt som energieffektiviseringar och förnybara energikällor måste öka. En större andel intermittenta förnybara energikällor på elmarknaden medför utmaningar. Finns det inget elbehov då det exempelvis blåser eller när solen skiner går den producerade elen förlorad, detta leder till att produktion och konsumtion av elektricitet måste ske samtidigt. För att förnybar energi ska kunna expandera men också effektiviseras måste samhället utveckla smarta elnät. Det finns olika uppfattningar vad som krävs för att skapa smarta elnät men elektrisk energilagersystem återkommer ofta i litteraturen. Det finns forskare som anser att satsning på intermittenta förnybara energikällor inte är ett alternativ om inte energin går att lagra. Compressed air energy storage är ett energilager som använder komprimerad luft för att lagra energin tills det finns ett behov. Industrin i Sverige står för drygt en tredjedel av den totala energianvändningen. Över 90 % av tillverkningsindustrin använder tryckluft. Det finns stora och små förbrukare av tryckluft beroende på användningsområde.  I denna studie kommer en internationell nulägesbeskrivning ges i utvecklingen av smarta elnät med fokus på elektriska energilagersystem. Syftet är att studien ska vara ett diskussionsunderlag, en informationsbärare och idéskapare. Den internationella nulägesbeskrivningen baseras på studiebesök, litteratursammanställning samt intervjuer. Resultatet från den internationella nulägesbeskrivningen visar att intresset för elektriska energilagersystem ökar då det är en central del i utvecklingen av smarta elnät.  Mellan 2011-2013 ökade investeringarna i elektriska energilager med 521 %. En anledning till denna ökning är den internationella trenden med microgrids och mindre decentraliserade kraftverk. Med ökad efterfrågan på energilagringssystem kommer nya energilagringssystem skapas och befintliga system utvecklas. Syftet med studien är även att undersöka om energilager är en lösning till hållbar tryckluftsförsörjning inom industrin. Målet är att dimensionera ett luftningssystem bestående av vindkraftverk och energilager, med en viss volym och maxtryck, för en stor- och liten tryckluftsförbrukare. I studien kommer även kostnadsbesparingen för den stora förbrukaren optimeras genom arbitrage. Dimensioneringen görs utifrån simuleringar i Simulink och optimering görs i MATLAB. Dimensionerat luftningssystemet för den stora tryckluftsförbrukaren består av ett vindkraftverk, ett energilager på 200 m3 med maxtryck på 10 bar. Täckningsgraden, det vill säga andelen av luftbehovet som kan täckas med vindkraft tillsammans med ett energilager, är 26 % för det dimensionerade luftningssystemet. Resultatet ger då 48 % mindre energiförbrukning, cirka 1,2 miljoner kronor i kostnadsbesparing och en miljövinning motsvarande 532 ton CO2-ekvivalenter. Kostnadsbesparing, då el köps via arbitrage, för den stora förbrukaren optimeras till maximalt 1,2 miljoner kronor. Generatorn har då en verkningsgrad på 85 % och kompressorn 90 %. Dimensionerat luftningssystemet för den mindre tryckluftsförbrukaren består av en vindsnurra, ett energilager på 20 m3 med maxtryck på 30 bar. Täckningsgraden, det vill säga andelen av luftbehovet som kan täckas med vindsnurra tillsammans med ett energilager, är 61 % för det dimensionerade luftningssystemet. Resultatet ger då 93 % mindre energiförbrukning, cirka 26 tusen kronor i kostnadsbesparing och en miljövinningen motsvarande 10,7 ton CO2-ekvivalenter. Skillnaden mellan en vindsnurra och ett vindkraftverk är att vindsnurran inte producerar el utan använder rörelseenergin direkt. Ett system bestående av energilager som drivs av energi från vinden lämpar sig bättre för ett mindre tryckluftsbehov där det går att nå upp i högre täckningsgrad. Övergången till smarta elnät är nödvändigt för att tillgodose alla aspekter av hållbar utveckling. Det är ingen del av smarta elnät som är viktigare än någon annan. En hållbar tryckluftanvändning inom industrin är en del av smarta elnät och för att göra det möjligt har energilager en avgörande roll. Nulägesbeskrivningen visar att det i dagsläget finns ett ökat intresse för EES internationellt men att det inte finns ett EES som ensamt kommer lösa integrationen av förnybar energi. Tekniken för energilagring finns idag och växer imorgon.
The world’s energy demand is expected to increase and at the same time the environmental requirements are becoming stricter. To deal with the climate change and the greenhouse gas emissions, the use of fossil fuel need to decrease, while the energy efficiency and renewable energy production must increase. A greater share of intermittent renewable energy on the electricity market entails challenges. If there is no need for electricity when the wind is blowing or when the sun is shining the electricity is lost, this leads to production and consumption of electricity must occur simultaneously. To expand the renewable energy and make it more efficient, society must develop a smart grid. There are different opinions about what it takes to create smart grids, but electrical energy storage, EES, reappears frequently in the literature. There are even scientists who believe that investment in intermittent renewable energy sources is not an option unless energy can be stored. Compressed air energy storage is a technique that uses compressed air to store energy until there is a demand.   The Swedish industry accounts for over a third of total energy consumption in the country. Over 90 % of the all manufacturing industry uses compressed air. There are big and small users of compressed air depending on the industry.  In this study, an international status description is given in the development of smart grids with a focus on electrical energy storage systems. The aim of this study is to be an information carrier that creates discussion and new ideas. The international status description is based on field visits, literature surveys and interviews. The results from the international status description shows that interest in electric energy storage systems is increasing since it is a central part in the development of smart grids. Between 2011 and 2013 the investments increased in electrical energy storage with 521 %. One reason for this increase is the international trend of micro grids and small decentralized power plants. With the increased demand for energy storage, new energy storage systems are created and existing systems evolve. The purpose of the study is also to examine if energy storage is a solution for a sustainable supply of compressed air in the industry. The goal is to design a compressed air system consisting of wind turbines and energy storage with a certain volume and maximum pressure, for a large and a small compressed air consumer. The study will also determine the cost saving for the big users is an optimized through arbitrage. The design is based on simulations in Simulink and the optimization is done in MATLAB. The selected compressed air system for the large consumer is based on one wind turbine, energy storage of 200 m3 with a maximum pressure of 10 bar. The coverage ratio, i.e. the proportion of the air need that is covered by wind energy with energy storage, is 26 %. An investment in this system would give reduced energy consumption by 48 % leading to a cost reduction of about 1.2 million SEK and a reduced environmental impact equivalent to 532 tons of CO2-equivalents. The generator then has an efficiency of 85 %, and the compressor has 90 %. The selected compressed air system for the smaller consumer achieves a coverage rate of 61 % with the following dimensions; one windmill, energy storage of 20 m3 and maximum pressure of 30 bar. An investment in this system would give a reduced energy consumption by 93 %, leading to a cost reduction of about 26 000 SEK and a reduced environmental impact equivalent to 10.7 ton of CO2 equivalents. The difference between a windmill and a wind turbine is that the windmill does not produce electricity instead it uses kinetic energy directly. A system consisting of energy storage driven by energy from the wind is more suited for smaller air requirements where it is possible to achieve greater coverage. The transition to smart grids is necessary to be able to meet all aspects of sustainable development. There is no part of smart grids that is more important. Sustainable use of compressed air in industry is a part of smart grids and to make it possible energy storage is crucial. The international status description shows that there is a growing international interest in EES but there isn’t one EES alone that will solve the integration of renewable energy. The techniques for energy storage are existing today and are growing tomorrow.

Denna rapport visar på problemen i det svenska elnätet som uppstår på grund av de intermittenta energikällorna som ökar i antal vilket medför en stor variation i tillskott av energi till elnätet. Detta har gjort att el- och nätbolagen står inför stora utmaningar med möjlig kapacitetsbrist i vissa områden i framtiden samt risken för effektbrist i nätet vid vissa tidpunkter. Det har i sin tur lett till att elpriser varierar mer över dygnet och kostnaden för elleveranser ökar. En möjlig lösning på detta problem är energilagring hos elnätbolagens kunder där svänghjulstekniken är en av flera möjligheter med miljömässiga fördelar i förhållande till andra tekniker. I Jämtkrafts elnät är dock denna möjlighet inte kostnadseffektiv i dagsläget då effektpriset är lågt och elpriset inte varierar nog kraftigt, samtidigt som svänghjulstekniken för långtidslagring av energi är ny och under utveckling. Vid denna typ av energilagring är det viktigt att energibehovet stämmer överens med priset på elmarknaden för att nyttja maximal möjlighet till arbitrage och samtidigt minska effekttoppar i största möjliga mån. Studien visar på svårigheten att få energilagringen lönsam på grund av förluster i lagringen samtidigt som andra lösningar på effektutjämning kan vara mer lönsamma i vissa fall.

Large scale Lithium-ion battery energy storage systems (BESS) for stationary power grid application is a developing field among energy storage technologies. Predictions indicate an increased use of the technology which offers a solution to the challenges that the increasing share of intermittent energy sources causes on the power grid. The non-plannability of intermittent power production requires solutions to maintain a stable and reliable power grid. Further commercialization of BESSes is also seen as use increases for electric vehicles and other mobile use. A distribution grid owner, referred to as the Company, has a power subscription for power that is fed from the regional grid, where additional power peak fees are added when exceeding the subscription limit. This study investigates whether a Lithium-ion BESS can be financially beneficial for the Company by examining two power grid services. The first one is power peak shaving, and the second one is energy arbitrage. Energy arbitrage signifies that the BESS is charged during low electricity prices and discharged during high prices, thus generating profit. This is accomplished by simulating a Lithium-ion BESS in MATLAB (2019) where the studied services are combined. The results show that a Lithium-ion BESS can be used for the purpose of peak shaving and energy arbitrage, although an investment is not profitable for the Company with the current market situation. The sensitivity analysis does however indicate profitability if the current power peak fees and spot prices remain unchanged while the BESS investment cost is reduced by 50%. This decrease in BESS cost is predicted possible within the next decade as BESS demand is expected to increase. The study implies that the main factor effecting the solution to be profitable is the high investment cost.

The rapid integration of intermittent renewable energy sources (IRES) has caused a growing demand for power system flexibility on energy markets all over Europe. Being the only commercially proven large scale energy storage technology, pumped storage hydro power (PSHP) has by several studies been suggested as an efficient solution to miti­gate the impact of IRES. However, despite the perceived technical demand profit­ability remains as a major obstacle for PSHP development. In this study, a market requirement for PSHP profitability, defined in terms of price volatility, is pre­sented. Considering capital and operational expenditures as well as modelled potential price arbitrage revenues for a greenfield PSHP plant, it may be used as a tool for initial assessments of PSHP profitability in relation to market outlooks or modelled future prices. The results have further been used in a case study, where the price volatility required to motivate a restora­tion of the now decommissioned Swedish PSHP plant Juktan has been determined. The results show that the high capital expenditures characterising PSHP development do comprise in a high risk for developers; while feasibility depends on the sustainment of a highly volatile price climate during several decades, energy markets are often extremely uncertain.

With global climate change as the main driver, there is an increase towards including more variable renewable energy (VRE) sources in the electricity mix. Energy production from utilizing the photovoltaic effect, or PV power, is increasing rapidly and is visioned to cover 5 – 10 % of Sweden’s electricity demand in 2040. In addition to rooftop PV production, large- scale PV production in the form of ground-mounted PV parks is gaining ground. A higher share of VRE in the power system creates new challenges as to uphold the power system stability. For a PV park owner, achieving a preferable economic outcome is also a challenge, as the variable electricity output may not match electricity demand. Therefore, combining a PV park with an energy storage, which can store the PV production energy, is seen as a favorable solution. This way, the variability of the electricity production can be reduced and the stored energy in the battery can be used for services benefitting both the PV park owner and the power grid. This study aims to explore the economic potential of combining a PV park with an energy storage. This is achieved by simulating a lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery storage combined with PV production modeled after a 3.5 MW PV park located in Fyrislund, Uppsala. Five cases with individually differing approaches are simulated, exploring how so-called service stacking can be applied with a battery. The investigated services included in the cases are 1) lowering the cost of connecting the PV park to the power grid, 2) lowering the cost of feeding in energy to the power grid, 3) increasing the revenue of selling electricity on the Nord Pool spot market, 4) increasing the revenue by performing energy arbitrage, 5) increasing the revenue by participating in the primary frequency regulating markets to help stabilize the 50 Hz grid frequency. The cases are evaluated by calculating the net present value (NPV) of the system over 10 years with an annual discount rate of 5 %. Battery capacities ranging from 0.1 MWh/0.1 MW to 8 MWh/2 MW are tested. The system configuration achieving the highest NPV occurs when all services are performed, and a 0.13 MWh/0.1 MW battery is used. This NPV is also higher than the NPV when not including a battery in the system. Conclusions include that the spot price impacts the choice of battery capacity to a high extent and that the battery investment cost motivates using a smaller-sized battery.

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This study aims to investigate the use of arbitration in contracts executed in the electric power sector, analyzing not only their pertinence, but, principally, their effective application in generation, distribution, transmission, and commercialization contracts of electricity. The industry, after going through a process of unbundling, that distinguished the monopolized activities likely to be provided for in the/a competition regime, underwent major innovations introduced by Law 9.648/1998 (that created the independent electricity producer and made commercialization an autonomous activity). As a result of these innovations, the contractual relationship between the actors of the sector multiplied, turning it into one of the most complex regulated markets and, consequently, propitious to the use of alternative mechanisms for conflict resolution, including arbitration. In this context, the use of mediation, conciliation, and arbitration institutes came to be expressly provided for in various industry standards, and, in some situations, mandatory use as in the commercialization of electricity. For these reasons, arbitration in the electricity sector is turning into a field that, increasingly, deserves attention from the arbitration community
O presente trabalho tem por objetivo investigar a utilização da arbitragem nos contratos firmados no setor de energia elétrica, analisando não apenas o seu cabimento, mas, principalmente, a sua efetiva aplicação nos contratos de geração, distribuição, transmissão e comercialização de energia elétrica. O setor, após passar por um processo de desintegração vertical (unbundling), que distinguiu as atividades monopolizadas das suscetíveis de serem prestadas em regime de competição, passou por importantes inovações trazidas pela Lei 9.648/1998 (que criou a figura do produtor independente de energia elétrica e a comercialização como atividade autônoma). Como resultado dessas inovações, multiplicaram-se as relações contratuais entre os agentes do setor, transformando-o em um dos mercados regulados mais complexos e, consequentemente, propícios para a utilização de mecanismos alternativos de solucionar conflitos, incluindo a arbitragem. Nesse contexto, a utilização dos institutos da mediação, conciliação e arbitragem passou a ser expressamente prevista em diversas normas do setor, sendo, em algumas situações, de uso obrigatório como ocorre no âmbito da comercialização de energia elétrica. Por esses motivos, a arbitragem no setor de energia elétrica vem se transformando em um campo que vem, cada vez mais, merecendo atenção da comunidade arbitral

This article offers an academic and practical overview for the drafting of international arbitration clauses, from an international Latin American approach and with special emphasis on the energy and construction industries.The authors begin by analyzing the elements of the existence of the arbitral clause and putting forward certain fundamental and general cautionary notes. Then they go on to analyze key elements to include in an arbitral clause, the elements which inclusion is recommended, the elements that might be convenient to include, and others that is best to leave out. The article ends with a conclusion regarding the mindset that parties should have when drafting arbitration clauses.
Este artículo ofrece una revisión de la experiencia académica y práctica para la redacción de cláusulas arbitrales, desde un enfoque internacional latinoamericano, y con especial énfasis en las industrias de la energía y la construcción.Los autores comienzan analizando los elementos de la existencia de la cláusula arbitral y formulando ciertas prevenciones fundamentales y generales. Luego pasan a analizar los elementos clave a incorporar en la cláusula arbitral, ciertos elementos que son recomendables a incorporar, otros tantos que puede ser conveniente incorporar y algunos que es mejor dejar fuera. El artículo finaliza con una conclusión respecto al enfoque que han de tener las partes al redactar la cláusula arbitral.

In this thesis, we shall consider a particularly important metric known as the AdS soliton through the context of brane worlds in an arbitrary number of extra dimensions. In this regard, we take as our motivation two of the most exciting recent developments in theoretical physics; namely the AdS/CFT correspondence and the RS and ADD brane world scenarios. We examine how our understanding of branes originally developed, both as fundamental extended objects from string theory and as a phenomenologically viable description of the universe, where we are thought to reside on a brane located in a higher dimensional bulk. We then discuss the AdS/CFT correspondence in which branes are used to study a conjectured duality between gravity in D dimensions and gauge theories in (D - 1) dimensions. It is in this context that the AdS soliton geometry first arises, as it proves quite useful for studying ordinary QCD-like gauge theories from the point of view of supergravity. We follow this by a discussion of how to make a viable brane world in six dimensions using the AdS soliton. We further discuss the cosmology of this and other related six dimensional models. After this, we generalize the AdS soliton to an arbitrary number of dimensions, greater than six, and compactify the extra dimensions so as to have a realistic low-energy effective theory in the standard four dimensions. We examine several realizations of the AdS soliton in higher dimensions, both analytically and numerically, and touch upon how it can nicely solve the hierarchy problem of scales in physics. Finally, we also briefly consider the cosmology of an AdS soliton brane world.

Memoria para optar al Grado de Licenciado en Ciencias Jurídicas y Sociales
El estudio del recurso de queja en el contexto del arbitraje es relevante debido al aumento exponencial en el número de ingresos en Cortes de Apelaciones, donde además es habitual entre las partes la renuncia voluntaria a todo recurso, siendo esta la única vía de impugnación, que, a pesar de tener una naturaleza disciplinaria, eventualmente permite a las partes la enmienda, revocación o invalidación de la sentencia. En la primera parte de esta memoria de investigación se ofrece al lector una caracterización de la institución, entregándose los conceptos, definiciones y teorías claves para la comprensión de las problemáticas que se abordan más adelante. En el análisis jurisprudencial, se analizan las faltas o abusos graves en la dictación de resoluciones jurisdiccionales que hacen procedente o improcedente el recurso de queja en contra de árbitros arbitradores, según los criterios recogidos de la jurisprudencia estudiada de la Corte de Apelaciones de Santiago durante el periodo de enero de 2016 a junio de 2018. Posteriormente, se analizan los principales fenómenos jurídicos advertidos en el estudio, para luego extraer conclusiones generales. Se tratan los problemas relativos a la renunciabilidad del recurso de queja, la procedencia del recurso de queja en contra de Ministros de Corte de Apelaciones que se pronunciaron respecto de otro recurso de queja y la no aplicación de sanciones disciplinarias en aquellos casos en que la Ilustrísima Corte de Apelaciones de Santiago acoge el recurso. El presente es un reporte de un estudio empírico, basado en la recolección de datos jurisprudenciales, referido a la aplicación, vigencia o interpretación de normas y fenómenos jurídicos relativos a la institución en estudio

El laudo parcial analizado aborda problemáticas jurídicas referidas a dos excepciones planteadas en el marco de un arbitraje de salud. La primera excepción es de oscuridad y/o ambigüedad en el modo de proponer la demanda, respecto de la cual se analiza su vinculación con la fijación de puntos controvertidos. La segunda excepción es una mediante la cual se cuestiona la competencia del Tribunal Unipersonal por no haberse acreditado la existencia de un convenio arbitral ni una norma con rango legal que obligue a las partes a resolver sus controversias en el marco de un arbitraje. Vinculado a la resolución de este problema se analiza el principio competence – competence y la garantía constitucional del control difuso en sede arbitral. Finalmente se hace un análisis referido a la naturaleza y aplicación al caso concreto del artículo 14 de la Ley de Arbitraje, que regula la extensión del convenio arbitral a partes no signatarias.

The installed capacity of electricity produced from solar power has increased over the years and will do so even further. A lot of companies are investing in so-called solar parks to create large scale electricity production from solar power. With intermittent energy sources such as solar power comes challenges for the electricity net where storage systems can play an important role to handle these challenges. Storage systems connected to renewable energy can also be a way to increase the economic benefits of a system.  This study investigates whether a lithium-ion battery system connected to a solar park is economically profitable, and in that case under which circumstances. This is done by focusing on a solar park in Uppsala, Sweden, owned by Vasakronan AB. Different grid-connected services provided by the battery that could generate income were identified and chosen for the study which were arbitrage, a local flexibility market and frequency regulation. The usage of the battery for each and a combination of these services were modelled and simulated in Matlab (2020). Each individual case was created as its own model for three different battery capacities (2, 4 & 8 MWh). To investigate whether a case was profitable or not, the internal rate was calculated for each model. This was also done for a longer lifetime of the battery and for lower investment costs as a sensitivity analysis. The results show that a system of this kind is only profitable for one case which is if a 2 MWh battery is used for the frequency regulation services FFR and FCR-D. This results in an internal rate of 6% which is higher than the rate of return of 5% that Vasakronan requires. The conclusions of the study is that it is difficult to make an investment in a battery system that is only charged from a solar park profitable.

Dans certaines simulations numériques exigeantes de mécanique des fluides, ilest nécessaire de simuler des écoulements multiphasiques impliquant de nombreuses contraintes simultanées : nombre de fluides important, évolutions compressibles à la fois isentropes et fortement choquées, équations d’états variables et contrastées, déformations importantes et transport surdes longues distances. Afin de remplir ces objectifs de manière robuste, il est nécessaire que la cohérence thermodynamique du schéma numérique soit vérifiée.Dans le premier chapitre, un schéma de type Lagrange plus projection est proposé pour la simulation d’écoulements diphasiques avec un modèle squelette à six équations et sans termes de dissipation. L’importance de la propriété de préservation des écoulements isentropiques est mise en évidence à l’aide d’une comparaison avec des résultats issus de la littérature pour le test deRansom. Ce chapitre souligne aussi certaines limitations de l’approche Lagrange plus projection pour simuler des modèles multiphasiques.Afin de pallier à ces limitations, une nouvelle procédure de dérivation est proposée afin de construire un schéma mimétique pour la simulation d’écoulements instationnaires compressibles dans un formalisme ALE direct (Arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian). La possibilité de choisir a prioriles degrés de liberté permet de s’inscrire dans une continuité avec les schémas historiques décalés, tout en imposant les conservations au niveau discret. L’équation de quantité de mouvement discrèteest obtenue par application d’un principe variationnel, assurant par construction la cohérence thermodynamique des efforts de pression. Cette approche est appliquée au cas d’écoulements monofluides comme preuve de concept au Chapitre 3, puis elle est étendue au cas d’écoulements à Nphasescompressibles au Chapitre 4. Des tests mono et multiphasiques montrent un comportement satisfaisant en terme de conservativité, versatilité aux mouvements de grilles et robustesse
In some highly demanding fluid dynamics simulations, it appears necessary tosimulate multiphase flows involving numerous constraints at the same time : large numbers of fluids, both isentropic and strongly shocked compressible evolution, highly variable and contrasted equations of state, large deformations, and transport over large distances. Fulfilling such a challengein a robust and tractable way demands that thermodynamic consistency of the numerical scheme be carefully ensured.In the first chapter, a Lagrange plus remap scheme is proposed for the simulation of two-phase flows with a dissipation-free six-equation bakcbone model. The importance of the property of isentropic flow preservation is highlighted with a comparison with Ransom test results fromthe literature. This chapter also also point out certain limitations of the Lagrange plus remap approach for multiphase simulations.In order to overcome these limitations, a novel derivation procedure is proposed to construct a mimetic scheme for the simulation of unsteady and compressible flows in a direct ALE (ArbitraryLagrangian-Eulerian) formalism. The possibility to choose a priori the degrees of freedom allows to obtain a continuity with historical staggered scheme, while imposing conservativity at discretelevel. The discrete momentum evolution equation is obtained by application of a variational principle, thus natively ensuring the thermodynamic consistency of pressure efforts. This approach is applied to single-fluid flows as a proof of concept in Chapter 3, then it is extended to N-phasecompressible flows in Chapter 4. Single- and multi-phase tests show satisfactory behavior in terms on conservation, versatility to grid motions, and robustness

Ce sujet de thèse s’inscrit dans le cadre des études actuellement menées au CEA/DAM concernant des schémas numériques ALE (Arbitrary-Lagrangian-Eulerian)de type « Lagrange + Projection », dans le contexte des simulations hydrodynamiques mutli-matériaux en grandes déformations. Ces schémas doivent respecter les équations de conservation de la masse, de la quantité de mouvement et de l’énergie totale.Les schémas décalés en temps et en espace sont très utilisés dans les codes industriels. Ils sont robustes et permettent une bonne approximation des comportements complexes, mais sont connus pour ne pas conserver exactement l’énergie totale. Cela pose un problème dans le traitement des chocs, sur maillages raffinés ou dans la simulation des milieux réactifs.En 2016, des travaux originaux on été proposés par A. Llor et. al. pour rendre conservatif ce type de schéma dans un contexte lagrangien (sans projection), notamment en proposant une correction pour retrouver la conservation de l’énergie totale.Le travail de cette thèse a été d’étendre ce schéma lagrangien dans un contexte ALE multi-matériaux (avec interface), en garantissant la conservation de toutes les quantités, le respect du second principe de la thermodynamique et la robustesse. De nombreux cas tests ont été menés (en 2D plan et en 2D axisymétrique) et comparés aux méthodes existantes afin de montrer la pertinence de cette approche
This PhD subject comes within actual studies managed by CEA/DAM about ALE (Arbitrary-Lagrangian-Eulerian) schemes (with a splitting of Lagrangian and Remapping steps) in the context of hydrodynamic simulations. These numerical schemes have to respect mass, momentum and total energy conservation, which are the fundamental equations of the studied systems.Space- and Time-Staggered are widely used in industrial codes for their simplicity androbustness despite their known lack of exact energy conservation. This is a major drawbackin presence of strong shocks. Among all existing schemes, none of them meet the expectations of robustness, conservation,thermodynamic consistency (both shocks and relaxations capture), accuracy andadaptibility to complex behaviors. Recently, some novel works have been proposed by A.Llor et. al. in order to make conservative this type of scheme in a Lagrangian context (without remapping step). Current remap methods, necessary in large deformations, donot guarantee simultaneously total energy conservation and thermodynamic consistency.This work aims at extending this conservative Lagrangian space- and time-staggeredscheme to a multi-material ALE methodology, keeping its good properties (conservation,accuracy, thermodynamic consistency, robustness) intact. Classical, but demanding, test cases have been performed (both in plane and axisymmetric 2D geometries) and have been compared to existing numerical methods in order to assess the relevance of our approach

Pour réduire les émissions de gaz polluants, les constructeurs automobiles cherchent à mieux contrôler le volume d'air introduit dans le moteur pour optimiser la combustion. Des dispositifs mécaniques ou hydrauliques couplés avec l'arbre à cames sont déjà en place dans certaines voitures et permettent des gains de 8 à 10% sur la consommation de carburant. L'utilisation d'un actionneur électromagnétique à la place de l'arbre à cames (application " camless ") pour commander les soupapes améliore nettement ce gain (15 à 20%). Les travaux de cette thèse consistent à modéliser une structure choisie, pour ensuite l'optimiser. Compte tenu des exigences de notre application et des contraintes d'environnement du moteur thermique, la modélisation doit être à la fois suffisamment précise et rapide pour estimer et améliorer les performances de l'actionneur. Pour la partie statique, nous avons opté pour un modèle réluctant 3D. Obtenu par extension de son homologue 2D, il reste rapide tout en donnant des résultats en accord avec les mesures. En régime transitoire, nous proposons une nouvelle approche analytique de la distribution des courants de Foucault, directement à partir de l'évolution du flux magnétique. L'équation de diffusion comporte alors des conditions aux limites de Neumann. Nous avons traité le cas d'un flux magnétique arbitraire grâce au théorème de Duhamel, ainsi que la saturation du matériau grâce à une approche semi-analytique.

Progression d'un concept, le mal radical, dans trois textes :La Religion dans les limites de la simple raison (Kant), Le système de l'Ethique (Fichte), et Le Traité de 1809 (Schelling). Origine ultime du mal :libre arbitre ou détermination ?Responsabilité et liberté du mal. Mal moral et métaphysique du mal/ Advance of a concept: radical evil, in three readings: Religion within the Limits of Mere Reason (Kant), System of Ethics (Fichte), and Treatise of 1809 (Schelling).Ultimate origin of evil: free will or determination? Responsibility and freedom to evil. Moral evil and metaphysics of evil.
Doctorat en Philosophie
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

This work studies the presence of arbitrage opportunities following the announcements of the Market Stability Reserve of the EU ETS on May 2017, using the cost of carry model and three EUA futures contracts – December 2016, December 2017 and December 2018. The results suggest a long-run link between the spot and futures prices, but the cost of carry model does not explain well the price dynamics in the short run, which might be a sign for the presence of arbitrage opportunities in this market. These conclusions are especially important for European authorities, since they convey the inefficiency of the scheme.

Large-scale electrochemical energy storage is a technology that is uniquely suited to integrate intermittent renewable energy sources with the electric grid on a large scale. Grid-based energy storage also has the potential to reduce costs associated with periods of peak electric demand. For these reasons, this work describes the potential applications for grid-based energy storage, and then reviews large-scale energy storage technology innovations since the development of the lead-acid battery. The potential value of grid-based battery energy storage is discussed in the context of restructured electricity markets; then, a dynamic model-based economic optimization routine is developed to gauge the potential value of a vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) operating for wholesale energy arbitrage and frequency regulation in Texas. Based on this analysis, the relative value of a VRFB in various regions of Texas for energy arbitrage and frequency regulation is examined. It is shown that frequency regulation is an appealing application for a grid-based VRFB, with a VRFB utilized for frequency regulation service in Texas potentially worth approximately $1500/kW. Finally, the effect of a VRFB’s characteristics on its value for frequency regulation and energy arbitrage are compared, and the operational insight developed in this work is used to glean how policies to integrate a large-scale energy storage with the electricity market might be crafted.
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O objetivo do presente trabalho consiste em analisar de forma transversal as várias questões levantadas pela arbitragem de investimento. Em primeiro lugar, e por ser essencial para a compreensão do tema, começaremos por apresentar uma noção de arbitragem de investimento e a respetiva evolução história, expondo as características que a diferenciam em especial da arbitragem comercial. Seguidamente, faremos uma análise do Centro Internacional para a Resolução de Diferendos sobre Investimentos (ICSID), instituído pela Convenção de Washington, celebrada em 1965. Abordaremos, questões como o conceito de investimento, os requisitos das partes e a necessidade e forma de consentimento. Pela sua importância, não poderíamos deixar de examinar as características e efeitos da decisão arbitral proferida no âmbito do ICSID, fazendo uma breve referência às regras do Mecanismo Complementar. Pretende-se também analisar a importância dos tratados bilaterais e multilaterais de investimento, assinados pelos Estados, em especial na década de 90, para a promoção e proteção de investimentos. Neste âmbito, daremos especial enfoque aos standards gerais de tratamento eàsumbrellas clauses.A exemplo destes tratados multilaterais de investimento propomo-nos abordar, ainda que de forma sintética, o North American Free Trade Agreement e o Tratado da Carta da Energia, destacando a recente decisão Yukos proferida pelo Tribunal de Arbitragem Permanente em Haia, em Julho de 2014. Terminaremos com um último capítulo fazendo uma análise do Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership, em torno do qual é hoje discutido o futuro da arbitragem de investimento.
The scope of this study is to examine the various issues underlying the investment arbitration. Firstly, in order to understand the subject under review, we will discuss and introduce an investment arbitration notion and its respective historic evolution, as well as expose the features that distinguish it, in particular, from the commercial arbitration. Secondly, we will analyse the International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), established by the Washington Convention, signed in 1965, and we will cover issues such as the concept of investment, the requirements of the parties and the need and form of consent.Furthermore, we will identify the characteristics and effects of the arbitration award under the ICSID, and we will briefly cover the ICSID Additional Facilities. Then, we will focus on the bilateral and multilateral investment treaties, for the promotion and protection of investments, particularly on the general standards of treatment and on the umbrellas clauses. As examples of multilateral investment treaties we will address the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Energy Charter Treaty, highlighting the recent Yukos decision rendered by the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague, in July 2014. Finally, we will assess the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership, around which the future of investment arbitration is now under discussion.

碩士
國立臺北科技大學
電子工程系
107
The purpose of this study is to combine both advantages of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation(TENS) and radiofrequency(RF) for treatment of pain.Accroding to analgesic effects of TENS based on the gate control theory, we combine it with RF electric field to improve the limited by epidermal impedance is too high to directly stimulate the pain points. So we modulate TENS and RF into a new stimulation waveform. This PRF peripheral nerve stimulation is mainly divided into five parts; 1) Power source. 2) The circuit of RF modulated by TENS. 3) Voltage and current measurement. 4) MCU control and calculates data. 5) Data storage system. 　　This clinical trial is a comparison that Visual Analogue Scale(VAS) and Constant-Murley Shoulder(CMS) of both Control group and TPRF 300V groups,TPRF 500V groups. This clinical trial a total of 80 patients with shoulder pain. These patients were randomly distributed into three groups.

博士
逢甲大學
機械與航空工程博士學位學程
101
A finite volume method is used to calculate the discrete energy states of hetero-structure quantum dots in arbitrary shape via Schrödinger equation. We integrated time-dependent Schrödinger equation through imaginary time, and iterated the normalized wave function to obtain discrete energy-state wave functions (eigenfunctions) and corresponding energies (eigenvalues). To deal with complicated geometry of hetero-structure quantum dots in arbitrary shape, we embedded the shape of quantum dots in Cartesian coordinate system by stepwise geometry approximation. This approximation will downgrade the second order accuracy to a superlinear one, but gain the easy handling in geometry. The interface conditions were incorporated into the discretization scheme to maintain the continuous flux across the heterojunctions. Benchmarks have been completed in one, two, and three dimensions to verify the superlinear accuracy. Further, we proposed a refinement to enhance the order of accuracy. We also simulated the bean-shaped double quantum wires and truncated pyramidal quantum dot and got the consistent results compared to the references.

It has been well-established that interfaces in crystalline materials are key players in the mechanics of a variety of mesoscopic processes such as solidification, recrystallization, grain boundary migration, and severe plastic deformation. In particular, interfaces with complex morphologies have been observed to play a crucial role in many micromechanical phenomena such as grain boundary migration, stability, and twinning. Interfaces are a unique type of material defect in that they demonstrate a breadth of behavior and characteristics eluding simplified descriptions. Indeed, modeling the complex and diverse behavior of interfaces is still an active area of research, and to the author's knowledge there are as yet no predictive models for the energy and morphology of interfaces with arbitrary character. The aim of this thesis is to develop a novel model for interface energy and morphology that i) provides accurate results (especially regarding "energy cusp" locations) for interfaces with arbitrary character, ii) depends on a small set of material parameters, and iii) is fast enough to incorporate into large scale simulations.

In the first half of the work, a model for planar, immiscible grain boundary is formulated. By building on the assumption that anisotropic grain boundary energetics are dominated by geometry and crystallography, a construction on lattice density functions (referred to as "covariance") is introduced that provides a geometric measure of the order of an interface. Covariance forms the basis for a fully general model of the energy of a planar interface, and it is demonstrated by comparison with a wide selection of molecular dynamics energy data for FCC and BCC tilt and twist boundaries that the model accurately reproduces the energy landscape using only three material parameters. It is observed that the planar constraint on the model is, in some cases, over-restrictive; this motivates an extension of the model.

In the second half of the work, the theory of faceting in interfaces is developed and applied to the planar interface model for grain boundaries. Building on previous work in mathematics and materials science, an algorithm is formulated that returns the minimal possible energy attainable by relaxation and the corresponding relaxed morphology for a given planar energy model. It is shown that the relaxation significantly improves the energy results of the planar covariance model for FCC and BCC tilt and twist boundaries. The ability of the model to accurately predict faceting patterns is demonstrated by comparison to molecular dynamics energy data and experimental morphological observation for asymmetric tilt grain boundaries. It is also demonstrated that by varying the temperature in the planar covariance model, it is possible to reproduce a priori the experimentally observed effects of temperature on facet formation.

Finally, the range and scope of the covariance and relaxation models, having been demonstrated by means of extensive MD and experimental comparison, future applications and implementations of the model are explored.

1 Abstract This dissertation deals with investment protection in the European Union from several points of view. The first part deals with the history of investment protection and its main basis and grounds for current legislation and proposals for future regulation, particularly within the EU. In subsequent parts, current legislation and intra-European Union investment protection is analysed in detail, including the question of validity and applicability of Intra-EU BITs, i.e. bilateral treaties concluded between two EU Member States. The analysis is made from the perspective of EU law, as well as from the point of view of public international law. The dissertation further deals with their relationship and demonstrates contradictions between them in two crucial cases, Eureko/Achmea and Micula. Additional themes of this dissertation are the powers of the European Union regarding investment protection and the conclusion of international treaties such as CETA and TTIP. This dissertation further deals with the status, jurisdiction and functioning of the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), demonstrating the relatively smooth and widely accepted investment dispute settlement mechanism. In this regard, the proposed EU Multilateral Investment Court project in analysed, including a...

The relationship between international investment agreements and EU law has attracted increased attention in past few years. The aim of this thesis is to bring a detailed analysis of various aspects of this complicated relationship. In attainment of this aim it proceeds in the following steps. After a short introduction (Chapter I.), Chapter II. briefly overviews typical content of bilateral investment treaties, following with a more detailed analysis of relevant EU law rules concerning foreign investment and subsequent comparison of both sets of rules. Chapter III. deals with investment agreements to be concluded by the EU, in particular with questions of external competence for foreign investment, responsibility for breaches of investment agreements concluded by the EU and the future shape of EU investment policy. The status of existing bilateral investment treaties concluded between EU member states and third countries is analyzed in Chapter IV. Chapter V. tackles various issues related to investment treaties concluded between member states (so called intra-EU BITs).

Investment Policy of the European Union - protection of foreign direct investment Abstract One of the changes brought about by the Lisbon Treaty is the explicit inclusion of foreign direct investment and its protection in the common commercial policy of the European Union. This is one of the areas of exclusive competence of the EU. The European Union has subsequently stated negotiating bilateral agreements governing, inter alia, investment issues. However, it has not been spared from controversy and negative publicity that has been accompanying especially the TTIP and the CETA. This work aims to analyse the investment policy of the EU and mutual interaction of its institutions with the Member States and third parties. After general introduction to the topic of international investment law and EU law (chapters II. and III.), it is devoted to the issue of protection of foreign investment in the internal market. Its regime is then compared with the BIT regime (chapter IV.). Attention is then focussed towards the EU's external relations in the field of investment protection. Its competence is subjected to further analysis (chapter V.) and current results of efforts of the Commission and the EU as such are also discussed (chapter VI.). It is so in the light of possible impacts of foreign investment in terms of...