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Kaplan, Caelin, Chuan Xu, Othmane Marfoq, Giovanni Neglia und Anderson Santana de Oliveira. „A Cautionary Tale: On the Role of Reference Data in Empirical Privacy Defenses“. Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies 2024, Nr. 1 (Januar 2024): 525–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.56553/popets-2024-0031.
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Within the realm of privacy-preserving machine learning, empirical privacy defenses have been proposed as a solution to achieve satisfactory levels of training data privacy without a significant drop in model utility. Most existing defenses against membership inference attacks assume access to reference data, defined as an additional dataset coming from the same (or a similar) underlying distribution as training data. Despite the common use of reference data, previous works are notably reticent about defining and evaluating reference data privacy. As gains in model utility and/or training data privacy may come at the expense of reference data privacy, it is essential that all three aspects are duly considered. In this paper, we conduct the first comprehensive analysis of empirical privacy defenses. First, we examine the availability of reference data and its privacy treatment in previous works and demonstrate its necessity for fairly comparing defenses. Second, we propose a baseline defense that enables the utility-privacy tradeoff with respect to both training and reference data to be easily understood. Our method is formulated as an empirical risk minimization with a constraint on the generalization error, which, in practice, can be evaluated as a weighted empirical risk minimization (WERM) over the training and reference datasets. Although we conceived of WERM as a simple baseline, our experiments show that, surprisingly, it outperforms the most well-studied and current state-of-the-art empirical privacy defenses using reference data for nearly all relative privacy levels of reference and training data. Our investigation also reveals that these existing methods are unable to trade off reference data privacy for model utility and/or training data privacy, and thus fail to operate outside of the high reference data privacy case. Overall, our work highlights the need for a proper evaluation of the triad model utility / training data privacy / reference data privacy when comparing privacy defenses.
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Nakai, Tsunato, Ye Wang, Kota Yoshida und Takeshi Fujino. „SEDMA: Self-Distillation with Model Aggregation for Membership Privacy“. Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies 2024, Nr. 1 (Januar 2024): 494–508. http://dx.doi.org/10.56553/popets-2024-0029.
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Membership inference attacks (MIAs) are important measures to evaluate potential risks of privacy leakage from machine learning (ML) models. State-of-the-art MIA defenses have achieved favorable privacy-utility trade-offs using knowledge distillation on split training datasets. However, such defenses increase computational costs as a large number of the ML models must be trained on the split datasets. In this study, we proposed a new MIA defense, called SEDMA, based on self-distillation using model aggregation to mitigate the MIAs, inspired by the model parameter averaging as used in federated learning. The key idea of SEDMA is to split the training dataset into several parts and aggregate multiple ML models trained on each split for self-distillation. The intuitive explanation of SEDMA is that model aggregation prevents model over-fitting by smoothing information related to the training data among the multiple ML models and preserving the model utility, such as in federated learning. Through our experiments on major benchmark datasets (Purchase100, Texas100, and CIFAR100), we show that SEDMA outperforms state-of-the-art MIA defenses in terms of membership privacy (MIA accuracy), model accuracy, and computational costs. Specifically, SEDMA incurs at most approximately 3 - 5% model accuracy drop, while achieving the lowest MIA accuracy in state-of-the-art empirical MIA defenses. For computational costs, SEDMA takes significantly less processing time than a defense with the state-of-the-art privacy-utility trade-offs in previous defenses. SEDMA achieves both favorable privacy-utility trade-offs and low computational costs.
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Ozdayi, Mustafa Safa, Murat Kantarcioglu und Yulia R. Gel. „Defending against Backdoors in Federated Learning with Robust Learning Rate“. Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 35, Nr. 10 (18.05.2021): 9268–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v35i10.17118.
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Federated learning (FL) allows a set of agents to collaboratively train a model without sharing their potentially sensitive data. This makes FL suitable for privacy-preserving applications. At the same time, FL is susceptible to adversarial attacks due to decentralized and unvetted data. One important line of attacks against FL is the backdoor attacks. In a backdoor attack, an adversary tries to embed a backdoor functionality to the model during training that can later be activated to cause a desired misclassification. To prevent backdoor attacks, we propose a lightweight defense that requires minimal change to the FL protocol. At a high level, our defense is based on carefully adjusting the aggregation server's learning rate, per dimension and per round, based on the sign information of agents' updates. We first conjecture the necessary steps to carry a successful backdoor attack in FL setting, and then, explicitly formulate the defense based on our conjecture. Through experiments, we provide empirical evidence that supports our conjecture, and we test our defense against backdoor attacks under different settings. We observe that either backdoor is completely eliminated, or its accuracy is significantly reduced. Overall, our experiments suggest that our defense significantly outperforms some of the recently proposed defenses in the literature. We achieve this by having minimal influence over the accuracy of the trained models. In addition, we also provide convergence rate analysis for our proposed scheme.
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Wang, Tianhao, Yuheng Zhang und Ruoxi Jia. „Improving Robustness to Model Inversion Attacks via Mutual Information Regularization“. Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 35, Nr. 13 (18.05.2021): 11666–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v35i13.17387.
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This paper studies defense mechanisms against model inversion (MI) attacks -- a type of privacy attacks aimed at inferring information about the training data distribution given the access to a target machine learning model. Existing defense mechanisms rely on model-specific heuristics or noise injection. While being able to mitigate attacks, existing methods significantly hinder model performance. There remains a question of how to design a defense mechanism that is applicable to a variety of models and achieves better utility-privacy tradeoff. In this paper, we propose the Mutual Information Regularization based Defense (MID) against MI attacks. The key idea is to limit the information about the model input contained in the prediction, thereby limiting the ability of an adversary to infer the private training attributes from the model prediction. Our defense principle is model-agnostic and we present tractable approximations to the regularizer for linear regression, decision trees, and neural networks, which have been successfully attacked by prior work if not attached with any defenses. We present a formal study of MI attacks by devising a rigorous game-based definition and quantifying the associated information leakage. Our theoretical analysis sheds light on the inefficacy of DP in defending against MI attacks, which has been empirically observed in several prior works. Our experiments demonstrate that MID leads to state-of-the-art performance for a variety of MI attacks, target models and datasets.
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Primus, Eve. „The Problematic Structure of Indigent Defense Delivery“. Michigan Law Review, Nr. 122.2 (2023): 205. http://dx.doi.org/10.36644/mlr.122.2.problematic.
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The national conversation about criminal justice reform largely ignores the critical need for structural reforms in the provision of indigent defense. In most parts of the country, decisions about how to structure the provision of indigent defense are made at the local level, resulting in a fragmented patchwork of different indigent defense delivery systems. In most counties, if an indigent criminal defendant gets representation at all, it comes from assigned counsel or flat-fee contract lawyers rather than public defenders. In those assigned-counsel and flat-fee contract systems, the lawyers representing indigent defendants have financial incentives to get rid of assigned criminal cases as quickly as possible. Those incentives fuel mass incarceration because the lawyers put less time into each case than their public defender counterparts and achieve poorer outcomes for their clients. Moreover, empirical research shows that assigned-counsel and flat-fee contract systems are economically more costly to the public fisc than public defender systems. This Article collects data from across the country to show how prevalent assigned- counsel and contract systems remain, explains why arguments in favor of substantial reliance on the private bar to provide for indigent defense are outdated, argues that more states need to move toward state-structured public defender models, and outlines how it is politically possible for stakeholders to get there.
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Sangero, Boaz. „A New Defense for Self-Defense“. Buffalo Criminal Law Review 9, Nr. 2 (01.01.2006): 475–559. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/nclr.2006.9.2.475.
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Abstract Private defense, like self-defense, has been virtually undisputed both in the past and present and even taken for granted, and perhaps particularly for this reason, sufficient attention has not always been given to the rationale underlying private defense. As a result, the legal arrangements set for private defense in the different legal systems are deficient, inconsistent, and, at times, replete with internal contradictions. This article seeks to propose a sound rationale for the concept of private defense. It begins by attempting to clearly and precisely delineate the scope of the defense and weed out cases that are occasionally (and, I maintain, mistakenly) included in the framework of its scope by means of two general and imperative distinctions: between justification and excuse and between the definitive components of offenses and those of defenses. With regard to the first distinction, I consider the validity of its application and its possible implications for private defense. Since the validity of the second distinction is undisputed as an empirical fact (at least formally) in all modern penal codes, the question raised is whether there is a significant difference between the definition of offenses and the definition of defenses. The answer to this question is relevant to a number of issues, and of particular relevance to private defense are its implications for the application of the principle of legality and with regard to the mental element that should be required of the actor in such situations. Next I embark on a discussion of the various theories competing for predominance as elucidations of private defense. These theories and this discussion then serve as the background and foundation for the construction of the article's proposed rationale for private defense. The novelty of this rationale is in its integrative approach, melding a number of the proposed justifications for self-defense, rather than taking the traditional path of espousing one all-excluding rationale.
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Chen, Jiyu, Yiwen Guo, Qianjun Zheng und Hao Chen. „Protect privacy of deep classification networks by exploiting their generative power“. Machine Learning 110, Nr. 4 (April 2021): 651–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10994-021-05951-6.
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AbstractResearch showed that deep learning models are vulnerable to membership inference attacks, which aim to determine if an example is in the training set of the model. We propose a new framework to defend against this sort of attack. Our key insight is that if we retrain the original classifier with a new dataset that is independent of the original training set while their elements are sampled from the same distribution, the retrained classifier will leak no information that cannot be inferred from the distribution about the original training set. Our framework consists of three phases. First, we transferred the original classifier to a Joint Energy-based Model (JEM) to exploit the model’s implicit generative power. Then, we sampled from the JEM to create a new dataset. Finally, we used the new dataset to retrain or fine-tune the original classifier. We empirically studied different transfer learning schemes for the JEM and fine-tuning/retraining strategies for the classifier against shadow-model attacks. Our evaluation shows that our framework can suppress the attacker’s membership advantage to a negligible level while keeping the classifier’s accuracy acceptable. We compared it with other state-of-the-art defenses considering adaptive attackers and showed our defense is effective even under the worst-case scenario. Besides, we also found that combining other defenses with our framework often achieves better robustness. Our code will be made available at https://github.com/ChenJiyu/meminf-defense.git.
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Miao, Lu, Weibo Li, Jia Zhao, Xin Zhou und Yao Wu. „Differential Private Defense Against Backdoor Attacks in Federated Learning“. Frontiers in Computing and Intelligent Systems 9, Nr. 2 (28.08.2024): 31–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.54097/dyt1nn60.
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Federated learning has been applied in a wide variety of applications, in which clients upload their local updates instead of providing their datasets to jointly train a global model. However, the training process of federated learning is vulnerable to adversarial attacks (e.g., backdoor attack) in presence of malicious clients. Previous works showed that differential privacy (DP) can be used to defend against backdoor attacks, at the cost of vastly losing model utility. In this work, we study two kinds of backdoor attacks and propose a method based on differential privacy, called Clip Norm Decay (CND) to defend against them, which maintains utility when defending against backdoor attacks with DP. CND decreases the clipping threshold of model updates through the whole training process to reduce the injected noise. Empirical results show that CND can substantially enhance the accuracy of the main task. In particular, CND bounds the norm of malicious updates by adaptively setting the appropriate thresholds according to the current model updates. Empirical results show that CND can substantially enhance the accuracy of the main task when defending against backdoor attacks. Moreover, extensive experiments demonstrate that our method performs better defense than the original DP, further reducing the attack success rate, even in a strong assumption of threat model. Additional experiments about property inference attack indicate that CND also maintains utility when defending against privacy attacks and does not weaken the privacy preservation of DP.
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Abbasi Tadi, Ali, Saroj Dayal, Dima Alhadidi und Noman Mohammed. „Comparative Analysis of Membership Inference Attacks in Federated and Centralized Learning“. Information 14, Nr. 11 (19.11.2023): 620. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/info14110620.
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The vulnerability of machine learning models to membership inference attacks, which aim to determine whether a specific record belongs to the training dataset, is explored in this paper. Federated learning allows multiple parties to independently train a model without sharing or centralizing their data, offering privacy advantages. However, when private datasets are used in federated learning and model access is granted, the risk of membership inference attacks emerges, potentially compromising sensitive data. To address this, effective defenses in a federated learning environment must be developed without compromising the utility of the target model. This study empirically investigates and compares membership inference attack methodologies in both federated and centralized learning environments, utilizing diverse optimizers and assessing attacks with and without defenses on image and tabular datasets. The findings demonstrate that a combination of knowledge distillation and conventional mitigation techniques (such as Gaussian dropout, Gaussian noise, and activity regularization) significantly mitigates the risk of information leakage in both federated and centralized settings.
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PERSKY, JOSEPH. „Rawls's Thin (Millean) Defense of Private Property“. Utilitas 22, Nr. 2 (10.05.2010): 134–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0953820810000051.
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This article suggests that Rawls's break with early utilitarians is not so much over the greatest happiness principle as it is over the relation of the institution of private property to justice. In this respect Rawls is very close to John Stuart Mill, arguing for a cleansed or tamed version of the institution. That said, Rawls's defense of private property remains very thin and highly idealized, again following Mill. If Hume and Bentham fail to demonstrate their claims, Rawls and Mill do little better. Rawls, like Mill, has constructed a challenging standard, admits to severe limitations on our empirical knowledge, and remains deeply ambivalent over the role of private property.
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Cherubin, Giovanni. „Bayes, not Naïve: Security Bounds on Website Fingerprinting Defenses“. Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies 2017, Nr. 4 (01.10.2017): 215–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/popets-2017-0046.
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Abstract Website Fingerprinting (WF) attacks raise major concerns about users’ privacy. They employ Machine Learning (ML) techniques to allow a local passive adversary to uncover the Web browsing behavior of a user, even if she browses through an encrypted tunnel (e.g. Tor, VPN). Numerous defenses have been proposed in the past; however, it is typically difficult to have formal guarantees on their security, which is most often evaluated empirically against state-of-the-art attacks. In this paper, we present a practical method to derive security bounds for any WF defense, where the bounds depend on a chosen feature set. This result derives from reducing WF attacks to an ML classification task, where we can determine the smallest achievable error (the Bayes error). Such error can be estimated in practice, and is a lower bound for a WF adversary, for any classification algorithm he may use. Our work has two main consequences: i) it allows determining the security of WF defenses, in a black-box manner, with respect to the state-of-the-art feature set and ii) it favors shifting the focus of future WF research to identifying optimal feature sets. The generality of this approach further suggests that the method could be used to define security bounds for other ML-based attacks.
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Sannajust, Aurelie, Mohamed Arouri und Frederic Teulon. „Motivations Of Public To Private Transactions: An International Empirical Investigation“. Journal of Applied Business Research (JABR) 31, Nr. 1 (15.12.2014): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.19030/jabr.v31i1.8979.
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This article contributes to the financial literature by investigating the motivations of Public to Private transactions in an international perspective (Europe, USA and Asia). We consider seven main possible motivations: tax savings, incentive realignment, control, free cash-flow, growth of prospects, takeover defense and undervaluation. Our empirical findings suggest that low growth prospects, low liquidity and high free cash-flow are the three main motivations for a Public to Private transactions. However, regions show some particularities such as importance of family block-holders in Europe and importance of the level of taxation in Asia.
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Wainakh, Aidmar, Fabrizio Ventola, Till Müßig, Jens Keim, Carlos Garcia Cordero, Ephraim Zimmer, Tim Grube, Kristian Kersting und Max Mühlhäuser. „User-Level Label Leakage from Gradients in Federated Learning“. Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies 2022, Nr. 2 (03.03.2022): 227–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/popets-2022-0043.
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Abstract Federated learning enables multiple users to build a joint model by sharing their model updates (gradients), while their raw data remains local on their devices. In contrast to the common belief that this provides privacy benefits, we here add to the very recent results on privacy risks when sharing gradients. Specifically, we investigate Label Leakage from Gradients (LLG), a novel attack to extract the labels of the users’ training data from their shared gradients. The attack exploits the direction and magnitude of gradients to determine the presence or absence of any label. LLG is simple yet effective, capable of leaking potential sensitive information represented by labels, and scales well to arbitrary batch sizes and multiple classes. We mathematically and empirically demonstrate the validity of the attack under different settings. Moreover, empirical results show that LLG successfully extracts labels with high accuracy at the early stages of model training. We also discuss different defense mechanisms against such leakage. Our findings suggest that gradient compression is a practical technique to mitigate the attack.
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Wu, Jing, Munawar Hayat, Mingyi Zhou und Mehrtash Harandi. „Concealing Sensitive Samples against Gradient Leakage in Federated Learning“. Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 38, Nr. 19 (24.03.2024): 21717–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v38i19.30171.
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Federated Learning (FL) is a distributed learning paradigm that enhances users' privacy by eliminating the need for clients to share raw, private data with the server. Despite the success, recent studies expose the vulnerability of FL to model inversion attacks, where adversaries reconstruct users’ private data via eavesdropping on the shared gradient information. We hypothesize that a key factor in the success of such attacks is the low entanglement among gradients per data within the batch during stochastic optimization. This creates a vulnerability that an adversary can exploit to reconstruct the sensitive data. Building upon this insight, we present a simple, yet effective defense strategy that obfuscates the gradients of the sensitive data with concealed samples. To achieve this, we propose synthesizing concealed samples to mimic the sensitive data at the gradient level while ensuring their visual dissimilarity from the actual sensitive data. Compared to the previous art, our empirical evaluations suggest that the proposed technique provides the strongest protection while simultaneously maintaining the FL performance. Code is located at https://github.com/JingWu321/DCS-2.
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Pan, Bin, Shih-Yung Wei, Xuanhua Xu und Wei-Chiang Hong. „The Impact of Defense Investment on Economic Growth in the Perspective of Time Series“. International Journal of Applied Evolutionary Computation 5, Nr. 4 (Oktober 2014): 44–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijaec.2014100104.
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By considering the demand and supply effects of defense investment and the uncertainty of the stochastic process of the production and defense investment, this study proposes a stochastic endogenous growth model to explore the impact of defense investment on economic growth. The results suggest that the relationship between defense investment and economic growth rate is nonlinear and obtains the optimal percentage of defense investment to maximize economic growth. Moreover, the impact of defense investment volatility on economic growth rate is subject to production and defense investment interference term's covariance and representative private investment risk preference. Finally, the empirical data are used to illustrate the applicability of the proposed model.
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Zhong, Da, Ruotong Yu, Kun Wu, Xiuling Wang, Jun Xu und Wendy Hui Wang. „Disparate Vulnerability in Link Inference Attacks against Graph Neural Networks“. Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies 2023, Nr. 4 (Oktober 2023): 149–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.56553/popets-2023-0103.
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Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) have been widely used in various graph-based applications. Recent studies have shown that GNNs are vulnerable to link-level membership inference attacks (LMIA) which can infer whether a given link was included in the training graph of a GNN model. While most of the studies focus on the privacy vulnerability of the links in the entire graph, none have inspected the privacy risk of specific subgroups of links (e.g., links between LGBT users). In this paper, we present the first study of disparity in subgroup vulnerability (DSV) of GNNs against LMIA. First, with extensive empirical evaluation, we demonstrate the existence of non-negligible DSV under various settings of GNN models and input graphs. Second, by both statistical and causal analysis, we identify the difference between three specific graph structural properties of subgroups as one of the underlying reasons for DSV. Among the three properties, the difference between subgroup density has the largest causal effect on DSV. Third, inspired by the causal analysis, we design a new defense mechanism named FairDefense to mitigate DSV while providing protection against LMIA. At a high level, at each iteration of target model training, FairDefense randomizes the membership of edges in the training graph with a given probability, aiming to reduce the gap between the density of different subgroups for DSV mitigation. Our empirical results demonstrate that FairDefense outperforms the existing defense methods in the trade-off between defense and target model accuracy. More importantly, it offers better DSV mitigation.
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Lyu, Yifei, Hao Zeng, Jie Wang und Yuhua Zhang. „Empirical Analysis on Unexpected Information Effect of Monetary Policy and Stock Price Fluctuation: Taking Military and Defense Enterprises as an Example“. Discrete Dynamics in Nature and Society 2022 (24.09.2022): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/5680745.
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The existing studies have shown that the unexpected information effect of monetary policy (IEOMP) would affect the fluctuation of stock prices. This paper tests the effect of unexpected IEOMP on stock prices in China. Taking Chinese listed military and defense enterprises, for example, the author further explored how the influence of unexpected IEOMP over stock price varies between industries. The empirical analysis reveals that, despite the industrial heterogeneity of the said influence in China, the stock price of Chinese listed military and defense enterprises is still affected by unexpected IEOMP. Our analysis enables Chinese military and defense enterprises to build a more robust market mechanism for the military and defense market, open more effective channels for the industrial chain, capital chain, and private capital, and drive the national economy with the sci-tech results of defense. In addition, policymakers are recommended to keep an eye on the price fluctuation in the stock market and important economic information from stock price fluctuation in order to effectively identify the potential risks in the future economy and to improve the predictability of the feedback mechanism of monetary policy.
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Ward, Jeffrey T., und Nathan W. Link. „Financial Sanctions in Pennsylvania“. Federal Sentencing Reporter 34, Nr. 2-3 (01.02.2022): 166–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/fsr.2022.34.2-3.166.
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While potential adverse consequences of carrying criminal justice debt are well documented, less is known empirically about the degree to which both assessed amounts reflect ability to pay and how repayment success varies for individuals with dissimilar financial means. This study uses fine, cost, and restitution imposition and collection data from the Administrative Office of the Pennsylvania Courts (AOPC) that spans a ten year period to examine whether there are differences in assessment and outstanding debt balances between defendants with private counsel and defendants with public defenders. To address the research aims, this study utilizes straightforward descriptive and bivariate statistics. Results indicate that a typical defendant with a public defender is assessed less in fine, cost, and/or restitution than a typical defendant with private counsel, suggesting that some courts are factoring in a defendant’s ability to pay when imposing assessments. Nonetheless, a typical defendant represented by a public defender is unable to fully repay their assessment within a decade. This is in stark contrast to a typical defendant with private counsel who is able to settle up within three to five years, depending on the type of sanction. The findings suggest that sentencing stage adjustments in financial sanctions necessitated by a defendant’s ability to pay may not be sufficient. Furthermore, the general rise in assessment amounts over time is largely due to increased costs. Given general difficulties in debt settlement, especially among indigent defendants, enhanced reliance on costs may unintentionally affect restitution amounts received by crime victims.
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Weiss, Moritz. „From Wealth to Power? The Failure of Layered Reforms in India's Defense Sector“. Journal of Global Security Studies 4, Nr. 4 (28.08.2019): 560–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jogss/ogz036.
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Abstract This article puts forward a historical institutionalist explanation of how rising powers translate increased wealth into military strength. It develops microfoundations for path dependence and applies them empirically as an approach to defense procurement. The Indian government layered market reforms onto a state-run defense sector. It aimed to exploit competition in its massive acquisition of combat fighter aircraft after 2007. Yet, despite formal rule changes and overwhelming material benefits, government reformers ultimately failed and returned to an intergovernmental purchase in 2015. I develop two mechanisms to explain this instance of failed institutional change in India. First, the reform's structural misfit created uncertainty, as some of the prerequisites for a market such as sound legal protection and private actors were absent. Second, the government reformers were reluctantly supported at the outset by a coalition of so-called opportunists, which neither fully embraced nor strongly opposed institutional reforms. When problems resulting from the misfit multiplied and promised benefits vanished, however, this coalition dissolved and layering failed. A process-tracing analysis and the triangulation of a diverse set of data substantiate this explanation. The article contributes to debates on institutional change as well as to those on rising powers and the constraints they face in their attempts to transform growing wealth into military strength. Most significantly, it specifies a causal pathway along which state institutions shape the defense policies of rising powers. Layered reforms may fail not only when faced by defenders of the status quo; opportunists may suffice to defeat them.
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Moffitt, Robert A. „In Defense of the NSF Economics Program“. Journal of Economic Perspectives 30, Nr. 3 (01.08.2016): 213–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jep.30.3.213.
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The NSF Economics program funds basic research in economics across all its disparate fields. Its budget has experienced a long period of stagnation and decline, with its real value in 2013 below that in 1980 and having declined by 50 percent as a percent of the total NSF budget. The number of grants made by the program has also declined over time, and its current budget is very small compared to that of many other funders of economic research. Over the years, NSF-supported research has supported many of the major intellectual developments in the discipline that have made important contributions to the study of public policy. The public goods argument for government support of basic economic research is strong. Neither private firms, foundations, nor private donors are likely to engage in the comprehensive support of all forms of economic research if NSF were not to exist. Select universities with large endowments are more likely to have the ability to support general economic research in the absence of NSF, but most universities do not have endowments sufficiently large to do so. Support for large-scale general purpose dataset collection is particularly unlikely to receive support from any nongovernment agency. On a priori grounds, it is likely that most NSF-funded research represents a net increase in research effort rather than displacing already-occurring effort by academic economists. Unfortunately, the empirical literature on the net aggregate impact of NSF economics funding is virtually nonexistent.
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Fondevila, Gustavo, und Miguel Quintana-Navarrete. „Pre-trial detention and legal defence in Latin America“. International Journal of Law in Context 17, Nr. 1 (24.02.2021): 75–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1744552320000440.
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AbstractPre-trial detention is used extensively in Latin America as a systematic practice implemented by courts. Despite this fact, few empirical studies have analysed the role of defence attorneys in pre-trial incarceration. This paper attempts to describe the actions taken by lawyers in order to free their clients during the judicial process, using new empirical evidence collected from the incarcerated population in Argentina, Brazil, El Salvador, Chile, Mexico and Peru. Results suggest that public defenders request conditional release less frequently but do so more effectively than their private counterparts.
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Espindola, Juan. „Educación privada e impuestos: ¿Es justo el régimen fiscal de las escuelas particulares en México?“ education policy analysis archives 24 (21.11.2016): 118. http://dx.doi.org/10.14507/epaa.24.2531.
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This paper describes and evaluates the tax regime that benefits private schools in Mexico, particularly in Mexico City. Its central claim is that this regime is incompatible with educational equality and justice. The main contribution of the paper is to examine primary and secondary empirical sources in light of the normative argument guiding this work. The first section of this work clarifies the central issues that will be addressed in the paper. The second section briefly describes the key features of the Mexican private educational sector and its tax regime. Finally, section three argues that this regime is regressive, and that the moral justifications usually invoked in its defense are untenable.
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Wang, Xiuling, und Wendy Hui Wang. „Subgraph Structure Membership Inference Attacks against Graph Neural Networks“. Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies 2024, Nr. 4 (Oktober 2024): 268–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.56553/popets-2024-0116.
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Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) have been widely applied to various applications across different domains. However, recent studies have shown that GNNs are susceptible to the membership inference attacks (MIAs) which aim to infer if some particular data samples were included in the model’s training data. While most previous MIAs have focused on inferring the membership of individual nodes and edges within the training graph, we introduce a novel form of membership inference attack called the Structure Membership Inference Attack (SMIA) which aims to determine whether a given set of nodes corresponds to a particular target structure, such as a clique or a multi-hop path, within the original training graph. To address this issue, we present novel black-box SMIA attacks that leverage the prediction outputs generated by the target GNN model for inference. Our approach involves training a three-label classifier, which, in combination with shadow training, aids in enabling the inference attack. Our extensive experimental evaluation of three representative GNN models and three real-world graph datasets demonstrates that our proposed attacks consistently outperform three baseline methods, including the one that employs the conventional link membership inference attacks to infer the subgraph structure. Additionally, we design a defense mechanism that introduces perturbations to the node embeddings thus influencing the corresponding prediction outputs by the target model. Our defense selectively perturbs dimensions within the node embeddings that have the least impact on the model's accuracy. Our empirical results demonstrate that the defense effectiveness of our approach is comparable with two established defense techniques that employ differential privacy. Moreover, our method achieves a better trade-off between defense strength and the accuracy of the target model compared to the two existing defense methods.
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Kumar, Chetan, Riazat Ryan und Ming Shao. „Adversary for Social Good: Protecting Familial Privacy through Joint Adversarial Attacks“. Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 34, Nr. 07 (03.04.2020): 11304–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v34i07.6791.
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Social media has been widely used among billions of people with dramatical participation of new users every day. Among them, social networks maintain the basic social characters and host huge amount of personal data. While protecting user sensitive data is obvious and demanding, information leakage due to adversarial attacks is somehow unavoidable, yet hard to detect. For example, implicit social relation such as family information may be simply exposed by network structure and hosted face images through off-the-shelf graph neural networks (GNN), which will be empirically proved in this paper. To address this issue, in this paper, we propose a novel adversarial attack algorithm for social good. First, we start from conventional visual family understanding problem, and demonstrate that familial information can easily be exposed to attackers by connecting sneak shots to social networks. Second, to protect family privacy on social networks, we propose a novel adversarial attack algorithm that produces both adversarial features and graph under a given budget. Specifically, both features on the node and edges between nodes will be perturbed gradually such that the probe images and its family information can not be identified correctly through conventional GNN. Extensive experiments on a popular visual social dataset have demonstrated that our defense strategy can significantly mitigate the impacts of family information leakage.
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Cohee, Garrett Lane, Jeff Barrows und Rob Handfield. „Early supplier integration in the US defense industry“. Journal of Defense Analytics and Logistics 3, Nr. 1 (20.06.2019): 2–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jdal-03-2018-0007.
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Purpose Each year, the US defense industry outsources nearly $400 bn of domestic goods and services through competitive bids. These procurement activities are quite often complex and specialized in nature because of a highly regulated federal acquisition contracting environment. Ongoing calls to improve supplier management and drive innovation in the defense industry offers an opportunity to adopt Early Supplier Integration (ESI) initiatives that have proven successful in the private sector. This paper identifies critical ESI activities and acquisition practices that the defense industry should adopt to ensure enhanced effectiveness in new product development. Design/methodology/approach Leveraging a conceptual ESI model derived from the research, an in-depth case study of 12 product development projects from a major defense contractor was performed. In the context of project performance, critical ESI activities and moderating effects were assessed. Findings Three key ESI activities have the greatest impact on aggregate project performance: system design involvement, design adjustment opportunities and design for manufacturability/assembly/testability involvement. Use of formal supplier agreements also significantly impacts project performance during the development phase. In addition, project complexity and product team maturity were identified as environment moderators; higher complexity projects tended to negatively moderate the impact of ESI upon performance, and higher team maturity levels tended to positively moderate the impact of ESI upon performance. Originality/value The results provide a sound framework for empirical validation through future quantitative studies and defense industry analyses. In addition, insights and recommendations for interpretation and adaptation of federal acquisition regulations to allow increased utilization of ESI within the defense industry are substantiated.
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Andrade-Neto, João Batista de. „Scientific studies on Krav Maga: state of the art“. Sociology International Journal 7, Nr. 4 (06.07.2023): 177–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.15406/sij.2023.07.00341.
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This study aimed to analyze and synthesize the main concepts about Krav Maga in the last four decades. This is a review of the academic literature with a qualitative approach and a narrative nature. The searched databases are PubMed/Medline, Scopus, Web of Science, SciELO, Index Medicus, Capes Platform, ProQuest Digital Dissertations, Brazilian Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (BDTD) and Google Scholar, between the years 1982 and 2022. Empirical studies with cross-sectional, longitudinal, case, control and randomized design were included, and books and private websites were excluded. The textual corpus was processed by the IRaMuTeQ software. Forty-four studies met the eligibility criteria, of which eighteen conceptualized Krav Maga as “self-defense”, twelve as “fighting”, seven as “hand-to-hand combat”, four as “self-defense art”, three as “cultural heritage” and immaterial” and another as a “hybrid system”. The main aspects evoked and addressed in the research were: Operational and Military, Historical, Pedagogical, Psychosocial and Physiological. Most studies had low to moderate methodological quality, indicating the need for greater control of biases in future research. In addition, it was evidenced that Krav Maga is a system, or method developed for self-defense, however, it is a polysemic term, and cannot be understood in a uniform and linear way.
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Perunova, O. „Ensuring gender equality in the workplace in the security and defense sector“. Uzhhorod National University Herald. Series: Law 3, Nr. 84 (04.10.2024): 176–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.24144/2307-3322.2024.84.3.26.
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Gender inequality in the workplace remains a pressing issue in many industries, and the security and defense sector is no exception. The security and defense sector encompasses a system of state authorities, the Armed Forces of Ukraine, other military formations established in accordance with Ukrainian law, law enforcement and intelligence agencies, state bodies with law enforcement functions, civil protection forces, and the defense-industrial complex of Ukraine, which has historically been male-dominated, creating unique challenges for women seeking to serve in these bodies. Research indicates that gender inequality manifests in various forms, including gender-based discrimination, sexual harassment, and limited career advancement opportunities. Considering the psychological and organizational foundations that affect the interaction between men and women in a professional environment contributes to the enhancement of professional ethics, reduction of conflicts, improvement of the moral and psychological climate, and overall increase in the efficiency of work in the security and defense sector. The aim of the article is to reveal the main aspects of gender-based service relations, highlight their significance, and emphasize the need for consideration to achieve harmonious and productive functioning of the security and defense sector. The main objectives of the research were to identify the problems faced by gender equality in this field, to justify solutions, and to outline development prospects. The study employed empirical methods, comparison, and analysis. Results: it was found that gender inequality issues in the workplace within the security and defense sector include the low representation of women in leadership positions, gender-based discrimination, and insufficient attention to issues affecting women working in these bodies. The practical significance of the study lies in developing recommendations for public and private organizations to implement effective policies and practices aimed at reducing gender inequality and improving the work environment. The theoretical significance lies in deepening the scientific understanding of gender discrimination mechanisms and the consequences of gender-based violence in the specific context of the security and defense sector.
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Shmidt, A. A. „Legal Foundations of State Policy on Self-Defense Weapons: In Quest of a Balance between Public and Private Interests“. Actual Problems of Russian Law 19, Nr. 10 (17.08.2024): 45–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.17803/1994-1471.2024.167.10.045-057.
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The debate on the right of citizens to carry short-barreled weapons, including firearms of limited destruction, has been going on for more than 30 years. The essence of these debates goes far beyond the limits of administrative law, since it is not limited only by the administrative law mechanism for implementing the procedure for acquiring, carrying and using weapons, acting as part of the public legal mechanism for ensuring personal security, security of the society and the State. The relevance of the issues of civilian arms trafficking is aggravated by the complication of the criminal situation during periods of social or economic upheavals that determine the choice of the trajectory of development of state policy for arms trafficking as an area of public law relations. The arguments of supporters and opponents of the use of firearms for self-defense are usually accompanied by arguments based on faith and beliefs rather than on facts and measurements. The purpose of the study is to summarize the legal and empirical resources characterizing administrative law foundations of state policy in relation to lethal and non-lethal self-defense weapons; to assess domestic legislative decisions and determine the directions for further administrative law development of state policy regarding arms trafficking, the expediency of using short-barreled weapons, including firearms of limited destruction, as selfdefense weapons. The interdisciplinary approach made it possible to combine the results of legal and other humanitarian studies. In particular, the achievements of branches of legal sciences of Russian law are brought together: administrative law, theory and history of law, criminology and criminal studies, sociology of law. In conclusion, the paper provides the results of a theoretical study with due regard to the historical, delictological and sociological context of the problem. The author substantiates the necessity of changing the legal foundations of state policy in the field of trafficking in self-defense weapons and gives appropriate proposals.
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송정현. „A Study on the Growth Engines of Japan's Defense Industry: Empirical Analysis on the Spin-on-Off Effect between Military and Private Industries“. Journal of North-east Asian Cultures 1, Nr. 61 (Dezember 2019): 311–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.17949/jneac.1.61.201912.018.
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Wang, Xiuling, und Wendy Hui Wang. „GCL-Leak: Link Membership Inference Attacks against Graph Contrastive Learning“. Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies 2024, Nr. 3 (Juli 2024): 165–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.56553/popets-2024-0073.
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Graph contrastive learning (GCL) has emerged as a successful method for self-supervised graph learning. It involves generating augmented views of a graph by augmenting its edges and aims to learn node embeddings that are invariant to graph augmentation. Despite its effectiveness, the potential privacy risks associated with GCL models have not been thoroughly explored. In this paper, we delve into the privacy vulnerability of GCL models through the lens of link membership inference attacks (LMIA). Specifically, we focus on the federated setting where the adversary has white-box access to the node embeddings of all the augmented views generated by the target GCL model. Designing such white-box LMIAs against GCL models presents a significant and unique challenge due to potential variations in link memberships among node pairs in the target graph and its augmented views. This variability renders members indistinguishable from non-members when relying solely on the similarity of their node embeddings in the augmented views. To address this challenge, our in-depth analysis reveals that the key distinguishing factor lies in the similarity of node embeddings within augmented views where the node pairs share identical link memberships as those in the training graph. However, this poses a second challenge, as information about whether a node pair has identical link membership in both the training graph and augmented views is only available during the attack training phase. This demands the attack classifier to handle the additional “identical-membership" information which is available only for training and not for testing. To overcome this challenge, we propose GCL-LEAK, the first link membership inference attack against GCL models. The key component of GCL-LEAK is a new attack classifier model designed under the “Learning Using Privileged Information (LUPI)” paradigm, where the privileged information of “same-membership” is encoded as part of the attack classifier's structure. Our extensive set of experiments on four representative GCL models showcases the effectiveness of GCL-LEAK. Additionally, we develop two defense mechanisms that introduce perturbation to the node embeddings. Our empirical evaluation demonstrates that both defense mechanisms significantly reduce attack accuracy while preserving the accuracy of GCL models.
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Licina, Derek. „Hospital Ships Adrift? Part 1: A Systematic Literature Review Characterizing US Navy Hospital Ship Humanitarian and Disaster Response, 2004-2012“. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine 28, Nr. 3 (15.02.2013): 230–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1049023x13000149.
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AbstractBackgroundUnited States foreign policy is tied extensively to health initiatives, many related to the use of military assets. Despite substantial resource investment by the US Department of Defense (DoD) in hospital ship humanitarian assistance and disaster response missions, the impact of this investment is unclear.MethodsA systematic literature review of both peer-reviewed and grey literature using eight databases representing the international community and multiple sectors was conducted. Data on the characteristics of missions directly related to US Navy hospital ship humanitarian assistance and disaster response from 2004-2012 were extracted and documented.ResultsOf the 1445 sources reviewed, a total of 43 publications met criteria for review. Six (13.9%) met empirical documentation criteria and 37 (86.0%) were considered nonempirical expert opinions and anecdotal accounts that were primarily descriptive in nature. Overall, disaster response accounted for 67.4% (29/43) and humanitarian assistance 25.6% (11/43). Public and private sector participants produced 79.0% (34/43) and 20.9% (9/43) of the publications respectively. Of private sector publications, 88.9% (8/9) focused on disaster response compared to 61.8% (21/34) from the public sector. Of all publications meeting inclusion criteria, 81.4% (35/43) focused on medical care, 9.3% (4/43) discussed partnerships, 4.7% (2/43) training, and 4.7% (2/43) medical ethics and strategic utilization. No primary author publications from the diplomatic, development, or participating host nations were identified. One (2.3%) of the 43 publications was from a partner nation participant.DiscussionWithout rigorous research methods yielding valid and reliable data-based information pertaining to Navy hospital ship mission impact, policy makers are left with anecdotal reports to influence their decision-making processes. This is inadequate considering the frequency of hospital ship deployments used as a foreign policy tool and the considerable funding that is involved in each mission. Future research efforts should study empirically the short- and long-term impacts of hospital ship missions in building regional and civil-military partnerships while meeting the humanitarian and disaster response needs of host nation populations.LicinaD. Hospital ships adrift? Part 1: a systematic literature review characterizing US Navy hospital ship humanitarian and disaster response, 2004-2012. Prehosp Disaster Med.2013;28(3):1–10..
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Bodolica, Virginia. „An examination into the markets for corporate control: Evidence on merger and acquisition deals involving Qatari companies“. Corporate Ownership and Control 10, Nr. 4 (2013): 439–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.22495/cocv10i4c5art1.
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Although a rich body of literature on acquisition deals and their distinguishing features exists in Western business settings, the current understanding of the governance discipline instituted by the market for corporate control in the emerging and rapidly growing economy of Qatar is severely underdeveloped. As the country is seeking to achieve its vision of becoming a preferred financial hub in the MENA region by hosting mega sport events and attracting significant foreign investments, the importance of the local market for corporate control as an external governance mechanism cannot be neglected. This study seeks to contribute to the building of a contextual knowledge in the field by providing empirical evidence on M&A transactions involving Qatari targets and acquirers. The collected data are analyzed in terms of both the idiosyncrasies of participating companies (i.e., industry and public/private status of target and acquiring firms; features of repetitive acquirers) and specific deal characteristics (i.e., absolute number and dollar value; diversifying versus consolidating, domestic versus cross-border, and synergistic versus disciplinary acquisitions; size of control premium; mode of financing; type of antitakeover defenses). Several recommendations for future research directions on M&A activities in Qatar are provided in the concluding section of the article
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Shulga, Olga. „Confidentiality and scam in the internet“. University Economic Bulletin, Nr. 48 (30.03.2021): 76–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.31470/2306-546x-2021-48-76-91.
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The purpose of the work is to consider the theoretical and practical aspects of fraud in the Internet sphere and on this basis to identify ways to ensure the confidentiality and cybersecurity of private users and commercial organizations. The methodological basis of the work is the use of general and special methods of scientific knowledge. Methods of combining analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction have been used to identify different types of fraud in the Internet. Generalization methods, logical and empirical, were used in determining the directions of development of the national cyber defense system and ensuring confidentiality. The main results of the work: The most common methods of fraud with the use of bank payment cards are identified, among which: a fake poll on social networks with a prize draw; a phone call to obtain classified information; SIM card replacement for access to online banking; online payments on unsecured sites; phishing; copying card data when handed over; unsecured WI-Fi networks; computers in public places; skimming for card data theft; unauthorized micropayments; ATM fraud; use of malicious programs (viruses), fake sites in order to compromise the details of electronic payment instruments and/or logins/passwords for access to Internet/mobile banking systems; dissemination (sale, dissemination) of information on compromised data; terminal network fraud; fraud in remote service systems; social engineering. Basic security rules are defined to prevent fraud. The experience of European countries in the field of cybersecurity is analyzed. The directions of adaptation of the current legislation on cybersecurity to the EU standards are outlined and the directions of development of the national system of cybersecurity are defined. The practical significance of the results is to deepen the understanding of the nature and mechanism of various types of fraud in the Internet. The recommendations proposed in the paper can form a methodological and theoretical basis for the development of economic policy of the state to ensure the confidentiality and cybersecurity of private users and commercial organizations. Conclusions. The state should establish an effective oversight body in the field of personal data protection, but security measures and online restrictions should comply with international standards. The use of encryption should not be prohibited at the legislative level, as such restrictions reduce the ability of citizens to protect themselves from illegal intrusions into privacy. In addition, the state policy in the Internet should be aimed at promoting the development and operation of secure Internet technologies and the formation of mechanisms to protect against services and protocols that threaten the technical functioning of the Internet from viruses, phishing and more.
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Rafael, Maria Katarina E., und Chris Mai. „Understanding the Burden of Legal Financial Obligations on Indigent Washingtonians“. Federal Sentencing Reporter 34, Nr. 2-3 (01.02.2022): 173–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/fsr.2022.34.2-3.173.
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In criminal courts across the country, judges assess a variety of fines, fees and other legal financial obligations (LFOs) that many defendants struggle to pay. This paper provides a summary of the authors’ longer empirical article that examines the disproportionate burden that fine and fee assessment and collection practices impose on low-income, system-involved individuals, using administrative court data for criminal cases filed in Washington’s courts of limited jurisdiction between 2015 and 2020. The authors find that the majority of defendants do not or only partially pay their LFOs, but that these observations are more pronounced for indigent defendants. The authors also find that, of defendants who fully pay off their fines and fees, individuals with a public defender satisfy their debt after a greater number of days, as compared to individuals with private counsel. This is all in spite of public defender defendants generally being assessed smaller amounts in fines and fees at the outset. Additionally, the authors uncover that when defendants do pay off all of their fines and fees, they tend to do so on the day of assessment, with the likelihood of satisfying full payment generally decreasing as time goes on. These findings suggest that many people struggle with criminal justice debt, but that this problem disproportionately impacts indigent Washingtonians, subjecting them to a greater possibility of harm through the various methods of collections enforcement.
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Forés. „Beyond Gathering the ‘Low-Hanging Fruit’ of Green Technology for Improved Environmental Performance: an Empirical Examination of the Moderating Effects of Proactive Environmental Management and Business Strategies“. Sustainability 11, Nr. 22 (09.11.2019): 6299. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su11226299.
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This study draws on the natural resource-based view and the dynamic capabilities theory to analyse the effects of green technology, proactive environmental management and business strategy on environmental performance. This paper offers a novel analysis of the direct effect of the integrated use of green technology on environmental performance, considering a non-linear relationship between them, and how this impact can be leveraged through a formal proactive environmental planning, coordination and control system, and a defined business strategy. In order to test the research hypotheses, multiple linear regression was used on a sample of 446 Spanish tourism firms. The results confirm a non-linear relationship between green technology and environmental performance. They also indicate the importance of defining a clear, proactive environmental management and prospector strategy to achieve more efficient products/services, processes and technologies, with minimal environmental impact. This research also provides some insights into the moderating effect exerted by proactive environmental management in terms of strengthening the relationship between green technology and environmental performance. In addition, the analysis confirms that whereas defender strategies reduce the impact of green technology on environmental performance, analyser and prospector strategies enhance its influence. These results can be used to offer a series of guidelines for both private and public agents in the tourism sector.
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Lester, J. C. „ELEUTHERIC-CONJECTURAL LIBERTARIANISM: A CONCISE PHILOSOPHICAL EXPLANATION“. MEST Journal 10, Nr. 2 (15.07.2022): 111–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.12709/mest.10.10.02.12.
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The two purposes of this essay. The general philosophical problem with most versions of social libertarianism and how this essay will proceed. The specific problem with liberty explained by a thought-experiment. The positive and abstract theory of interpersonal liberty-in-itself as ‘the absence of interpersonal initiated constraints on want-satisfaction’, for short ‘no initiated imposed costs’. The individualistic liberty-maximisation theory solves the problems of clashes, defences, and rectifications without entailing libertarian consequentialism. The practical implications of instantiating liberty: three rules of liberty-in-practice, 1) initial ultimate control of one’s body, 2) initial ultimate control of one’s used resources, 3) consensual interpersonal interactions and resource transfers. These rules are economically efficient and maximise general want-satisfaction. Private property and legal remedies are additional practical institutional aspects, but to which ‘initiated imposed costs’ then apply prima facie. Libertarian law is often mistaken for complete libertarianism. Moral explanations are a separate issue. The three main moral theories imply libertarianism, but it can be morally posited independently of them. Critical rationalism and its application. No empirical or argumentative support for theories. An important ambiguity with ‘justification’. How the epistemology applies to the theory of liberty and its application but remains separable in principle. Conclusion: there are further published explanations but this should be enough to generate useful criticism. Appendix replying to some typical comments.
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De Pedro, Kris M. Tunac, Ron Avi Astor, Rami Benbenishty, Jose Estrada, Gabrielle R. Dejoie Smith und Monica Christina Esqueda. „The Children of Military Service Members“. Review of Educational Research 81, Nr. 4 (Dezember 2011): 566–618. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0034654311423537.
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The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq have led to concerning psychological, behavioral, and academic outcomes for children in military families. Of the 1.2 million school-aged children of military service members, only 86,000 actually attend schools administered by the Department of Defense on military installations throughout the world. The remaining military children attend schools administered by civilian public schools, private schools, and other civilian-run educational agencies. At present, there is a knowledge gap in educational research regarding military-connected schools and students. Given the lack of educational research on military children, the primary objective of this review is to outline findings from noneducational disciplinary empirical literatures that are of direct relevance to schooling for educational researchers who want to conduct studies on military-connected schools and students. The authors reviewed studies on military children and their families that examined links between special circumstances and stressors as well as outcomes that are known to impact students’ school experiences. A synthesis of literature generated six themes: mental health in military families, child maltreatment, the impact of deployment on military children and families, the reintegration experience, war-related trauma of the returning veteran parent, and the experience of Reservist and Guard families in civilian contexts. The article concludes with a heuristic model for future educational research, including linkages to school reform.
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Bekhterev, Sergei L., und Lyudmila N. Bekhtereva. „Early Soviet Regional History in the Fates of Compatriots Through the Example of G.K. Ozhigov’s Biography“. RUDN Journal of Russian History 22, Nr. 3 (15.12.2023): 456–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2312-8674-2023-22-3-456-469.
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The early Soviet period in the life of Grigory Kondratievich Ozhigov (Ozhegov) (1878-1935) is reconstructed within the author’s paper. A native of a Vyatka peasant family, a worker at the Izhevsk defense factories, a Socialist-Revolutionary militant, as well as a member of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the first convocation, who was at party work in the Baltic States and Finland, Orzhigov had a varied career The authors through their work have introduced into scientific use new sources analyzed in the context of the theory of social adaptation, through anthropological approach as well as historical-biographical methodology. Of greatest interest are the materials of the: Revolutionary Civil Council of Izhevsk (1918), Soviet commissions on the affairs of former Red Guards and Red partisans (the 1930s), and the autobiography and memoirs of G.K. Ozhigov himself . The documents of the private origin fund of the Ozhigov family are stored in the Central State Archive of the Udmurt Republic, and are of a complex nature. The study of the biography of Ozhigov, who had turned out to be among the most revolutionary-minded citizens, as shown in other empirical material, does explain why he supported the left-wing radical societal project in Udmurtia. A region by the beginning of modern times which has been the largest agrarian and industrial region of Russia, while largely preserving its traditional way of life.
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Schuetze, Benjamin. „Simulating, marketing, and playing war: US–Jordanian military collaboration and the politics of commercial security“. Security Dialogue 48, Nr. 5 (14.07.2017): 431–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0967010617717620.
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The King Abdullah II Special Operations Training Center (KASOTC) was financed and established by the US Department of Defense, is operated by a US private business, and is owned by the Jordanian army. It not only offers a base for the training of international Special Forces and Jordanian border guards, but also for military adventure holidays, corporate leadership programs, and stunt training for actors. This article provides an analysis of the processes and technologies involved in US–Jordanian military collaboration by investigating some of the ways in which war is simulated, marketed, and played at KASOTC. Particular focus is paid to the stark biopolitical judgments about the different worth of human subjects and their role in intersecting processes of militarization and commercialization. The article argues that US–Jordanian military collaboration at KASOTC is marked by the simultaneous blurring and reinforcement of boundaries, as commercial security is moralized and imagined moral hierarchies marketized. While war at KASOTC is an interactive and consumable event for some, it engenders deadly realities for others. The article is an empirically-grounded contribution to critical security studies based on interviews and observations made during a visit to KASOTC in early 2013.
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Grin'ko, Aleksey. „The rights of the defendant and public interest in proving insanity under the law of New York“. Sravnitel noe konstitucionnoe obozrenie 30, Nr. 3 (2021): 108–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.21128/1812-7126-2021-3-108-124.
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Allocation of the burden of proof is a key issue of criminal procedure that is affected by multiple legal and social factors. Under due process principles, the defendant’s right to a fair and impartial trial is deemed to be the epicenter of the whole structure. However, efficient law enforcement is a prominent public interest that must be considered. This article explores the correlation between public and private interest in proving insanity under the law of New York, which provides great empirical background due to its long history of legal disputes and legislative changes. Considering the nature and structure of the burden of proof, the author concludes that there are several principles for its fair allocation: the due party that bears both the burden and the risk of its nonperformance; the feasibility of the burden; the adequate opportunity for the other party to rebut; the concentration of resources upon needs that are not presumed but in fact exist. All the mentioned principles lay the ground for the harmonization of constitutional guaranties for the defendant as well as the successful enforcement of criminal law. The current New York approach to insanity defense as an affirmative one along with the history of its implementation tends to prove its compliance with such requirements. This finding suggests that bearing the burden shall not be treated as impairment by default, but can protect both the interest of this party and the integrity of the whole process.
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Magalhães, Tiago De Oliveira. „Sobre certas dissimilaridades entre as Investigações filosóficas de Wittgenstein e o behaviorismo radical de Skinner [On certain dissimilarities between Wittgenstein's Philosophical investigations and Skinner's radical behaviorism]“. Princípios: Revista de Filosofia (UFRN) 24, Nr. 43 (19.05.2017): 175. http://dx.doi.org/10.21680/1983-2109.2017v24n43id10297.
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A oposição ao dualismo, ao mentalismo, ao reducionismo e ao referencialismo, bem como a cuidadosa atenção dada ao comportamento, vêm sendo corretamente apontadas como similaridades entre o Behaviorismo Radical de Skinner e a filosofia tardia de Wittgenstein. Com o intuito de contribuir para uma comparação mais completa entre as obras desses autores, este artigo procura evidenciar pontos em torno dos quais eles divergem. Em linhas gerais, algumas das dissimilaridades mais significativas consistem em, contrariamente a Wittgenstein, Skinner alinhar-se à metafilosofia naturalista, dar ênfase à natureza empírica e pragmática do conhecimento, defender a possibilidade de compreensão da normatividade e da racionalidade em termos de regularidades factuais, adotar uma postura eliminativista diante da linguagem comum e empregar o conceito de eventos privados.[The opposition to dualism, mentalism, reductionism and referentialism, as well as the careful attention given to behavior, has been correctly indicated as similarities between Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism and Wittgenstein’s late philosophy. In order to concur to a more complete comparison, this work attempts to highlight points around which these authors diverge. Broadly, some of the most significant dissimilarities are related to the fact that, unlike Wittgenstein, Skinner embraces a naturalist metaphilosophy, emphasizes the empirical and pragmatic nature of knowledge, defends the possibility of understanding normativity and rationality in terms of factual regularities, adopts an eliminativist stance towards common language and makes use of the concept of private events.]
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Bernotienė, Gintarė. „On Henrikas Nagys’ Niveau“. Colloquia 45 (21.12.2020): 92–122. http://dx.doi.org/10.51554/col.2020.28588.
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The author of the article examines the trajectories of the Lithuanian diaspora poet, Henrikas Nagys’ (1920–1996), works, their recognition and his ability to remain an influential figure in the field of literature. The assessment of poet’s works and his personality are highlighted by introducing behindthe-scenes actions and circumstances, which did not resonate in the literary criticism of the time, but were captured in the diaspora cultural press and in the private egodocuments that became available later, such as memoirs, diaries, and vast correspondence. These egodocuments constitute the basis of this research.The author of the article has chosen the historical empirical method, which suits the most to observe the dynamics of Nagys’ aesthetic and moral choices and evaluations in the context of Lithuanian diaspora—the early recognition of Nagys’ poetry; the strengthening of his generation’s literary position, actively pursued by the poet himself; promoting the authors of similar poetic aesthetics to the ranks of the leading writers (i.e. hierarchical actions); and later, poet’s sore reaction to his exclusion from the top of hierarchy.Nagys, an ardent patriot of Lithuania, who firmly defended his position in the disputes, was uncompromising towards the Soviet regime. Ideological and worldview differences were one of the reasons why Nagys broke ties with the associates of the monthly Akiračiai and the literary journal Metmenys and the Santara Federation. Nagys felt unappreciated when the literary criticism professing the new literary research methods put forward the authors of the renewed canon of Lithuanian diaspora poetry (Alfonsas Nyka-Niliūnas, Tomas Venclova, Henrikas Radauskas).Nagys learned of the value of his works and of his influence on poets living in Lithuania only after 1990s, relying on the reactions to his poetry (political context was also important for understanding its value orientation) revealed in private correspondence with Lithuania’s writers.
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Ascencio, Débora. „La empresa pública en primer plano: una revisión de la nueva agenda de investigación en Europa y América Latina“. Revista del CLAD Reforma y Democracia, Nr. 80 (01.05.2021): 5–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.69733/clad.ryd.n80.a254.
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Despite the inescapable relevance of public enterprises in the world's economies, the researchers who have devoted themselves to their study coincide in pointing out a historiographic and conceptual void around the subject and stress the importance of promoting research that will allow the accumulation of a considerable base of empirical studies to overcome generic interpretations and develop specific bodies of theory. In this sense, considering the aforementioned vacancy and the relating degree of dispersion in the contributions, this article proposes to comprehensively review the emergence of a recent and prolific research agenda, particularly located in Europe and Latin America, with substantial findings for the study of public enterprises and whose systematization allows identifying common aspects that, so far, have been disarticulated. Among the main conclusions is the origin of public enterprises with the emergence of the Nation-States stands out. This is central to an assessment of privatizations, because the projects that defended market solutions were based on the false postulate that state-owned enterprises originate and grow only with the left-wing or interventionist governments. In addition, they provide empirical evidence that shows there is no strict coincidence between political cycles and the evolution of the growth of firms; on the contrary, their development responds to very heterogeneous factors. Based on this “ideological stigma” attached to public enterprises, a series of myths about their supposedly inefficient operation are sustained. However, the studies examined show that ownership is just one more element within the multiplicity of factors involved in business performance and highlight central aspects of public administration, such as governance, state capacities, or what that some authors call entrepreneurship, although these are still open debates, the nuances of which are systematized throughout the work. These approaches are linked to analyses of the new formats of the 21st century, very different from the traditional state monopoly, in which public and private capital appear combined and competing in liberalized international markets.
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Szabómihály, Gizella. „Languages and actors in the linguistic landscape in the Slovak-Hungarian ethnically mixed area in Slovakia“. Journal of Linguistics/Jazykovedný casopis 71, Nr. 3 (01.12.2020): 297–320. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/jazcas-2021-0001.
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Abstract The aim of this paper is to characterize the linguistic landscape of municipalities in Slovakia inhabited by Hungarian minority. Empirical data come from two sources: from BA and MA theses, which were defended in 2015 – 2020 at the Institute of Hungarian Linguistics and Literary Studies at the Faculty of Central European Studies, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra and from research project VEGA “Minority variety of the Hungarian language in Slovakia”. As part of the above field research, the linguistic landscape of 82 municipalities in which the Hungarian population makes up at least 20% of the population was mapped. The results fundamentally confirm the research findings of P. Laihonen, who studied linguistic landscape in two municipalities. In all municipalities, the most frequent language was Slovak, this applies to all types of analyzed signs with texts (inscriptions of state and municipal authorities, commercial and private signs). Slovak occurs on at least 80% of signs, the representation of Hungarian as the second most frequent language is between 25 – 55%. The most bilingual Slovak-Hungarian signs are in the southwest of Slovakia, where the largest Hungarian minority lives and where Hungarians form the local majority. On bilingual Slovak-Hungarian signs, the preferred language is Slovak, in terms of information content, it is a duplicate publication of information. Municipal authorities and the commercial sphere have the greatest influence on the formation of the linguistic landscape.
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Tarichko, I. Yu. „National type of criminal process as a result of political decisions“. Herald of Omsk University. Series: Law, Nr. 3 (2022): 118–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.24147/1990-5173.2022.19(3).118-126.
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Introduction. Familiarization with advanced European standards (largely formed by the Code of Napoleon of 1808) in the field of criminal justice led to the emergence of full-fledged functions of justice, judicial control, prosecution carried out by the prosecutor's office, criminal case investigation, defense on the basis of the Russian legal tradition. At the same time, the historical factor is not the only determinant of the formation of the type of process. Goal. To identify and analyze the key political decisions that influenced the formation of the type and functional content of Russian criminal proceedings. Methodology. For the purposes of this study, the universal method of cognition, as well as methods characteristic of empirical research of a concrete historical, comparative legal nature, etc., are used. Results. The study revealed a number of erroneous political decisions that had a significant impact on the formation of the type of Russian criminal process and its functional content. Among them: the formation of criminal procedure legislation based on private technological theory; the active involvement of American experts in the preparation of the draft Code of Criminal Procedure; the rejection of truth as a goal of proof; the desire for a total expansion of competition; a distorted, one-sided understanding of the goals and objectives of the criminal process. Conclusion. The political factor has a dual nature. Defining it only as objective is hardly correct and possible. Being derived from the process of historical development, it is influenced by the subjective will of a person (prince, sovereign, the emperor, the president) or a group of persons who have the ability to make or influence the adoption of key political decisions.
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Faikov, D. Yu, und D. Yu Baydarov. „Assessment of Opportunities and Prospects for Diversifying the Activities of State Corporations in the Framework of Modern Organizational and Technological Trends (in the case of the nuclear industry)“. MIR (Modernization. Innovation. Research) 11, Nr. 2 (23.07.2020): 179–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.18184/2079-4665.2020.11.2.179-195.
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Purpose: determination of the opportunities and definition of prospects of diversification in the field of production of new products (in the case of the nuclear industry), which allows to match the level of a new technological stage and to achieve state goals for import substitution, production of high-tech civilian products of the defense enterprises, creation of mechanisms for state support of leading industries.Methods: the research is based on a comprehensive analysis of diversification and production of new products using scientific and technical, institutional, organizational, and marketing approaches. Methods of empirical analysis were used to assess the opportunities and prospects for the production of new products by nuclear industry enterprises. The research also used methods of comparison, generalization, classification, and graphical representation.Results: as part of the study of diversification processes, the need for a special understanding of the term "new" in relation to technologies and products that correspond to both global technological trends and novelty from the point of view of the manufacturer has been identified. The reasons that motivate nuclear enterprises to develop new products (the need to diversify activities related to nuclear energy, expanding the production of high-tech products by defense enterprises) were determined. Global and national markets, major competitors, government support measures for a number of new products manufactured by the enterprises of the ROSATOM State Atomic Energy Corporation – wind energy, additive technologies, composite materials, digital technologies – were evaluated. It was shown that ROSATOM in some cases forms these markets in Russia creating opportunities for other enterprises. ROSATOM activities meet the world's leading manufacturers practice – the entire technology chain from materials to finished product building, key manufacturers combining. ROSATOM is developing the directions that require interaction between the state and business.Conclusions and Relevance: diversification, including the production of new products, corresponds to both promising organizational and technological trends (industry 4.0, etc.) and the needs of import substitution and diversification. The effective organizational approach is the competencies unification that allows to cover all redistributions and compete with leading global manufacturers. It is necessary to create national markets using public-private partnership where public corporations can play a leading role in order to develop the most promising technological areas. The state should form a system for supporting promising areas in new technologies and products fields.
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Grassiani, Erella, und Frank Müller. „Brazil-Israel Relations and the Marketing of Urban Security Expertise“. Latin American Perspectives 46, Nr. 3 (21.02.2019): 114–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0094582x19831442.
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The transnational (re)making of contemporary urban pacification practices, discourses, and technologies between Brazil and Israel is underpinned by coercive entanglements. The Israeli experience with the occupation of the Palestinian territories has brought the Israel Defense Forces and the country’s private security industry international recognition for their urban warfare skills and related security technologies; Brazil has recently gained international recognition for urban pacification efforts that emphasize the country’s military’s ability to combine “hard” and “soft” skills, thereby foregrounding the nexus of military and humanitarian forms of engagement on urban battlefields. Empirical findings framed by critical scholarship on pacification demonstrate how recent shifts in the military and diplomatic relations between the two countries seek to symbolically capitalize on their own and each other’s urban warfare experiences to promote themselves as security experts capable of addressing a range of future urban threat scenarios—from urban warfare to antigang and antiriot policing and peacekeeping. A reorganização transnacional das práticas, discursos e tecnologias de urbanização contemporânea entre Brasil e Israel são movidas por envolvimento coercitivo. A experiência israelense de ocupação dos territórios palestinos trouxe prestígio internacional às Forças de Defesa Israelense, bem como à indústria de segurança particular do país, em virtude de tecnologia de combate urbano. Brasil recentemente alcançou reconhecimento internacional pelos esforços de pacificação urbana, que enfatizam a habilidade das forças armadas do país em combinar “soft and hard skills”, criando assim um nexo de interação militar e humanitário no campo de batalha urbano. Observações produzidas em moldura crítica acadêmica sobre pacificação demonstram de que modo mudanças recentes nas relações diplomática e militar dos dois países visam capitalizar simbolicamente as experiências respectivas para promoverem a si mesmos como especialistas em segurança capazes de tratar uma variedade de cenários urbanos de risco—desde a guerra urbana contra gangs até o policiamento de manifestações.
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Crockett, Alasdair, und David Voas. „‘A Divergence of Views: Attitude change and the religious crisis over homosexuality’“. Sociological Research Online 8, Nr. 4 (November 2003): 88–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.5153/sro.861.
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British attitudes towards homosexuality have changed with astonishing rapidity over recent decades. Society has managed to assimilate these shifts with relative ease. The Christian churches, however, as repositories of tradition and defenders of inherited values, have been finding it increasingly difficult to adjust to the new environment. The Church of England is internally divided in the face of an external crisis: the Archbishop of Canterbury acknowledges that the global Anglican Communion could split over the issue, and the church faces similar pressures domestically. These events raise important questions about how religious institutions come to terms with modernity. The rapidity of social change, the decline in deference to authority, the increase in tolerance of anything that seems a private matter, and the sense that sexuality is fundamental to the free expression of personal identity, all make it difficult for a church to declare that sexual orientation might disqualify one from ministry or even membership. This paper analyses empirical evidence covering two decades from the British Social Attitudes and British Household Panel surveys. It is apparent that no real consensus yet exists on basic issues of sexual morality. Society as a whole is highly polarised over the question of whether same-sex unions are wrong, with significant and increasing divisions between young and old, women and men, and religious and non-religious. Far from being better placed than others to avoid disputes, Christian churches suffer from compounded problems. The attitudes of lay Christians are starkly and increasingly polarised along the dimensions of ideology and religious practice. This gulf presents a particular problem for churches with both liberal and evangelical wings, notably the Church of England.
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Sedova, Natalia N. „Activism in the Worldview of Russians“. Sociologicheskaja nauka i social naja praktika 7, Nr. 4 (2019): 9–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.19181/snsp.2019.7.4.6796.
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The article is devoted to the analysis of the social phenomenon of “self-sufficiency” and the development of the “activist” type of worldview of Russians. The authors call self-sufficiency the ability of people (according to self-assessment) to live and provide for themselves, relying only on their own strength, without the help of the state. Attribution to the “activist” type of worldview is based on the installation of self-sufficiency, active defense of their interests, search and development of new (initiative, enterprise). The “ activist “type is analyzed in comparison with the passivist” type (it is based on the attitudes towards dependence / assistance of the state, adaptation to reality, conservatism / adherence to customs, traditions). The empirical base of the article is the data of a nationwide representative surveys FNESC Russian Academy of Sciences (formerly the Institute of sociology, RAS) carried out in 2005-2019 years. The objectives of the study were to analyze the dynamics of attitudes to self-sufficiency and activist type of worldview, to clarify the social base of their carriers, to confirm the previously made conclusions about the socially significant transformative potential of the carriers of these attitudes. The authors analyzed the perception of the carriers of “activist” attitudes of priorities in the qualities of people, values of personal and public good, attitude to work in the context of life success and traditional morality, priorities in the development of the country. The scrapping in 2018 of the previously identified trend for the growth of attitudes to “selfsufficiency” and active protection of their rights was noted. The change in dynamics is associated with pension reform. The development of the Self-oriented model of the worldview is fixed, when the private life of a person comes to the fore, and interaction with the surrounding world turns out to be rather on the periphery of interests. There is an increase in alienation from the state, the formation of tolerance for deviation from traditional morality in order to achieve success, while at the same time the demand for working formal rules, for life according to the law, and not “according to concepts”.
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Khoroshilov, Dmitry A., und Oxana A. Gromova. „Perception of pandemic and vaccination in the period of COVID-19 “second wave” (on the basis of in-depth interviews)“. National Psychological Journal 42, Nr. 2 (2021): 3–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.11621/npj.2021.0201.
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Background. The article reveals the prospects for a psychological research of the perception and experience of the Covid-19 epidemic and pandemic as a situation of deprivation and frustration of personal life space. The constitutive characteristics of living space — interactivity, heterogeneity, blurring the boundaries between private and public — makes it vulnerable (precarious) to radical social transformations, of which the epidemic and pandemic of the coronavirus has become the extreme expression. Objective. The purpose of the theoretical and empirical study is to analyze the subjective attitude towards the pandemic and vaccination. Design. The study was carried out in a qualitative design using the methods of semi-structured in-depth interviews and thematic analysis, a projective technique of directed verbal associations. The purposive sample of the study consisted of 50 people (25 men and 25 women, 18–70 years old). The interviews were conducted in winter, 2020–2021, during the “second wave” of the coronavirus and in spring, 2021 after the loosening of restrictive measures. Results. A qualitative analysis of in-depth interviews made it possible to highlight the following topics: 1) the discrepancy between the cognitive and affective levels of attitudes towards the pandemic situation (acceptance of the coronavirus as an element of everyday life and at the same time experiencing a radical breakdown of the usual way of life); 2) a steady state of mental tension, which during the period of self-isolation limited the resources for maintaining professional activity, self-education and self-development; 3) search for individual strategies for coping with this state in everyday life; 4) the difficulties of resocialization when switching back from the self-isolation mode; 5) distrust of official and unofficial sources of information, attitude towards the media as a key factor in provoking stress, fear and anxiety; 6) spontaneous intergroup differentiation of vaccinated and unvaccinated; 7) projection of the archetypal image of the trickster hero onto the vaccine. Conclusion. Disorientation in the situation of uncertainty and transitivity provoked by the coronavirus pandemic actualizes the archaic mechanisms of socio-psychological defense, which can be considered confirmation of the theoretical hypothesis of irrationality as an integral property of human consciousness and modern society.