Dissertationen zum Thema „Composite construction Testing“

Thesis (S.M.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2000.
Also available online at the MIT Theses Online homepage .
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 290-294).
A small space based telescope is being designed by the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. in conjunction with MIT. The design goal of this project is to use existing technology to gather ground data from low earth orbit at a minimal cost. A structure was constructed at MIT that allows the satellite to survive launch loads and maintains the optical stability of the satellite. The structure is a double hull design constructed of AS4/3501-6 graphite epoxy with a zero coefficient of thermal expansion lay-up to prevent defocussing of the optics due to thermal loading. The overall design goal at MIT is to construct a space worthy structure. This thesis includes the preliminary design of the inner structure that houses the optics for the telescope. Design of the outer structure, the connections between the inner and the outer structure and detailed design of the inner structure are not included in this work. The analytical techniques used in this project included thermal analyses of structures in various earth orbits, determination of structural requirements from optical performance calculations, designing of near zero Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE) laminates, consideration of manufacturing and material variations in design, strength analysis of composite laminates, and determination of vibration modes and associated frequencies of tubular structures with anisotropic sandwich construction. Experimental work included the building of co-cured honeycomb panels, curved panels, and tubular sections to verify the structure as designed was manufacturable. These efforts culminated in the production of a space-worthy component. Testing was preformed to verify the analysis and design. Testing included flatwise tension testing to verify integrity of the honeycomb bonding, tensile testing to verify stiffness calculations and experimentally determine the failure load for the desired lay-up, and testing to verify the CTE was within acceptable bounds to prevent the optics from defocussing.
by Christopher Thomas Dunn.
S.M.

The stresses and deformations in cross-ply composite tubes subjected in circumferential temperature gradients are studied. The motivation behind the study is the anticipated use of composite tubes in space structures where the tube is exposed to the heat of the sun on one side and the cryogenic temperatures of space on the other. Experiments were performed to measure the functional form of the temperature gradient and the displacements. It was found that the form of the temperature gradient, T(Ɵ), can accurately be represented by T(Ɵ) = A + BcosƟ¸ and that the displacement of the tube is parabolic in the axial coordinate. Two types of analytical solutions were developed: an exact elasticity U solution and an approximate solution. The approximate solution includes a linear variation of the material properties with temperature and uses the principle of complementary virtual work in conjunction with a Ritz approximation on the stress field. The elasticity solution predicts that high tensile stresses could crack the matrix. The effect of including temperature-dependent material properties is to reduce the circumferential dependency of the stresses.

Master of Science

Includes bibliographical references (p. 185-189) Aims to determine the effect of partial interaction on the behaviour of the concrete beam, plate and bolt connector components of the composite plated beam. Develops design rules for the determination of the ultimate capacity for bolted plate reinforced composite beams.

The strength of materials solution for a new bonded cantilever beam test specimen to determine adhesive shear properties is reviewed and discussed. A parametric analysis for the adhesive shear stress and for the end deflection reveals the specimen dimensions required for reliable bonded adhesive shear properties determination. Recommendations are provided for conducting reproducible tests. A pure and quasi-uniform shear test for stiff adhesives is proposed. Analytical solutions are compared with Finite Element solutions from VISTA and NOVA for the stresses in the adhesive. It appears that the assumption of pure shear is nearly valid even for very stiff and/or very thick adhesives. In order to increase the end point deformations for stiff adhesives, a modified specimen is proposed. Three-dimensional effects through the thickness of the adhesive layer are studied with the program ABAQUS. Experiments were performed using the two methods derived from theory and good correlation between theory and experiment were obtained with some restrictions. For both methods, experimental results underlined the need for defining proper specimen geometry prior to testing. Simple numerical codes are proposed to facilitate this purpose.
Master of Science

A strength of materials type solution is obtained for the shear stress state in the adhesive layer of a bonded cantilever beam subjected to an end load. The shear stress is constant through the thickness of the adhesive layer and varies from zero at the fixed end to a maximum value at the free end. This maximum value can, under certain conditions, be calculated from knowledge of the load and the beam geometry only. The adhesive's shear modulus can then be determined from a measurement of the shear strain in the adhesive layer. An expression for the beam deflection is also obtained. It contains a coefficient of adhesion which is potentially useful to evaluate surface treatments or other factors leading to different states of adhesion. Fracture mechanics application of the specimen, nonlinear and viscoelastic adhesive behavior are briefly mentioned.
Master of Science

Pavement foundations for major roads in the UK were historically designed on an empirical basis, related to a single design chart, restricting the incorporation of superior performing materials or materials for which the empirical data sets were not available. The adoption of performance based specifications was promoted as they are perceived to 'open up' the use of alternative materials (including 'local' sources of primary materials) or techniques, and allow for the incorporation of superior performance into the overall pavement design. Parallel developments to the performance based design of pavement foundations (allowing for superior performance) and in situ testing required the support of laboratory based performance tests. These laboratory based tests were required to determine material performance parameters (elastic modulus and resistance to permanent deformation) for both unbound and hydraulically bound pavement foundation materials. A review of the available laboratory apparatus indicated that they were either; unrealistic (and hence unable to provide the required material performance parameters), or overly complex and more suited to fundamental research. Therefore, the requirement for developmental research work was identified. The research reported herein details the development, manufacture and initial evaluation of simplified laboratory apparatus (the Springbox for unbound materials and static stiffness test for hydraulically bound mixtures) designed to produce the performance parameters of elastic modulus and relative resistance to permanent deformation for pavement foundation materials. The equipment and test procedure evaluation was undertaken across a range of materials, giving initial guidance on likely in situ performance. The innovative laboratory apparatus and materials guidance (including the potential to use recycled and secondary aggregates) was incorporated into key Highways Agency specification and guidance documents, which in turn influence construction practice outside of motorways and major trunk roads. This research concludes by outlining a number of recommendations for continued development and evaluation, including feeding back data sets from long term in situ performance testing for subsequent refinement of assumptions.

Flush repairs to military aircraft are expected to become more prevalent as more thick skin composites are used, particularly on the surface of the fuselage, wings and other external surfaces. The use of these repairs, whilst difficult to manufacture provide an aerodynamic, ???stealthy??? finish that is also more structurally efficient than overlap repairs. This research was undertaken to improve the design methodology of scarf repairs with reduced material removal and to investigate the damage tolerance of scarf repair to low velocity impact damage. Scarf repairs involve shallow bevel angles to ensure the shear stress in the adhesive does not exceed allowable strength. This is important when repairing structures that need to withstand hot and humid conditions, when the adhesive properties degrade. Therefore, considerable amounts of parent material must be machined away prior to repair. The tips of the repair patch and the parent laminate are very sharp, thus a scarf repair is susceptible to accidental damage. The original contributions include: ??? Developed analytic means of predicting the stresses within optimised scarf joints with dissimilar materials. New equations were developed and solved using numerical algorithms. ??? Verified using finite element modelling that a scarfed insert with dissimilar modulus subjected to uniaxial loading attracted the same amount of load as an insert without a scarf. As such, the simple analytic formula used to predict load attraction/diversion through a plate with an insert may be used to predict the load attraction/diversion into a scarf repair that contains a dissimilar adherend patch. ??? Developed a more efficient flush joint with a doubler insert placed near the mid line of the parent structure material. This joint configuration has a lower load eccentricity than external doubler joint. ??? Investigated the damage tolerance of scarf joints, with and without the external doubler. The results showed that scarf joints without external doublers exhibited a considerable strength reduction following low velocity impact. Based on the observations, the major damage mechanics in the scarf joint region following impact have been identified. These results demonstrated that it is important to incorporate damage tolerance in the design of scarf repairs.

Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is a new class of concrete characterized by no coarse aggregate, steel fiber reinforcement, low w/c, low permeability, compressive strength exceeding 29,000 psi (200 MPa), tensile strength ranging from 1,200 to 2,500 psi (8 to 17 MPa), and very high toughness. These properties make prestressed precast UHPC bridge girders a very attractive replacement material for steel bridge girders, particularly when site demands require a comparable beam depth to steel and a 100+ year life span is desired. In order to efficiently utilize UHPC in bridge construction, it is necessary to create new design recommendations for its use. The interface between precast UHPC girder and cast-in-place concrete decks must be characterized in order to safely use composite design methods with this new material. Due to the lack of reinforcing bars, all shear forces in UHPC girders have to be carried by the concrete and steel fibers. Current U.S. codes do not consider fiber reinforcement in calculating shear capacity. Fiber contribution must be accurately accounted for in shear equations in order to use UHPC. Casting of UHPC may cause fibers to orient in the direction of casting. If fibers are preferentially oriented, physical properties of the concrete may also become anisotropic, which must be considered in design. The current research provides new understanding of shear and shear friction phenomena in UHPC including: *Current AASHTO codes provide a non-conservative estimate of interface shear performance of smooth UHPC interfaces with and without interface steel. *Fluted interfaces can be created by impressing formliners into the surface of plastic UHPC. AASHTO and ACI codes for roughened interfaces are conservative for design of fluted UHPC interfaces. *A new equation for the calculation of shear capacity of UHPC girders is presented which takes into account the contribution of steel fiber reinforcement. *Fibers are shown to preferentially align in the direction of casting, which significantly affects compressive behavior of the UHPC.

Ce travail de recherche est axé sur le développement de composites à liant phosphatique et fibres de renfort en verre E pour diverses applications structurales en Génie Civil. Dans une première partie, un bilan bibliographique nous permet d'identifier les principaux facteurs aux différentes échelles (nano, micro, méso et macro) ayant une influence sur le comportement global de composites à matrice minérale. Dans un second temps, les propriétés mécaniques et physico-chimiques des constituants sont présentées. Nous développons une méthodologie spécifique de caractérisation en traction, en compression et en cisaillement. Le développement de procédures expérimentales particulières en compression et en cisaillement permet l'identification des lois de comportement et l'évaluation des seuils d'endommagement et charges de rupture. La prévision des différents termes de rigidité élastique des systèmes composites est évaluée à partir d'expressions reprenant les principes de base de la micromécanique des composites. L'analyse du comportement à rupture est abordée au plan mésoscopique en considérant deux critères de résistance en plasticité, anisotropie (Tsai-Wu) et en contrainte normale, de cisaillement (Mohr-Coulomb). La deuxième partie de la recherche est consacrée à l'étude d'éléments structuraux mettant en oeuvre les formulations pultrudés de ces systèmes composites. L'expérimentation de poutres, présentant un rapport de la hauteur de la section à la portée de la poutre compris entre 1/15 et 1/50, met en évidence des modes de rupture spécifiques confirmant les faibles caractéristiques du matériau vis-à-vis de l'effort tranchant, du cisaillement interlaminaire et de la décohésion fibre/matrice. L'optimisation de la conception et du dimensionnement des poutres se poursuit en considérant des modifications d'ordre technologique : modification des sections par addition d'entretoises, confinement des sections par tressage circonférentiel, application d'un confinement par stratification directe. Pour chaque type de structures, nous cherchons à définir les limites de validité des méthodes de dimensionnement usuelles en examinant plus particulièrement la conformité des hypothèses de calcul (Navier-Bernoulli, Saint Venant), la cohérence des équations d'équilibre au regard de la cinématique dans chaque section. Dans un second temps, nous considérons des développements intégrant les non linéarités de comportement ou des modèles d'équilibre de type force adaptés à la redistribution interne des efforts tranchants.

Incorporating reinforcement into the practice of digital concrete construction, often called 3D-concrete-printing, is a prerequisite for wide-ranging, structural applications of this new technology. Strain-Hardening Cement-based Composites (SHCC) offer one possible solution to this challenge. In this work, printable SHCC were developed and tested. The composites could be extruded through a nozzle of a 3D-printer so that continuous filaments could be deposited, one upon the other, to build lab-scaled wall specimens without noticeable deformation of the bottom layers. The specimens extracted from the printed walls exhibited multiple fine cracks and pronounced strain-hardening characteristics under uniaxial tensile loading, even for fiber volume fractions as low as 1.0%. In fact, the strain-hardening characteristics of printed specimens were superior to those of mold-cast SHCC specimens.

Bestärkt durch das gesellschaftliche und wirtschaftliche Interesse an nachhaltigen und ressourcenschonenden Formen des Bauens gewinnen Holzkonstruktionen wieder unverkennbar an Bedeutung. Mit dieser Entwicklung bilden sich neue Konstruktionsprinzipien und Materialkombinationen im Bauwesen heraus, zu deren ingenieurtechnischer Beurteilung zum Teil keine ausreichenden Erkenntnisse vorliegen. Verbundkonstruktionen aus Holz und Glas sind eine innovative Bauweise, die zu einer höheren Materialeffizienz in Fassaden beiträgt, deren Wirkungsweise aber noch nicht ausreichend hinterfragt wurde. Werden Holz und Glas durch eine tragende Klebung verbunden, lässt sich das vielfach ungenutzte Tragpotenzial ausschöpfen, das eine in Scheibenebene belastete Verglasung aufweist. Die Qualität der Klebung entscheidet dabei über die Eigenschaften und das Leistungsvermögen des Bauteils. Die üblicherweise an dieser Schnittstelle eingesetzten Silikonklebstoffe weisen eine hohe Nachgiebigkeit und eine vergleichsweise geringe Festigkeit auf. Wenn die Verbundelemente als Aussteifung mitwirken sollen, bleibt ihr Einsatz deswegen auf Gebäude mit höchstens zwei Geschossen limitiert. Die vorliegende Arbeit trägt entscheidend zur Erweiterung der baulichen Möglichkeiten bei, indem sie der Anwendbarkeit von hochfesten Klebstoffen, die für den Einsatz im Bauwesen nur wenig erforscht sind, auf vielschichtige Weise nachgeht. Im Fokus stehen aussteifende Holz-Glas-Verbundelemente für die Fassade. Weder die Bauart noch das Bauprodukt Klebstoff sind derzeit in Deutschland in einer Norm erfasst. Das Klären der baurechtlichen Rahmenbedingungen ist daher unerlässlich und erfolgt mit engem Bezug zum konstruktiven Glasbau. Zusätzlich zur wissenschaftlichen Interpretation wird dadurch eine praxisnahe Bewertung der Versuchsergebnisse möglich, was ein Alleinstellungsmerkmal dieser Arbeit darstellt. Das Verformungsvermögen des Klebstoffs spielt eine zentrale Rolle bei der Materialauswahl und Gestaltung der Holz-Glas-Verbundelemente. Der Einfluss der Klebstoffsteifigkeit auf das Tragverhalten eines Einzelelements und auf dessen Interaktion mit den anderen Bestandteilen des Tragwerks wird an einem Modellgebäude untersucht. Auf Basis dieser Parameterstudie lassen sich drei Steifigkeitsbereiche definieren, auf die sich die Klebstoffauswahl für die weiteren Untersuchungen stützt. Der experimentelle Teil der Arbeit beginnt mit der ausführlichen Charakterisierung von sieben Klebstoffen. Davon werden zwei höherfeste Klebstoffe als geeignet identifiziert. Ein Silikonklebstoff wird als Referenzmaterial zur aktuellen Anwendungspraxis festgelegt. Das Hauptaugenmerk der folgenden Experimente richtet sich auf Aspekte der Alterungsbeständigkeit und des zeitabhängigen Materialverhaltens unter langandauernder mechanischer Beanspruchung. In labormaßstäblichen Alterungsprüfungen werden die Klebstoffproben unterschiedlichen Schadeinwirkungen ausgesetzt, die im Glas- und Fassadenbau relevant sind. Darüber hinaus erfolgen Kriechversuche an kleinen und großen Scherprüfkörpern. Letztere stellen einen besonderen Mehrwert dar, da sie eine realistische Klebfugengeometrie aufweisen und die Ergebnisse dadurch dem tatsächlichen Bauteilverhalten nahekommen. Für diese Zeitstandversuche wurde eine bislang einzigartige Versuchsanlage aus sechs Prüfrahmen mit Gasdruckfederbelastung entwickelt. Im Ergebnis zeigt sich, dass mit den gewählten höherfesten Klebstoffen die Festigkeit der nicht gealterten Klebschichten erwartungsgemäß gesteigert werden kann. Der Bruch des Fügepartners Holz wird zum maßgebenden Versagenskriterium. Die Verformungen des Verbundelements reduzieren sich gegenüber einer Silikonklebung deutlich. Allerdings offenbaren sich in einzelnen Alterungsszenarien und unter langandauernder Belastung auch Schwachstellen dieser Klebstoffe. Ihre Verwendung kann daher nur mit konstruktiven Kompensationsmaßnahmen oder durch Abschirmen der kritischen Einwirkungsgrößen empfohlen werden. Entsprechende Vorschläge werden bei der abschließenden Bewertung der Ergebnisse unterbreitet. Verfahren und Beurteilungsmethoden, die in dieser Arbeit angewendet und entwickelt werden, erleichtern die zukünftige Bewertung weiterer aussichtsreicher Klebstoffe für den Holz-Glas-Verbund
Wooden constructions are on the rise again – encouraged by a strong public and economic trend towards sustainable and resource efficient buildings. Spurred by this growing interest novel design principles and material assemblies in architecture and the building industry evolve. These developments require further research due to the absence of evaluation tools and insufficient knowledge about their design. Load-bearing timber-glass composite elements could contribute to a more efficient use of materials in façade constructions. In this case a linear adhesive bond connects the glass pane to the timber substructure. This enables an in-plane loading of the glass whose capacity is not used to its full potential in conventional façades as it is solely applied as an infill panel. The quality of the adhesive bond defines the characteristics and the performance of the whole structural component. Structural sealants such as silicones, which are typically used for the joint, provide a high flexibility and only a low load-bearing capacity. Considering such elements being part of a bracing system, the mentioned characteristics limit the application range to buildings with not more than two stories. This thesis widens the scope with an in-depth examination of high-modulus adhesives, which have not yet been evaluated for their use in building constructions. Timber-glass composite elements used as a bracing component in façades are the focus of this work. Neither the full structural component nor the adhesive have yet been included into German building standards. Hence it is essential to assess the general requirements of their application. The relevant aspects are clarified in the context of glass constructions. In addition to the scientific discussion of the results, this approach facilitates also a practical evaluation of the findings, which is a unique feature of this work. The deformability of the adhesive becomes a crucial criterion when selecting the individual materials and designing the timber-glass composite elements. A case study assesses the influence of the adhesive stiffness on the behavior of a single element and its interaction with other members of the structural system. Based on the results, three different stiffness classes are introduced to support the selection process of the adhesives to be examined in further investigations. The experimental part of this work is initiated by a comprehensive characterization of seven shortlisted adhesives. The results enable a further differentiation of suitable materials. Two adhesives qualified as suitable for the main experiments. A silicone adhesive complements the test series to serve as a reference material to the current practice. In the next phase attention is drawn to the ageing stability and on the time-dependent material behavior of the adhesives under long-term loading. Small-scale specimens made from adhesively joint timber and glass pieces are exposed to different ageing scenarios which relate to the impacts typically encountered in façades. Beyond that, creep tests are carried out on small and large shear specimen. The latter provide extra benefit as they comprise long linear adhesive joints resembling virtually the situation in a real-size element. A specific long-term test rig was developed for this purpose comprising a loading unit with gas pressurized springs. Based on the results it can be concluded that joints with adhesives of high and intermediate stiffness enable an increase of characteristic failure loads and a significant reduction of deformation. With the stiffer joint near-surface rupture of timber fibers becomes the prevailing failure mechanism. The timber strength limits further loading of the adhesive joint. However, ageing and creep testing reveal also shortcomings of the adhesives. Their application can only be recommended if redundant compensation measures are taken or the joint is protected against critical environmental impacts. Appropriate solutions are proposed with the final recommendations of this work. Methods and assessment tools that have been developed and tested for this work offer the possibility of a more straight-forward evaluation of further promising adhesives and their use in load-bearing timber-glass composites

Bibliography: leaves 140-144.
xix, 156 leaves : ill. ; 30 cm.
Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library.
Determines the effect of partial-interaction and interfacial friction on the fatigue behaviour of composite bridge beams and develops a set of design rules for the assessment of the residual strength and performance of composite bridge beams.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 1999

Bibliography: leaves 140-144.
xix, 156 leaves : ill. ; 30 cm.
Determines the effect of partial-interaction and interfacial friction on the fatigue behaviour of composite bridge beams and develops a set of design rules for the assessment of the residual strength and performance of composite bridge beams.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 1999

The inclusion of trapezoidal types of steel decking in the shear connection of composite beams has been found to significantly reduce their maximum strength and ductility by causing premature concrete-related failure modes. In order to investigate the complex behaviour and various load-transfer mechanisms that can occur in composite beams incorporating this type of connections, a total of 91 carefully-designed push-out tests were performed. Specific failure modes in conventionally reinforced specimens were initially induced by varying critical parameters. Specimens incorporating specific stud reinforcing devices were subsequently tested to suppress the undesirable failure modes. The concrete reinforcing and stud performance-enhancing devices, which included novel waveform-type reinforcement elements and spiral wire or ring components surrounding individual studs in secondary composite beams and special haunch reinforcement in primary beam applications, significantly delayed the onset and reduced the effect of the premature concrete-related failure modes. Hence, they increased the ultimate strength and ductility of the shear connection. The findings of the small-scale push-out tests were also verified in two full-scale composite beam tests which showed good agreement in shear connection behaviour and failure mode. Most of the design approaches currently used around the world take into account the weakening effect of trapezoidal types of decking by applying a reduction factor to the nominal strength that the same connection would have in a solid slab. From the test results, it is evident that not every shear connection incorporating steel decking, and within the limits of the associated standards, can be classified as ductile. A new and more reliable design approach is proposed which also incorporates the application of the various stud reinforcing devices. The key element of this design approach is to classify the anticipated connection behaviour, in regards to its deformation capacity, into ductile or brittle connections, hence ensuring satisfactory shear connection behaviour where the new types of trapezoidal steel decking are used. A reliability analysis of the new proposal is presented which enables the application of this new approach in accordance with AS 2327.1 (Standards Australia 2003). It is calibrated to provide a reliability index similar to stud applications currently in use. Simple strength reduction factors for the types of trapezoidal steel decking available in Australia are also provided which can be applied to the current solid slab shear connection strength for a fast and simplified design.
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Includes bibliographical references (p. 185-189)
xxviii, 207 p. : ill. ; 30 cm.
Aims to determine the effect of partial interaction on the behaviour of the concrete beam, plate and bolt connector components of the composite plated beam. Develops design rules for the determination of the ultimate capacity for bolted plate reinforced composite beams.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2003

Ductility is a measure of the ability of a material, section, structural element or structural system to sustain deformations prior to collapse without substantial loss of resistance. The Australian design standard, AS 3600, imposes minimum ductility requirements on structural concrete members to try to prevent premature non-ductile failure and hence to ensure adequate strength and ductile-type collapse with large deflections. The requirements also enable members to resist imposed deformation due to differential settlement, time effects on the concrete and temperature effects, whilst ensuring sufficient carrying capacity and a safe design. Current AS 3600 requirements allow a limited increase or reduction in elastically determined bending moments in critical regions of indeterminate beams, accommodating their ability to redistribute moment from highly stressed regions to other parts of the beam. Design moment redistribution limits and ductility requirements in AS 3600 for bonded partially prestressed beams are a simple extension of the requirements for reinforced members. The possibility of premature non-ductile failure occurring by fracture of the reinforcement or prestressing steel in partially prestressed members has not adequately addressed. The aim of this research is to investigate the overload behaviour and deformation capacity of bonded post-tensioned beams. The current ductility requirements and design moment redistribution limits according to AS 3600 are tested to ensure designs are both safe and economical. A local flexural deformation model based on the discrete cracked block approach is developed to predict the deformation capacity of high moment regions. The model predicts behaviour from an initial uncracked state through progressive crack development into yielding and collapse. Local deformations are considered in the model using non-linear material laws and local slip behaviour between steel and concrete interfaces, with rigorous definition of compatibility in the compression and tension zones. The model overcomes limitations of past discrete cracked block models by ensuring compatibility of deformation, rather than strain compatibility. This improvement allows the modeling of members with multiple layers of tensile reinforcement and variable depth prestressing tendons having separate material and bond properties. An analysis method for simple and indeterminate reinforced and partially prestressed members was developed, based on the proposed deformation model. To account for the effect of shear in regions of high moment and shear present over the interior supports of a continuous beam, a modification to the treatment of local steel deformation in the flexural model, based on the truss analogy, was undertaken. Secondary reactions and moments due to prestress and continuity are also accounted for in the analysis. A comparison of past beam test data and predictions by the analysis shows the cracking pattern and deformation capacity at ultimate of flexural regions in reinforced and partially prestressed members to be predicted with high accuracy. The analysis method accurately predicts local steel behaviour over a cracked region and deformation capacity for a wide range of beams which fail either by fracture of steel or crushing of the concrete. A parametric study is used to investigate the influence of different parameters on the deformation capacity of a typical negative moment region in a continuous beam. The structural system consists of a bonded post-tensioned, partially prestressed band beam. The primary parameters investigated are the member height and span-to-depth ratio; relative quantity of reinforcing and prestressing steel; material properties and bond capacity of the steels; and lastly the compression zone properties. Results show that the effects of the various parameters on the overload behaviour of partially prestressed beams follow the same trends as reinforced beams. A new insight into the local steel behaviour between cracks is attained. The deformation behaviour displays different trends for parametric variations of the local bond capacity, bar diameter and crack spacing, when compared to past analytical predictions from comparable studies. The discrepancy in findings is traced back to the definition of the plastic rotation capacity and the sequencing of the yielding of the steels. Compared to the other local deformation models, the current model does not assume a linear distribution of strain at a crack. The current findings highlight an important difference between predicted behaviours from different deformation compatibility requirements in local deformation models which has not yet been discussed in the literature. The local deformation model evaluates the relationship between maximum steel strain at a crack and average steel deformation over a crack spacing for the entire loading history. The total steel percentage, hardening properties of the steel and concrete strength are shown by the model to have the greatest effect on these steel strain localisation factors. Section analysis, as currently used in design, can be improved with the proposed simplification of the relationships to identify and quantify the effects of steel fracture on deformation capacity and strength. The numerical effort required to simulate the overload behaviour of practical beam designs with multiple reinforcement elements and a prestressing tendon are currently too great to be used in an extensive numerical study. The numerically more efficient smeared block approach is shown to accurately predict the ultimate carrying capacity of prestressed beams failing by crushing of the concrete. Consequently, this method is adopted to study the allowable limits of moment redistribution in the present investigation, Simplified relationships of the steel strain localisation factors evaluated in the parametric study of deformation capacity is used to predict maximum steel strains and premature failure. The limits of moment redistribution in bonded, post-tensioned partially prestressed band beams are explored by comparing the design load and predicted carrying capacity, for different section ductilities and design moment redistribution. In addition, the effects of different concrete strengths, up to 85 MPa, along with as three reinforcing and prestressing steel ductilities are quantified and compared to current Australian and international design requirements. Limitations in the carrying capacity are investigated for different reinforcement and prestress uniform elongation capacities. More than one thousand beam simulations produce results showing that current design moment redistribution and ductility requirements in the Australian design code for concrete structures (AS 3600) are sufficient for normal strength concretes (less than 50 MPa). A suggestion for design moment redistribution limits, section ductility requirements and steel ductility limits is made for members constructed from higher strength concretes. A special high steel ductility class is proposed for both the reinforcement and prestressing steel to allow moment redistribution in higher strength concrete. No moment redistribution is proposed for members reinforced with low ductility (Class L) steel. An increase of the current elongation limit of Class L steel from 1.5 % to 2.5% is suggested to ensure strength and safety. An increase in the current ductility requirements from fsu/ fsy=1.03 and elongation equal to 1.5% to fsu/fsy=1.05 and 2.5% elongation for low ductility Class L steel is suggested to ensure strength and safety.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2004.

Ductility is a measure of the ability of a material, section, structural element or structural system to sustain deformations prior to collapse without substantial loss of resistance. The Australian design standard, AS 3600, imposes minimum ductility requirements on structural concrete members to try to prevent premature non-ductile failure and hence to ensure adequate strength and ductile-type collapse with large deflections. The requirements also enable members to resist imposed deformation due to differential settlement, time effects on the concrete and temperature effects, whilst ensuring sufficient carrying capacity and a safe design. Current AS 3600 requirements allow a limited increase or reduction in elastically determined bending moments in critical regions of indeterminate beams, accommodating their ability to redistribute moment from highly stressed regions to other parts of the beam. Design moment redistribution limits and ductility requirements in AS 3600 for bonded partially prestressed beams are a simple extension of the requirements for reinforced members. The possibility of premature non-ductile failure occurring by fracture of the reinforcement or prestressing steel in partially prestressed members has not adequately addressed. The aim of this research is to investigate the overload behaviour and deformation capacity of bonded post-tensioned beams. The current ductility requirements and design moment redistribution limits according to AS 3600 are tested to ensure designs are both safe and economical. A local flexural deformation model based on the discrete cracked block approach is developed to predict the deformation capacity of high moment regions. The model predicts behaviour from an initial uncracked state through progressive crack development into yielding and collapse. Local deformations are considered in the model using non-linear material laws and local slip behaviour between steel and concrete interfaces, with rigorous definition of compatibility in the compression and tension zones. The model overcomes limitations of past discrete cracked block models by ensuring compatibility of deformation, rather than strain compatibility. This improvement allows the modeling of members with multiple layers of tensile reinforcement and variable depth prestressing tendons having separate material and bond properties. An analysis method for simple and indeterminate reinforced and partially prestressed members was developed, based on the proposed deformation model. To account for the effect of shear in regions of high moment and shear present over the interior supports of a continuous beam, a modification to the treatment of local steel deformation in the flexural model, based on the truss analogy, was undertaken. Secondary reactions and moments due to prestress and continuity are also accounted for in the analysis. A comparison of past beam test data and predictions by the analysis shows the cracking pattern and deformation capacity at ultimate of flexural regions in reinforced and partially prestressed members to be predicted with high accuracy. The analysis method accurately predicts local steel behaviour over a cracked region and deformation capacity for a wide range of beams which fail either by fracture of steel or crushing of the concrete. A parametric study is used to investigate the influence of different parameters on the deformation capacity of a typical negative moment region in a continuous beam. The structural system consists of a bonded post-tensioned, partially prestressed band beam. The primary parameters investigated are the member height and span-to-depth ratio; relative quantity of reinforcing and prestressing steel; material properties and bond capacity of the steels; and lastly the compression zone properties. Results show that the effects of the various parameters on the overload behaviour of partially prestressed beams follow the same trends as reinforced beams. A new insight into the local steel behaviour between cracks is attained. The deformation behaviour displays different trends for parametric variations of the local bond capacity, bar diameter and crack spacing, when compared to past analytical predictions from comparable studies. The discrepancy in findings is traced back to the definition of the plastic rotation capacity and the sequencing of the yielding of the steels. Compared to the other local deformation models, the current model does not assume a linear distribution of strain at a crack. The current findings highlight an important difference between predicted behaviours from different deformation compatibility requirements in local deformation models which has not yet been discussed in the literature. The local deformation model evaluates the relationship between maximum steel strain at a crack and average steel deformation over a crack spacing for the entire loading history. The total steel percentage, hardening properties of the steel and concrete strength are shown by the model to have the greatest effect on these steel strain localisation factors. Section analysis, as currently used in design, can be improved with the proposed simplification of the relationships to identify and quantify the effects of steel fracture on deformation capacity and strength. The numerical effort required to simulate the overload behaviour of practical beam designs with multiple reinforcement elements and a prestressing tendon are currently too great to be used in an extensive numerical study. The numerically more efficient smeared block approach is shown to accurately predict the ultimate carrying capacity of prestressed beams failing by crushing of the concrete. Consequently, this method is adopted to study the allowable limits of moment redistribution in the present investigation, Simplified relationships of the steel strain localisation factors evaluated in the parametric study of deformation capacity is used to predict maximum steel strains and premature failure. The limits of moment redistribution in bonded, post-tensioned partially prestressed band beams are explored by comparing the design load and predicted carrying capacity, for different section ductilities and design moment redistribution. In addition, the effects of different concrete strengths, up to 85 MPa, along with as three reinforcing and prestressing steel ductilities are quantified and compared to current Australian and international design requirements. Limitations in the carrying capacity are investigated for different reinforcement and prestress uniform elongation capacities. More than one thousand beam simulations produce results showing that current design moment redistribution and ductility requirements in the Australian design code for concrete structures (AS 3600) are sufficient for normal strength concretes (less than 50 MPa). A suggestion for design moment redistribution limits, section ductility requirements and steel ductility limits is made for members constructed from higher strength concretes. A special high steel ductility class is proposed for both the reinforcement and prestressing steel to allow moment redistribution in higher strength concrete. No moment redistribution is proposed for members reinforced with low ductility (Class L) steel. An increase of the current elongation limit of Class L steel from 1.5 % to 2.5% is suggested to ensure strength and safety. An increase in the current ductility requirements from fsu/ fsy=1.03 and elongation equal to 1.5% to fsu/fsy=1.05 and 2.5% elongation for low ductility Class L steel is suggested to ensure strength and safety.
Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2004

The shear capacity of headed studs in precast concrete hollow-core slab construction has been determined experimentally in 12 full-scale push-off tests. The tests were used to study the effects of the size of the gap between the ends of the precast slabs, and the amount of tie steel placed transversely across the joint, and the strength of concrete infill. Under certain situations the capacity of the stud is reduced compared with that in a solid reinforced concrete slab. Maximum resistances are compared with the predictions of BS 5950 and EC4, and a reduction formula for the precast effect is derived.

Bestärkt durch das gesellschaftliche und wirtschaftliche Interesse an nachhaltigen und ressourcenschonenden Formen des Bauens gewinnen Holzkonstruktionen wieder unverkennbar an Bedeutung. Mit dieser Entwicklung bilden sich neue Konstruktionsprinzipien und Materialkombinationen im Bauwesen heraus, zu deren ingenieurtechnischer Beurteilung zum Teil keine ausreichenden Erkenntnisse vorliegen. Verbundkonstruktionen aus Holz und Glas sind eine innovative Bauweise, die zu einer höheren Materialeffizienz in Fassaden beiträgt, deren Wirkungsweise aber noch nicht ausreichend hinterfragt wurde. Werden Holz und Glas durch eine tragende Klebung verbunden, lässt sich das vielfach ungenutzte Tragpotenzial ausschöpfen, das eine in Scheibenebene belastete Verglasung aufweist. Die Qualität der Klebung entscheidet dabei über die Eigenschaften und das Leistungsvermögen des Bauteils. Die üblicherweise an dieser Schnittstelle eingesetzten Silikonklebstoffe weisen eine hohe Nachgiebigkeit und eine vergleichsweise geringe Festigkeit auf. Wenn die Verbundelemente als Aussteifung mitwirken sollen, bleibt ihr Einsatz deswegen auf Gebäude mit höchstens zwei Geschossen limitiert. Die vorliegende Arbeit trägt entscheidend zur Erweiterung der baulichen Möglichkeiten bei, indem sie der Anwendbarkeit von hochfesten Klebstoffen, die für den Einsatz im Bauwesen nur wenig erforscht sind, auf vielschichtige Weise nachgeht. Im Fokus stehen aussteifende Holz-Glas-Verbundelemente für die Fassade. Weder die Bauart noch das Bauprodukt Klebstoff sind derzeit in Deutschland in einer Norm erfasst. Das Klären der baurechtlichen Rahmenbedingungen ist daher unerlässlich und erfolgt mit engem Bezug zum konstruktiven Glasbau. Zusätzlich zur wissenschaftlichen Interpretation wird dadurch eine praxisnahe Bewertung der Versuchsergebnisse möglich, was ein Alleinstellungsmerkmal dieser Arbeit darstellt. Das Verformungsvermögen des Klebstoffs spielt eine zentrale Rolle bei der Materialauswahl und Gestaltung der Holz-Glas-Verbundelemente. Der Einfluss der Klebstoffsteifigkeit auf das Tragverhalten eines Einzelelements und auf dessen Interaktion mit den anderen Bestandteilen des Tragwerks wird an einem Modellgebäude untersucht. Auf Basis dieser Parameterstudie lassen sich drei Steifigkeitsbereiche definieren, auf die sich die Klebstoffauswahl für die weiteren Untersuchungen stützt. Der experimentelle Teil der Arbeit beginnt mit der ausführlichen Charakterisierung von sieben Klebstoffen. Davon werden zwei höherfeste Klebstoffe als geeignet identifiziert. Ein Silikonklebstoff wird als Referenzmaterial zur aktuellen Anwendungspraxis festgelegt. Das Hauptaugenmerk der folgenden Experimente richtet sich auf Aspekte der Alterungsbeständigkeit und des zeitabhängigen Materialverhaltens unter langandauernder mechanischer Beanspruchung. In labormaßstäblichen Alterungsprüfungen werden die Klebstoffproben unterschiedlichen Schadeinwirkungen ausgesetzt, die im Glas- und Fassadenbau relevant sind. Darüber hinaus erfolgen Kriechversuche an kleinen und großen Scherprüfkörpern. Letztere stellen einen besonderen Mehrwert dar, da sie eine realistische Klebfugengeometrie aufweisen und die Ergebnisse dadurch dem tatsächlichen Bauteilverhalten nahekommen. Für diese Zeitstandversuche wurde eine bislang einzigartige Versuchsanlage aus sechs Prüfrahmen mit Gasdruckfederbelastung entwickelt. Im Ergebnis zeigt sich, dass mit den gewählten höherfesten Klebstoffen die Festigkeit der nicht gealterten Klebschichten erwartungsgemäß gesteigert werden kann. Der Bruch des Fügepartners Holz wird zum maßgebenden Versagenskriterium. Die Verformungen des Verbundelements reduzieren sich gegenüber einer Silikonklebung deutlich. Allerdings offenbaren sich in einzelnen Alterungsszenarien und unter langandauernder Belastung auch Schwachstellen dieser Klebstoffe. Ihre Verwendung kann daher nur mit konstruktiven Kompensationsmaßnahmen oder durch Abschirmen der kritischen Einwirkungsgrößen empfohlen werden. Entsprechende Vorschläge werden bei der abschließenden Bewertung der Ergebnisse unterbreitet. Verfahren und Beurteilungsmethoden, die in dieser Arbeit angewendet und entwickelt werden, erleichtern die zukünftige Bewertung weiterer aussichtsreicher Klebstoffe für den Holz-Glas-Verbund.:1 Einleitung 13 1.1 Motivation 13 1.2 Zielsetzung 18 1.3 Abgrenzung 20 1.4 Vorgehensweise 21 2 Die Holz-Glas-Verbundbauweise 25 2.1 Tragprinzip und Wirkungsweise 25 2.2 Forschungsschwerpunkte und Anwendungen 27 2.2.1 Geklebte Verglasungssysteme für Fenster 27 2.2.2 Träger 28 2.2.3 Wandscheiben und Schubfelder 32 2.2.4 Verbundplatten 36 2.3 Tragendes Glas im Verbund 37 2.3.1 Relevanz für Holz-Glas-Verbundlösungen 37 2.3.2 Historische Vorbilder 37 2.3.3 Verbundglas und Verbund-Sicherheitsglas 38 2.3.4 Verbundträger 40 2.3.5 Wandscheiben aus Glas 43 2.4 Konstruktionsprinzipien von tragenden Wand und Fassadenelementen aus Holz und Glas 46 2.4.1 Aufbau 46 2.4.2 Verglasung 46 2.4.3 Ausbildung der Klebfuge 48 2.4.4 Marktreife Systeme mit Koppelleiste 49 2.4.5 Identifizieren geeigneter Tragsysteme 52 2.4.6 Skelett-, Tafel- und Massivholzbauweise 53 2.5 Zusammenfassung wesentlicher Erkenntnisse 55 3 Klebverbindungen im Glasbau 57 3.1 Fügen von Glas 57 3.1.1 Besondere Merkmale des Fügewerkstoffs 57 3.1.2 Wirkprinzip und Fügeverfahren 60 3.1.3 Vor- und Nachteile von Klebverbindungen 61 3.1.4 Glasoberfläche 65 3.2 Typische Anwendungsbeispiele im Glasbau 67 3.2.1 Klassifizierung 67 3.2.2 Einordung der Holz-Glas-Verbundbauweise 69 3.2.3 Structural Sealant Glazing 71 3.2.4 Ganzglaskonstruktionen 74 3.3 Planungsstrategien 76 3.3.1 Sicheres Bauteilversagen 76 3.3.2 Redundanz und Versagensszenarien 78 3.3.3 Besonderheiten bei geklebten Verglasungen 80 3.4 Baurechtliche Rahmenbedingungen 82 3.4.1 Normung und Verfahrensweise in Deutschland 82 3.4.2 Harmonisierung auf europäischer Ebene 84 3.4.3 ETAG 002 – Leitlinie für Structural Glazing 86 3.4.4 Der Weg zur geklebten Glaskonstruktion 88 4 Einfluss der Klebstoffsteifigkeit auf aussteifende Holz-Glas-Verbundtragwerke 91 4.1 Aussteifung von Holzbauten 91 4.2 Berechnungsverfahren 92 4.2.1 Begründung der Auswahl der Verfahren 92 4.2.2 Verteilung von Horizontallasten auf die Wandscheiben eines Aussteifungssystems 93 4.2.3 Wandscheibe als Schubfeld 95 4.2.4 Federmodelle 97 4.3 Randbedingungen für die Analyse 101 4.3.1 Modellgebäude 101 4.3.2 Konstruktive Gestaltung 103 4.3.3 Lastannahmen 104 4.4 Parameterstudie 107 4.4.1 Nachgiebigkeit der Kernwände 107 4.4.2 Nachgiebigkeit eines Verbundelements 108 4.4.3 Auswirkung der Elementanordnung 112 4.4.4 Lastumlagerung bei Ausfall von Elementen 114 4.4.5 Horizontallastanteil auf Fassade und Kern 116 4.5 Rückschlüsse auf die Tragsystemgestaltung und die Klebstoffauswahl 120 5 Materialauswahl und -charakterisierung 123 5.1 Untersuchungsprogramm 123 5.2 Materialeigenschaften der Fügeteile 124 5.2.1 Glas 124 5.2.2 Holz und Holzwerkstoffe 126 5.3 Klebstoffe 128 5.3.1 Auswahlkriterien für Holz-Glas-Klebungen 128 5.3.2 Vorauswahl der Klebstoffsysteme 130 5.4 Experimentelle Methoden zur Charakterisierung der Klebstoffe 134 5.4.1 Dynamisch-mechanische Analyse 134 5.4.2 Einaxialer Zugversuch 135 5.4.3 Scherversuch 138 5.5 Versuchsergebnisse 141 5.5.1 Glasübergangstemperatur 141 5.5.2 Spannungs-Dehnungs-Beziehung 145 5.5.3 Einpunktkennwerte 150 5.5.4 Scherfestigkeit und Bruchbildanalyse 151 5.6 Klebstoffauswahl für die Hauptuntersuchungen 155 6 Experimentelle Untersuchungen an Klebverbindungen im Labormaßstab 157 6.1 Methodik 157 6.1.1 Untersuchungsgegenstand 157 6.1.2 Beurteilungsgrundlagen 158 6.1.3 Untersuchungsprogramm 159 6.1.4 Auswertungsmethoden 162 6.2 Geometrie und Herstellung der Prüfkörper 164 6.2.1 Prüfkörper zum Bestimmen der Haftfestigkeit vor und nach künstlicher Alterung 164 6.2.2 Scherprüfkörper für Kriechversuche 165 6.2.3 Vorbereiten und Konditionieren der Proben 166 6.3 Verfahren zur mechanischen Prüfung und zur künstlichen Alterung 168 6.3.1 Zug- und Scherversuche 168 6.3.2 Lagerung unter UV-Bestrahlung 170 6.3.3 Lagerung in Reinigungsmittellösung 171 6.3.4 Holzfeuchtewechsel bei +20 °C 172 6.3.5 Lagerung in schwefeldioxidhaltiger Atmosphäre 173 6.3.6 Kriechversuche 174 6.4 Auswertung der Versuchsergebnisse 176 6.4.1 Anfangsfestigkeit im Scherversuch 176 6.4.2 Anfangsfestigkeit im Zugversuch 181 6.4.3 Sichtbare Veränderungen der Klebschicht 183 6.4.4 Restfestigkeit nach Alterung 185 6.4.5 Analyse der Versagensmuster 189 6.4.6 Kriechverhalten 192 6.4.7 Restfestigkeit nach Vorbelastung 198 7 Experimentelle Untersuchungen an bauteilähnlichen Prüfkörpern 201 7.1 Untersuchungsprogramm und Methodik 201 7.1.1 Ziel der Untersuchungen 201 7.1.2 Materialien 202 7.1.3 Großer Scherprüfkörper 203 7.1.4 Herstellung der Prüfkörper 205 7.1.5 Versuchsprogramm – Bauteilversuche 207 7.2 Entwicklung eines Kriechprüfstands 210 7.2.1 Prüfrahmen 210 7.2.2 Lasteinleitung 211 7.2.3 Belastungsvorgang 212 7.2.4 Messtechnik und Monitoring 213 7.2.5 Modifikation für Kurzzeitversuche 214 7.3 Große Scherversuche unter Kurz- und Langzeiteinwirkung 215 7.3.1 Tragfähigkeit bei kurzzeitiger Lasteinwirkung 215 7.3.2 Spannungsverteilung im Glas 219 7.3.3 Kriechversuche mit 1000 Stunden Laufzeit 221 7.3.4 Verlängerte Kriechversuche am Klebstoff mit mittlerer Steifigkeit 226 7.3.5 Tragfähigkeit nach Vorbelastung 230 8 Bewertung und Handlungsempfehlung 231 8.1 Alterungsverhalten 231 8.2 Korrelation der Ergebnisse aus Fügeteil- und 233 Bauteilversuchen 8.2.1 Versuche bei kurzzeitiger Lasteinwirkung 233 8.2.2 Versuche bei langandauernder Lasteinwirkung 235 8.3 Der Vorzugsklebstoff und seine Einsatzgrenzen 238 8.4 Konstruktion 241 9 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 243 9.1 Zusammenfassung 243 9.2 Ausblick 249 10 Literatur 253 11 Abbildungsverzeichnis 263 12 Tabellenverzeichnis 267 13 Bezeichnungen 268 Anhang A Materialkennwerte zur Klebstoffauswahl 271 B Klebverbindungen im Labormaßstab 287 C Bauteilähnliche Prüfkörper 373
Wooden constructions are on the rise again – encouraged by a strong public and economic trend towards sustainable and resource efficient buildings. Spurred by this growing interest novel design principles and material assemblies in architecture and the building industry evolve. These developments require further research due to the absence of evaluation tools and insufficient knowledge about their design. Load-bearing timber-glass composite elements could contribute to a more efficient use of materials in façade constructions. In this case a linear adhesive bond connects the glass pane to the timber substructure. This enables an in-plane loading of the glass whose capacity is not used to its full potential in conventional façades as it is solely applied as an infill panel. The quality of the adhesive bond defines the characteristics and the performance of the whole structural component. Structural sealants such as silicones, which are typically used for the joint, provide a high flexibility and only a low load-bearing capacity. Considering such elements being part of a bracing system, the mentioned characteristics limit the application range to buildings with not more than two stories. This thesis widens the scope with an in-depth examination of high-modulus adhesives, which have not yet been evaluated for their use in building constructions. Timber-glass composite elements used as a bracing component in façades are the focus of this work. Neither the full structural component nor the adhesive have yet been included into German building standards. Hence it is essential to assess the general requirements of their application. The relevant aspects are clarified in the context of glass constructions. In addition to the scientific discussion of the results, this approach facilitates also a practical evaluation of the findings, which is a unique feature of this work. The deformability of the adhesive becomes a crucial criterion when selecting the individual materials and designing the timber-glass composite elements. A case study assesses the influence of the adhesive stiffness on the behavior of a single element and its interaction with other members of the structural system. Based on the results, three different stiffness classes are introduced to support the selection process of the adhesives to be examined in further investigations. The experimental part of this work is initiated by a comprehensive characterization of seven shortlisted adhesives. The results enable a further differentiation of suitable materials. Two adhesives qualified as suitable for the main experiments. A silicone adhesive complements the test series to serve as a reference material to the current practice. In the next phase attention is drawn to the ageing stability and on the time-dependent material behavior of the adhesives under long-term loading. Small-scale specimens made from adhesively joint timber and glass pieces are exposed to different ageing scenarios which relate to the impacts typically encountered in façades. Beyond that, creep tests are carried out on small and large shear specimen. The latter provide extra benefit as they comprise long linear adhesive joints resembling virtually the situation in a real-size element. A specific long-term test rig was developed for this purpose comprising a loading unit with gas pressurized springs. Based on the results it can be concluded that joints with adhesives of high and intermediate stiffness enable an increase of characteristic failure loads and a significant reduction of deformation. With the stiffer joint near-surface rupture of timber fibers becomes the prevailing failure mechanism. The timber strength limits further loading of the adhesive joint. However, ageing and creep testing reveal also shortcomings of the adhesives. Their application can only be recommended if redundant compensation measures are taken or the joint is protected against critical environmental impacts. Appropriate solutions are proposed with the final recommendations of this work. Methods and assessment tools that have been developed and tested for this work offer the possibility of a more straight-forward evaluation of further promising adhesives and their use in load-bearing timber-glass composites.:1 Einleitung 13 1.1 Motivation 13 1.2 Zielsetzung 18 1.3 Abgrenzung 20 1.4 Vorgehensweise 21 2 Die Holz-Glas-Verbundbauweise 25 2.1 Tragprinzip und Wirkungsweise 25 2.2 Forschungsschwerpunkte und Anwendungen 27 2.2.1 Geklebte Verglasungssysteme für Fenster 27 2.2.2 Träger 28 2.2.3 Wandscheiben und Schubfelder 32 2.2.4 Verbundplatten 36 2.3 Tragendes Glas im Verbund 37 2.3.1 Relevanz für Holz-Glas-Verbundlösungen 37 2.3.2 Historische Vorbilder 37 2.3.3 Verbundglas und Verbund-Sicherheitsglas 38 2.3.4 Verbundträger 40 2.3.5 Wandscheiben aus Glas 43 2.4 Konstruktionsprinzipien von tragenden Wand und Fassadenelementen aus Holz und Glas 46 2.4.1 Aufbau 46 2.4.2 Verglasung 46 2.4.3 Ausbildung der Klebfuge 48 2.4.4 Marktreife Systeme mit Koppelleiste 49 2.4.5 Identifizieren geeigneter Tragsysteme 52 2.4.6 Skelett-, Tafel- und Massivholzbauweise 53 2.5 Zusammenfassung wesentlicher Erkenntnisse 55 3 Klebverbindungen im Glasbau 57 3.1 Fügen von Glas 57 3.1.1 Besondere Merkmale des Fügewerkstoffs 57 3.1.2 Wirkprinzip und Fügeverfahren 60 3.1.3 Vor- und Nachteile von Klebverbindungen 61 3.1.4 Glasoberfläche 65 3.2 Typische Anwendungsbeispiele im Glasbau 67 3.2.1 Klassifizierung 67 3.2.2 Einordung der Holz-Glas-Verbundbauweise 69 3.2.3 Structural Sealant Glazing 71 3.2.4 Ganzglaskonstruktionen 74 3.3 Planungsstrategien 76 3.3.1 Sicheres Bauteilversagen 76 3.3.2 Redundanz und Versagensszenarien 78 3.3.3 Besonderheiten bei geklebten Verglasungen 80 3.4 Baurechtliche Rahmenbedingungen 82 3.4.1 Normung und Verfahrensweise in Deutschland 82 3.4.2 Harmonisierung auf europäischer Ebene 84 3.4.3 ETAG 002 – Leitlinie für Structural Glazing 86 3.4.4 Der Weg zur geklebten Glaskonstruktion 88 4 Einfluss der Klebstoffsteifigkeit auf aussteifende Holz-Glas-Verbundtragwerke 91 4.1 Aussteifung von Holzbauten 91 4.2 Berechnungsverfahren 92 4.2.1 Begründung der Auswahl der Verfahren 92 4.2.2 Verteilung von Horizontallasten auf die Wandscheiben eines Aussteifungssystems 93 4.2.3 Wandscheibe als Schubfeld 95 4.2.4 Federmodelle 97 4.3 Randbedingungen für die Analyse 101 4.3.1 Modellgebäude 101 4.3.2 Konstruktive Gestaltung 103 4.3.3 Lastannahmen 104 4.4 Parameterstudie 107 4.4.1 Nachgiebigkeit der Kernwände 107 4.4.2 Nachgiebigkeit eines Verbundelements 108 4.4.3 Auswirkung der Elementanordnung 112 4.4.4 Lastumlagerung bei Ausfall von Elementen 114 4.4.5 Horizontallastanteil auf Fassade und Kern 116 4.5 Rückschlüsse auf die Tragsystemgestaltung und die Klebstoffauswahl 120 5 Materialauswahl und -charakterisierung 123 5.1 Untersuchungsprogramm 123 5.2 Materialeigenschaften der Fügeteile 124 5.2.1 Glas 124 5.2.2 Holz und Holzwerkstoffe 126 5.3 Klebstoffe 128 5.3.1 Auswahlkriterien für Holz-Glas-Klebungen 128 5.3.2 Vorauswahl der Klebstoffsysteme 130 5.4 Experimentelle Methoden zur Charakterisierung der Klebstoffe 134 5.4.1 Dynamisch-mechanische Analyse 134 5.4.2 Einaxialer Zugversuch 135 5.4.3 Scherversuch 138 5.5 Versuchsergebnisse 141 5.5.1 Glasübergangstemperatur 141 5.5.2 Spannungs-Dehnungs-Beziehung 145 5.5.3 Einpunktkennwerte 150 5.5.4 Scherfestigkeit und Bruchbildanalyse 151 5.6 Klebstoffauswahl für die Hauptuntersuchungen 155 6 Experimentelle Untersuchungen an Klebverbindungen im Labormaßstab 157 6.1 Methodik 157 6.1.1 Untersuchungsgegenstand 157 6.1.2 Beurteilungsgrundlagen 158 6.1.3 Untersuchungsprogramm 159 6.1.4 Auswertungsmethoden 162 6.2 Geometrie und Herstellung der Prüfkörper 164 6.2.1 Prüfkörper zum Bestimmen der Haftfestigkeit vor und nach künstlicher Alterung 164 6.2.2 Scherprüfkörper für Kriechversuche 165 6.2.3 Vorbereiten und Konditionieren der Proben 166 6.3 Verfahren zur mechanischen Prüfung und zur künstlichen Alterung 168 6.3.1 Zug- und Scherversuche 168 6.3.2 Lagerung unter UV-Bestrahlung 170 6.3.3 Lagerung in Reinigungsmittellösung 171 6.3.4 Holzfeuchtewechsel bei +20 °C 172 6.3.5 Lagerung in schwefeldioxidhaltiger Atmosphäre 173 6.3.6 Kriechversuche 174 6.4 Auswertung der Versuchsergebnisse 176 6.4.1 Anfangsfestigkeit im Scherversuch 176 6.4.2 Anfangsfestigkeit im Zugversuch 181 6.4.3 Sichtbare Veränderungen der Klebschicht 183 6.4.4 Restfestigkeit nach Alterung 185 6.4.5 Analyse der Versagensmuster 189 6.4.6 Kriechverhalten 192 6.4.7 Restfestigkeit nach Vorbelastung 198 7 Experimentelle Untersuchungen an bauteilähnlichen Prüfkörpern 201 7.1 Untersuchungsprogramm und Methodik 201 7.1.1 Ziel der Untersuchungen 201 7.1.2 Materialien 202 7.1.3 Großer Scherprüfkörper 203 7.1.4 Herstellung der Prüfkörper 205 7.1.5 Versuchsprogramm – Bauteilversuche 207 7.2 Entwicklung eines Kriechprüfstands 210 7.2.1 Prüfrahmen 210 7.2.2 Lasteinleitung 211 7.2.3 Belastungsvorgang 212 7.2.4 Messtechnik und Monitoring 213 7.2.5 Modifikation für Kurzzeitversuche 214 7.3 Große Scherversuche unter Kurz- und Langzeiteinwirkung 215 7.3.1 Tragfähigkeit bei kurzzeitiger Lasteinwirkung 215 7.3.2 Spannungsverteilung im Glas 219 7.3.3 Kriechversuche mit 1000 Stunden Laufzeit 221 7.3.4 Verlängerte Kriechversuche am Klebstoff mit mittlerer Steifigkeit 226 7.3.5 Tragfähigkeit nach Vorbelastung 230 8 Bewertung und Handlungsempfehlung 231 8.1 Alterungsverhalten 231 8.2 Korrelation der Ergebnisse aus Fügeteil- und 233 Bauteilversuchen 8.2.1 Versuche bei kurzzeitiger Lasteinwirkung 233 8.2.2 Versuche bei langandauernder Lasteinwirkung 235 8.3 Der Vorzugsklebstoff und seine Einsatzgrenzen 238 8.4 Konstruktion 241 9 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 243 9.1 Zusammenfassung 243 9.2 Ausblick 249 10 Literatur 253 11 Abbildungsverzeichnis 263 12 Tabellenverzeichnis 267 13 Bezeichnungen 268 Anhang A Materialkennwerte zur Klebstoffauswahl 271 B Klebverbindungen im Labormaßstab 287 C Bauteilähnliche Prüfkörper 373