Auswahl der wissenschaftlichen Literatur zum Thema „Coastal biology – Western Australia – South-West“

The myrmicine ant genus Austromorium is described for two Australian endemic species. One species has been known for some time but its taxonomic placement has been unclear while the second species is newly described. They are thought to be related to Lordomyrma and Austromorium is tentatively placed within the tribe Stenammini. These are ground-nesting ants although little else is known of their biology. While one species is widespread across semi-arid southern Australia the other is restricted to a narrow band of coastal south-western Western Australia.

Laryngodus Herrich-Schaeffer, 1850, is redescribed, including, for the first time, nymphal morphology. Three species are recognised based on qualitative morphology, a principle components analysis of morphometric data, and the study of sequence data from the mitochondrial genes COI and 16S. They are: L. australiae Herrich-Schaeffer from the south-western coastal area of Western Australia, L. cervantes, sp. nov., from southern Western Australia, and L. luteomaculatus, sp. nov., from western Victoria and adjacent South Australia. Sexual dimorphism in all species and variation in males of L. luteomaculatus, sp. nov. is documented and discussed. All species and their hosts are illustrated with colour digital images; scanning electron micrographs are used to illustrate male prosternal spines, antennnae, abdominal trichobothria, and other structures. Male genitalic morphology is illustrated with line drawings. Authoritative host identifications indicate that Laryngodus is restricted to feeding on several species of Allocasuarina (Casuarinaceae); nymphs and adults are known to live on the plants and to be strongly associated with the cone-like fruits. The tribal placement of Laryngodus is discussed.

The growth and reproductive biology of the commercially and recreationally important sparid fish, tarwhine (Rhabdosargus sarba), was examined from the coastal waters of New South Wales (NSW), south-eastern Australia. Previous research on this species in other parts of the world has yielded conflicting results concerning its growth and reproductive biology. Age estimates were made by counting opaque zones in otolith sections. The method was validated by marking the otoliths of captive fish with alizarin complexone, and also by marginal increment analyses using otoliths from wild-caught fish. Both sexes grew at a similar rate. Von Bertalanffy growth function parameters were: L∞ = 26.40 ± 0.40 cm fork length (FL), k = 0.39 ± 0.02 year–1 and to = –0.56 ± 0.09 years. The maximum estimated age was 16.5 years. Spawning occurred from May to August with a peak in July. Both sexes matured at a similar size (L50 = 19.44 ± 0.15 cm FL), which was larger than the current minimum legal length in NSW. Ovotestes were identified in adult tarwhine and were confirmed by histological analyses. Results of this study provided evidence that tarwhine are likely to be rudimentary hermaphrodites in eastern Australia and are more similar in growth rate, maximum size/age, and reproductive biology to tarwhine from Western Australia than those from other parts of the world.

The reproductive biology of Euastacus bispinosus populations was studied in a river and a creek of the Glenelg River system in south-western Victoria, and a small coastal creek in south-eastern South Australia. Females produced eggs in the first breeding season after maturation of their gonopores. At the Victorian sites, E. bispinosus spawned in early May, carrying eggs for about seven months before hatching and juvenile release in October-December. At least 95% of mature females at each Victorian site carried eggs during the breeding season. Mature females had relatively broader abdomens than did males and carried between 63 and 812 eggs. The number of eggs carried was linearly related to both occipital carapace length and abdomen width. The South Australian population differed from the Victorian populations in having a smaller mean size at sexual maturity for females (occipital carapace length 58 mm compared with 85-86 mm in Victoria), a higher proportion (17%) of gonopore abnormalities (< 1% in Victoria), and relatively wider abdomens (which continued to broaden after maturity). Euastacus bispinosus is a winter brooder and has a long generation time and low potential reproductive rate, characteristics it shares with Astacopsis and Parastacoides species, and members of the Astacidae. Other crayfish species (e.g. Cherax species and members of the Cambaridae) are summer brooders and tend to have a high potential reproductive rate and short generation time.

Cephalotus follicularis is an ecologically unique, taxonomically isolated and range-restricted carnivorous plant that occurs exclusively within vulnerable wetland habitats in coastal south-western Australia. Very little is known about the reproductive biology of this iconic plant species, particularly in relation to seed dormancy and the specific requirements for germination. This knowledge gap must be filled to facilitate the establishment of conservation and management initiatives for the species, as Cephalotus is increasingly impacted by habitat loss, alteration to natural hydrological and fire regimes and, in recent times, climatic change. This study aimed to determine the type of seed dormancy that the seeds of Cephalotus possess, determine the optimum conditions required for seed germination, and examine the storage behaviour of seeds. The seeds of Cephalotus are small (1.0 × 0.5 mm), lightweight (0.1 mg) and remain indehiscent within a wind-dispersed hairy achene. Results suggest that the seeds may exhibit some sensitivity to desiccation and appear to be short lived (&lt;12 months) when stored at 23°C. Maximum germination was achieved after 16 weeks incubation at 15°C for seeds removed from the protective outer layer of the achene, while seeds retained within the protective outer layer displayed lower germination success. The post-ripening morphological changes in the embryo, limited response to gibberellic acid, and the long time period required for germination suggests that the seeds exhibit morphophysiological dormancy, with a fraction of seeds remaining dormant for a period of time post-dispersal. These results highlight the importance of limiting hydrological alteration within the few remaining habitats that continue to support Cephalotus, but to ensure its long-term protection, further research focusing on phenology and in situ recruitment is required.

The methods used to detect and describe morphologically cryptic species have advanced in recent years, owing to the integrative nature of molecular and morphological techniques required to elucidate them. Here we integrate recent phylogenomic work that sequenced many genes but few individuals, with new data from mtDNA and morphology from hundreds of gecko specimens of theGehyra variegatagroup from the Australian arid zone. To better understand morphological and geographical boundaries among cryptic forms, we generated new sequences from 656Gehyraindividuals, largely assigned toG. variegatagroup members over a wide area in Western Australia, with especially dense sampling in the Pilbara region, and combined them with 566Gehyrasequences from GenBank, resulting in a dataset of 1,222 specimens. Results indicated the existence of several cryptic species, from new species with diagnostic morphological characters, to cases when there were no useful characters to discriminate among genetically distinctive species. In addition, the cryptic species often showed counter-intuitive distributions, including broad sympatry among some forms and short range endemism in other cases. Two new species were on long branches in the phylogram and restricted to the northern Pilbara region: most records of the moderately sizedG. incognitasp. nov. are near the coast with isolated inland records, whereas the small-bodied saxicolineG. unguiculatasp. nov. is only known from a small area in the extreme north of the Pilbara. Three new species were on shorter branches in the phylogram and allied toG. montium. The moderately sizedG. cryptasp. nov. occurs in the western and southern Pilbara and extends south through the Murchison region; this species was distinctive genetically, but with wide overlap of characters with its sister species,G. montium. Accordingly, we provide a table of diagnostic nucleotides for this species as well as for all other species treated here. Two small-bodied species occur in isolated coastal regions:G. capensissp. nov. is restricted to the North West Cape andG. ocellatasp. nov. occurs on Barrow Island and other neighbouring islands. The latter species showed evidence of introgression with the mtDNA ofG. cryptasp. nov., possibly due to recent connectivity with the mainland owing to fluctuating sea levels. However,G. ocellatasp. nov. was more closely related toG. capensissp. nov. in the phylogenomic data and in morphology. Our study illustrates the benefits of combining phylogenomic data with extensive screens of mtDNA to identify large numbers of individuals to the correct cryptic species. This approach was able to provide sufficient samples with which to assess morphological variation. Furthermore, determination of geographic distributions of the new cryptic species should greatly assist with identification in the field, demonstrating the utility of sampling large numbers of specimens across wide areas.

Arripis georgiana was collected from along the Western Australian and South Australian coasts at regular intervals between October 1996 and December 1998. The trends exhibited during the year by gonadosomatic indices, gonadal maturity stages and oocyte stages demonstrate that spawning is restricted to south-western Australian waters from at least as far north as ~28˚43′S to as far east as ~119˚24′E, and that it occurs mainly during late May and early June. The simultaneous presence of post-ovulatory follicles and hydrated and yolk-granule oocytes in some ovaries during the spawning period indicates that A. georgiana is a multiple spawner, i.e. females spawn more than once in a breeding season. In south-western Australia, where all life-cycle stages are found, the overall sex ratio in catches collected by netting was close to parity, whereas females predominated in those obtained by anglers. The length at which 50% of fish reached maturity was 197 mm for females and 179 mm for males, and just over 50% of females and ~80% of males attained maturity at the end of their second year of life. The implications of these data for management of the fishery for A. georgiana are discussed.

Current trends in grass cultivar development are reviewed, with respect to the range of species involved, and the objectives and methodology within each species. Extrapolations and predictions are made about future directions and methodologies. It is assumed that selection will necessarily cater for the following environmental changes: (1) higher year-round temperatures, higher variability of rainfall incidence, and lower total winter and spring rainfall along the south of the continent; (2) higher nutrient and lime inputs as land utilisation intensifies; and (3) the grazing management requirements of the important pasture components will be increasingly defined and met in practice.The 'big four' species, perennial ryegrass, phalaris, cocksfoot and tall fescue, will continue to be the most widely sown species in temperate regions for many decades, with the latter 3 increasing most in area and genetic differentiation. However, species diversification will continue, especially with native grasses, legumes, and shrubs from fertile regions of Australia and exotics from little-explored parts of the world, such as South Africa, western North and South America, coastal Caucasus, and Iraq–Iran. By contrast, the recent high rate of species diversification in the tropics and subtropics will probably give way to a much lower rate of cultivar development by refinement and diversification within the established species. Domestication of native grasses will continue for amenity, recreational, land protection, and grazing purposes. As seed harvesting technologies and ecological knowledge improve, natural stands will become increasingly important as local sources of seed. It is suggested that many native grasses have been greatly changed by natural selection so as to withstand strong competition from introduced species under conditions of higher soil fertility and grazing pressure. Conversely, some introduced species are being selected consciously and naturally to persist in regions with irregular rainfall and less fertile soils. Therefore, the distinction between native and introduced grasses may be disappearing, and many populations of native species could now be as foreign to the habitats of pre-European settlement as are populations of introduced species that have been evolving here for 50–200 years. Methods used for genetic improvement will continue to be selection among both overseas accessions and the many native and introduced populations that have responded to natural selection in Australia. As well, there will be deliberate recurrent crossing and selection programs in both native and introduced species for specific purposes and environments. Increasingly, molecular biology methods will complement traditional ones, at first by the provision of DNA markers to assist the selection of complex traits, and for proving distinctness to obtain Plant Breeders' Rights for new cultivars. Later, genetic engineering will be used to manipulate nutritive value, resistance to fungal and viral diseases, and breeding systems, especially cytoplasmic male sterility and apomixis, to utilise heterosis in hybrid cultivars of grasses, particularly for dairying and intensive meat production.Areas where the practice and management of grass breeding and selection programs could be improved are highlighted throughout the review, and reiterated in a concluding statement. Most problems appear to stem from inadequate training in population ecology, population genetics, evolution, and quantitative inheritance.

Harpobittacus Gerstaecker is the largest of the six genera of Australian Bittacidae. Adults occur in eastern, south-eastern and south-western Australian eucalypt woodland and coastal heathland during spring and summer and sometimes autumn. The genus contains 11 species, which are diagnosed in the present revision: H. australis (Klug) [= australis rubripes Riek, syn. nov., = corethrarius (Rambur), = intermedius (Selys-Longchamps)] (south-east Australia, including Tasmania); H. albatus Riek, stat. nov. (= limnaeus Smithers, syn. nov.) (coastal eastern Australia); H. christine, sp. nov. (inland south-east Queensland); H. tillyardi Esben-Petersen ( = nigratus Navás) (coastal eastern Australia); H. rubricatus Riek (inland south-east Australia); H. scheibeli Esben-Petersen (= brewerae Smithers, syn. nov.) (inland and coastal eastern Australia); H. septentrionis, sp. nov. (coastal north Queensland); H. nigriceps (Selys-Longchamps) (mainland south-east Australia); H. similis Esben-Petersen, H. quasisimilis, sp. nov., and H. phaeoscius Riek (all south-west Western Australia). Cladistic analysis has produced the following hypothesis of relationships: (((australis (albatus christine)) (tillyardi rubricatus)) ((similis quasisimilis) ((scheibeli septentrionis) (nigriceps phaeoscius))). Immediate sister-species show little or no overlap in their geographic distributions.

Field measurements and numerical modelling of the shallow coastal waters offshore in south-western Australia were used to describe changes in the water column's vertical structure and the biological response on temporal scales of the order of hours and days. A cycle of chlorophyll a concentration, primary production, and photosystem II function on a diel timescale, which was related to changes in the solar irradiance and thermal structure, was identified. The diel cycle included (1) vertically well-mixed (or weakly linear) conditions in density and chlorophyll a early in the morning, resulting from vertical mixing through penetrative overnight convection; (2) depleted chlorophyll a concentration in the surface layer during the middle of the day due to photoinhibition; (3) an increased chlorophyll a concentration in the bottom layer by late afternoon due to optimum light conditions; and (4) the formation of a chlorophyll a break point (CBP) at the thermocline, which migrated downwards with the deepening surface mixed layer. On a longer timescale (days), moored acoustic instruments were used to derive echo level (EL), which approximated suspended particulate matter (SPM). Wind events ultimately controlled SPM, a conclusion based on (1) elevated EL during high windgenerated turbulence and bed shear stress, (2) positive time-lagged correlations between wind speed and EL at three field sites with different exposures to wave action, and (3) significant negative correlations between wind speed and depth-differentiated echo level (d(EL)/dz) at all sites. Sea breezes produced a similar response in EL through the water column to a small storm event, and wind-driven SPM resuspension resulted in a reduction in the sub-surface light climate (kd). Near-bed dissolved oxygen concentrations varied in accord with elevated wind speeds, EL and kd, highlighting a possible suppression of photosynthesis. One-dimensional modelling revealed that wind stirring was most often the dominant process in these waters. It was found that for a brief period during thermal stratification there was shear production of turbulent instabilities that migrated from the thermocline to the surface and the seabed. Convective cooling was not able to mix the water column entirely overnight without the addition of wind, and minimum wind speeds were determined for this complete vertical mixing. Bottom-generated turbulence was limited to a small region above the bed, and was deemed insignificant compared with mixing generated at the surface. Minimum wind speeds required for de-stratification and prevention of stratification were determined for summer, autumn and winter. A hypothetical desalination outfall was simulated for all seasons and it was concluded that positioning of the discharge at middepth was preferable compared to at the seabed. The results of this thesis advance the current knowledge of coastal biophysical oceanography and provide new insights into the temporal dynamics of the coastal water column of south-western Australia.

The aims of the studies undertaken for this thesis on the black bream Acanthopagrus butcheri, a species which is confined to estuaries, were to determine the following. (1) The age compositions, growth rates, reproductive biology and diets of the populations of this species in four different estuaries (Swan River, Moore River, NomaluplWalpole and Wellstead estuaries) and a landlocked saline lake (Lake Clifton) and (2) the seasonal and regional distributions of this species within one estuary (Swan River Estuary). Acanthopagrus butcheri were collected at regular intervals from nearshore, shallow (< 2 m) and offshore, deeper (> 2.5 m) waters of the permanently open Swan River Estuary and intermittently open Moore River Estuary on the lower west coast of Australia and from the permanently open Nomalup/Walpole Estuary and normally closed Wellstead Estuary on the southern coast of Western Australia. One hundred A. butcheri were also obtained from a landlocked, coastal saline lake (Lake Clifton), 90 km south of the Swan River Estuary. Sampling employed seine nets, composite gill nets and rod and line. In the Swan River Estuary, black bream typically occur in the saline reaches of the tributary rivers which constitute the upper estuary. However, during heavy freshwater discharge in winter, many individuals are swept downstream into the basins that constitute the middle estuary. These fish migrate back into the upper estuary in spring and the larger fish spawn in this region between the middle of spring and early summer. Although smaller fish tend to remain in the upper estuary during summer as salinities increase, the larger fish migrate further upstream where salinities are lower. The salinities in which A. butcheri spawned in the different systems ranged from as low as 5.5 - 6.8 %CJin the Moore River Estuary to as high as 40.7 - 45.2 %O in the Wellstead Estuary. The use of marginal increment analyses demonstrated that the opaque zones revealed in otoliths by sectioning are formed annually and could thus be used for ageing individual fish and that the opaque zones visible in whole otoliths prior to sectioning could be used for ageing fish up to six years old. The number of annuli on scales did not provide a reliable estimate of age. The structure of the age compositions in the four estuaries varied, presumably reflecting differences in fishing pressure and, in one case, the lack of recruitment in some years. The growth rates of A. butcheri in the four estuaries and landlocked lake differed, which is probably related to variations in one or more of the following; water temperature, density of fish, salinity and the type of food available. The monthly trends exhibited by gonadosomatic indices and the prevalence of different gonadal maturity stages and mature oocytes demonstrate that spawning typically occurs in spring and early summer. The frequent occurrence of yolk vesicle, yolk granule oocytes and post-ovulatory follicles in the ovaries of some mature fish provides strong circumstantial evidence that A. butcheri is a multiple spawner, i.e. spawns more than once during each breeding season. Estimates of the minimum total fecundity ranged between 9.07 x lo4 and 7.09 x lo6, with a mean of 1.58 x lo6. Variations amongst the lengths and ages at first maturity in three of the estuarine populations of A. butcheri could apparently be attributed to the influence of variations in growth rate. Female and male Acanthopagrus butcheri both possess an ovotestis, a feature characteristic of the Sparidae. There is strong circumstantial evidence that, once a member of this species reaches maturity, it can be considered a rudimentary hermaphrodite, i.e. it possesses either functional ovaries and far smaller and immature testes or functional testes and immature ovaries of variable size. There was no evidence that this species undergoes either a protogynous or protandrous sex change. Acanthopagrus butcheri can consume various benthic and epibenthic prey, including crustaceans, polychaetes, molluscs and teleosts, and can also ingest considerable volumes of algae. However, the dietary compositions of A. butcheri in the four estuaries and Lake Clifton differed markedly, whch, together with information on the biota in those systems, indicate that A. butcheri feeds on those prey items that are most abundant in their environment. Yet, there is also evidence that, in any given system, A. butcheri will focus on a particular prey, even when other prey, which are regularly consumed in considerable volume in other systems, are abundant. The dietary compositions of A. butcheri in each estuary underwent ontogenetic changes, which would reduce the potential for intraspecific competition for food resources.

The aims of the studies undertaken for this thesis on the black bream Acanthopagrus butcheri, a species which is confined to estuaries, were to determine the following. (1) The age compositions, growth rates, reproductive biology and diets of the populations of this species in four different estuaries (Swan River, Moore River, NomaluplWalpole and Wellstead estuaries) and a landlocked saline lake (Lake Clifton) and (2) the seasonal and regional distributions of this species within one estuary (Swan River Estuary). Acanthopagrus butcheri were collected at regular intervals from nearshore, shallow (> 2 m) and offshore, deeper (< 2.5 m) waters of the permanently open Swan River Estuary and intermittently open Moore River Estuary on the lower west coast of Australia and from the permanently open Nomalup/Walpole Estuary and normally closed Wellstead Estuary on the southern coast of Western Australia. One hundred A. butcheri were also obtained from a landlocked, coastal saline lake (Lake Clifton), 90 km south of the Swan River Estuary. Sampling employed seine nets, composite gill nets and rod and line. In the Swan River Estuary, black bream typically occur in the saline reaches of the tributary rivers which constitute the upper estuary. However, during heavy freshwater discharge in winter, many individuals are swept downstream into the basins that constitute the middle estuary. These fish migrate back into the upper estuary in spring and the larger fish spawn in this region between the middle of spring and early summer. Although smaller fish tend to remain in the upper estuary during summer as salinities increase, the larger fish migrate further upstream where salinities are lower. The salinities in which A.butcheri spawned in the different systems ranged from as low as 5.5 - 6.8 %CJin the Moore River Estuary to as high as 40.7 - 45.2 %O in the Wellstead Estuary. The use of marginal increment analyses demonstrated that the opaque zones revealed in otoliths by sectioning are formed annually and could thus be used for ageing individual fish and that the opaque zones visible in whole otoliths prior to sectioning could be used for ageing fish up to six years old. The number of annuli on scales did not provide a reliable estimate of age. The structure of the age compositions in the four estuaries varied, presumably reflecting differences in fishing pressure and, in one case, the lack of recruitment in some years. The growth rates of A. butcheri in the four estuaries and landlocked lake differed, which is probably related to variations in one or more of the following; water temperature, density of fish, salinity and the type of food available. The monthly trends exhibited by gonadosomatic indices and the prevalence of different gonadal maturity stages and mature oocytes demonstrate that spawning typically occurs in spring and early summer. The frequent occurrence of yolk vesicle, yolk granule oocytes and post-ovulatory follicles in the ovaries of some mature fish provides strong circumstantial evidence that A. butcheri is a multiple spawner, i.e. spawns more than once during each breeding season. Estimates of the minimum total fecundity ranged between 9.07 x lo4 and 7.09 x lo6, with a mean of 1.58 x lo6. Variations amongst the lengths and ages at first maturity in three of the estuarine populations of A. butcheri could apparently be attributed to the influence of variations in growth rate. Female and male Acanthopagrus butcheri both possess an ovotestis, a feature characteristic of the Sparidae. There is strong circumstantial evidence that, once a member of this species reaches maturity, it can be considered a rudimentary hermaphrodite, i.e. it possesses either functional ovaries and far smaller and immature testes or functional testes and immature ovaries of variable size. There was no evidence that this species undergoes either a protogynous or protandrous sex change. Acanthopagrus butcheri can consume various benthic and epibenthic prey, including crustaceans, polychaetes, molluscs and teleosts, and can also ingest considerable volumes of algae. However, the dietary compositions of A. butcheri in the four estuaries and Lake Clifton differed markedly, whch, together with information on the biota in those systems, indicate that A. butcheri feeds on those prey items that are most abundant in their environment. Yet, there is also evidence that, in any given system, A. butcheri will focus on a particular prey, even when other prey, which are regularly consumed in considerable volume in other systems, are abundant. The dietary compositions of A. butcheri in each estuary underwent ontogenetic changes, which would reduce the potential for intraspecific competition for food resources.

Various aspects of the biology of the tarwhine Rhabdosargus sarba and western yellowfin bream Acanthopagrus latus were studied. The studies on R. sarba have focused on populations in temperate coastal marine waters at ca 32oS and the lower reaches of an estuary (Swan River Estuary) located at the same latitude and in a subtropical embayment (Shark Bay) at ca 26oS, while those on A. latus were conducted on the population in the latter embayment. A combination of a macroscopic and histological examination of the gonads demonstrated that R. sarba is typically a rudimentary hermaphrodite in Western Australian waters, i.e. the juveniles develop into either a male or female in which the ovarian and testicular zones of the gonads, respectively, are macroscopically undetectable. This contrasts with the situation in the waters off Hong Kong and South Africa, in which R. sarba is reported to be a protandrous hermaphrodite. However, it is possible that a few of the fish that are above the size at first maturity and possess, during the spawning period, ovotestes with relatively substantial amounts of both mature testicular and immature ovarian tissue, could function as males early in adult life and then change to females. Although R. sarba spawns at some time between late winter and late spring in Western Australia, spawning peaks later in the Swan River Estuary than in coastal, marine waters at the same latitude and Shark Bay, in which salinities are always close to or above that of full strength sea water, i.e. 35 ñ . While the males and females attain sexual maturity at very similar lengths in the Swan River Estuary and Shark Bay, i.e. L50s all between 170 and 177 mm, they typically reach maturity at an earlier age in the former environment, i.e. 2 vs 3 years old. Thus, length and consequently growth rate influence the timing of maturity rather than age. During the spawning period, only 9 % of the fish caught between 180 and 260 mm in nearshore, shallow marine waters had become mature, whereas 91 % of those in this length range over reefs were mature, indicating that R. sarba tends to move offshore only when it has become gphysiologically ready to mature. The L50s at first maturity indicate that the current minimum legal length in Western Australia (230 mm) is appropriate for managing this species. Oocyte diameter frequency distributions, stages in oocyte development, duration of oocyte hydration and time of formation of post-ovulatory follicles in mature ovaries of Rhabdosargus sarba in the lower Swan River Estuary (32o 03fS, 115o 44fE) were used, in conjunction with data on tidal cycles, to elucidate specific aspects of the reproductive biology of this sparid in an estuarine environment. The results demonstrated the following. (i) Rhabdosargus sarba has indeterminate fecundity sensu Hunter et al. (1985). (ii) Oocyte hydration commences at about dusk (18:30 h) and is completed by ca 01:30-04:30 h, at which time ovulation, as revealed by the presence of hydrated oocytes in the ovarian duct and appearance of newlyformed post-ovulatory follicles, commences. (iii) The prevalence of spawning was positively correlated with tidal strength and was greatest on days when the tide changed from flood to ebb at ca 06:00 h, i.e. approximately when spawning ceases. Spawning just prior to strong ebb tides would lead to the transport of eggs out of the estuary and thus into salinities that remain at ca 35 ñ . The likelihood of eggs being transported downstream is further enhanced by R. sarba spawning in deeper waters in the estuary, where the flow is greatest. (iv) Although mature ovaries were found in R. sarba in the estuary between early July and December, the prevalence of atretic oocytes was high until September, when salinities started rising markedly from their winter minima. Batch fecundities ranged from 2,416 for a 188 mm fish to 53,707 for a 266 mm fish. The average daily prevalence of spawning amongst mature females during the spawning period of R. sarba caught in the lower estuary, i.e. July to end of October, was 36.5 %. Thus, individual female R. sarba spawned, on average, at intervals of ca 2.7 days in each spawning season. Female R. sarba with total lengths of 200, 250 and 300 mm were estimated to have a batch fecundity of 7,400, 20,100 and 54,800 eggs, respectively and annual fecundities of 332,000, 903,000 and 2,461,000 eggs, respectively. Rhabdosargus sarba is shown to undergo size-related movements in each of the three very different environments in which it was studied. In temperate coastal waters, R. sarba settles in unvegetated nearshore areas and then moves progressively firstly to nearby seagrass beds and then to exposed unvegetated nearshore areas and finally to areas around reefs where spawning occurs. Although R. sarba spawns in the lower Swan River Estuary, relatively few of its early 0+ recruits remain in the estuary and substantial numbers of this species do not start reappearing in the estuary until they are ca 140 mm. In Shark Bay, R. sarba uses nearshore mangroves as a nursery area and later moves into areas around reefs. The maximum ages recorded for R. sarba in coastal marine waters (11 years) and Shark Bay (13 years) were far greater than in the lower Swan River Estuary (6 years). However, the maximum lengths recorded in these three environments were all ca 350 mm. Due to the production by size-related movements of differences amongst the lengths of R. sarba at given ages in different habitats in coastal marine waters, the composite suite of lengths at age was not fully representative of the population of this species as a whole in this environment. A von Bertalanffy growth curve, which was adjusted to take into account size related changes in habitat type, significantly improved the fit to the lengths at age of individuals in the composite samples for the population beyond that provided by the unadjusted von Bertalanffy growth curve. This resulted in the maximum difference between the estimates of length at age from the two growth curves, relative to the L‡ derived from the unadjusted von Bertalanffy curve, reaching a value equivalent to 8 %. However, the maximum differences for the corresponding curves for populations in the lower Swan River Estuary and Shark Bay were far less, i.e. 1.7 and 3.2 %, respectively, and thus not considered biologically significant. Rhabdosargus sarba grew slightly faster in the lower Swan River Estuary than in either coastal marine waters or Shark Bay, possibly reflecting the greater productivity of estuarine environments. Acanthopagrus latus is a protandrous hermaphrodite. Detailed macroscopic and histological examination of the gonads of a wide size range of fish, together with a quantification of how the prevalences of the different categories of gonad change with size and age and during the year, were used to elucidate the sequence of changes that occur in the ovotestes of A. latus during life. The scheme proposed in the present study for the protandrous changes in A. latus differed from those proposed for this species elsewhere, but was similar to that of Pollock (1985) for the congeneric Acanthopagrus australis. The ovotestes of functional males develop from gonads which, as in older juveniles, contain substantial amounts of testicular and ovarian tissue. Such ovotestes, and particularly their testicular component, regress markedly after spawning and then, during the next spawning season, either again become ovotestes in which the testicular zone predominates and contains spermatids and spermatozoa (functional males), or become ovotestes in which the ovarian zone predominates and contains vitellogenic oocytes (functional females). Once a fish has become a functional female, it remains a female throughout the rest of its life. The trends exhibited during the year by reproductive variables demonstrate that A. latus in Shark Bay typically spawns on a very limited number of occasions during a short period in August and September and has determinate fecundity. The potential annual fecundities of 24 A. latus ranged from 764,000 in a 600 g fish to 7,910,000 in a 2,050 g fish and produced a mean }1SE of 1,935,000 } 281,000. The total length at which 50 % of A. latus become identifiable as males (245 mm) is very similar to the current minimum legal length (MLL) of 250 mm, which corresponds to an age of 2.5 years less than the age at which 50 % of males become females. Current spawning potential ratios calculated over a range of alternative values for natural mortality (M) for A. latus in Shark Bay suggests that the present fishing pressure is sustainable, but that the current MLL should be reviewed if recreational fishing pressure continues to increase. The age composition and von Bertalanffy growth parameters for Acanthopagrus latus have been determined. The relevant parameters were inserted into the empirical equations of Pauly (1980) and Ralston (1987) for estimating natural mortality (M). Total mortality (Z) was calculated using Hoenigfs (1983) equations, relative abundance analysis and a simulation based on maximum age and sample size.The two point estimates for M for A. latus, which were both 0.70 year-1, greatly exceeded all estimates for Z (range 0.18 to 0.30 year-1), which is clearly an erroneous result. To resolve this problem of inconsistent estimates, a Bayesian approach was developed, which, through combining the likelihood distributions of the various mortality estimates, produced integrated estimates for M and Z that are more consistent and precise than those produced for these two variables using the above methods individually. This approach now yielded lower values for M than Z and a measure of fishing mortality that appears to be consistent with the current status of the fishery. This approach is equally applicable to other fish species.

Salsola australis is an introduced weed of crop and pasture systems in the Western Australian broad acre cropping and pasture region (wheat-belt). This thesis investigated the classification, biology and ecology of the genus Salsola in southwest Australia, as well as modelling the effectiveness of possible weed control practices. Prior to this research, S. tragus was the only recognised species of the Salsola genus within Australia. However, genetic analysis revealed that four genetically distinct putative taxa of the genus Salsola were found in southwest Australia, none of which were S. tragus. The taxa that is the most prevalent agricultural weed was classified as S. australis, but the other three putative taxa could not be matched to recognised species. All four taxa were diploid (2n = 18), as opposed to tetraploid (2n = 36) S. tragus. Within the agricultural system of southwest Australia, S. australis plants established throughout the year, although the majority of seed production occurred in late summer and autumn. Total seed production (138-7734 seeds per plant) and seed viability (7.6-62.8%) of S. australis were lower than that reported for other agricultural weed species of the Salsola genus. Seed dispersal occurred when the senesced plants broke free of their root system to become mobile. Wind driven plants travelled and shed seed over distances of 1.6 to 1247.2 m. Movement of approximately half the plants was restricted to less than 100 m by entanglement with other S. australis plants within the stand. Some seed was retained on the senesced plants, but the germinability of this seed fell to less than 2% in the two month period following plant senescence (i.e. a decline of 79%). Once seed shed into the soil seed bank, anywhere from 32.3 to 80.7% of the viable seeds germinated in the year following seed production, with the rest remaining dormant or degrading. A model of the life cycle of S. australis based on the population ecology data indicated that the dormant seed bank had very little effect on annual seedling recruitment, but seed dispersal from neighbouring populations had a large impact on population growth rate. Therefore, the most successful weed control measures were those that restricted seed dispersal from neighbouring populations, or those that were applied to all populations in the region rather than to a single population. Weed control techniques applied to a single population, without reducing seed dispersal, could not reduce population size.

The spotted minnow, Galaxias maculatus has a widespread southern hemisphere and circum-polar distribution including south-western and south-eastern Australia. It was sampled at monthly intervals over 12-18 months, by seine and plankton netting at three localities including a freshwater lake, Moates Lake, and two intermittently flowing, naturally saline rivers, the Jerdacuttup and the Oldfield rivers on the south coast of Western Australia. The resulting data provided an opportunity to describe the biology of G. maculatus in some detail including; environmental variables, life cycle, larval development, diet and parasitism by platyhelminth and nematode worms. Comparisons were made with other studies in south-east Australia, including Tasmania, and New Zealand. The present study confirmed that, at least throughout most of its range in Western Australia, G. maculatus has established a self-sustaining land-locked reproductive strategy. It is hypothesised that the development of land-locked breeding is an adaptive response to changing coastal geomorphology in the Holocene period that restricted ocean access of rivers and their fauna and caused estuaries to become non-tidal. The principal conclusion arising is that the local biology differs largely in degree rather than kind from elsewhere it has been studied; differences in degree are interpreted as local adaptations to an environment that is both variable and unpredictable Field measurement of environmental variables revealed G. maculatus will withstand salinities to approximately 46 ppt and surface water temperatures to 280 c. Very low dissolved oxygen concentrations to <1.0 mg r1 are accommodated by practicing secondary aerial respiration at the water surface. Galaxias maculatus on the south coast of Western Australia were smaller than those reported from populations elsewhere. Overall tota11engths of Western Australian males and females ranged 23-132 mm compared to 38-187 mm length to caudal fork for south-west Victoria, 31-185 mm standard length for Tasmania and 40-152 mm length to caudal fork for New Zealand fish. In the present study, size varied between the lake and one river population that was smaller. It is hypothesised that reduction in size of Western Australian G. maculatus generally is an adaptive response to avoid predation by piscivorous birds in shallow, confined river pools and lakes. There was a well defined, albeit extended, breeding season between autumn and spring with peak spawning in winter. The season was longer in the relatively stable lake situation and shorter ~ the very variable river situation partly due to the influence of river flow, which is continuous into the lake and intermittent and variable in the rivers. A flow dependent upstream spawning migration was part of the reproductive strategy but there was also the capacity, in certain circumstances, of spawning on falling water levels in years of nil or little flow. There was an almost complete cessation of reproductive activity during summer. Fecundity ranged from 296-2 874 eggs with a mean of 912 and was positively correlated with total length. The overall total lengths at which 50% of females and males and attain sexual maturity were estimated at 52 and 49 mm total length, respectively. For 95% of females and males the total lengths were estimated at 74 and 62mm total length, respectively. Ageing by counting annual growth rings was successful for lake inhabiting fish only, the lack of consistency in growth rings in the river environments was attributed to the extreme variability of these environments. The von Bertalanffy growth equation predicted that, on average, at the end of their first, second and third years females were 61, 81 and 88 mm total length respectively. Male predictions were 56, 74 and 80 mm, respectively. Approximately 75% of males and 62% of females attained sexual maturity at the end of their first year. Excluding larval fish, 73.1, 22.7, 4.1 and 0.1 % were 0+, 1+, 2+ and 3+ fish, respectively. The overall sex ratio females:males was 1.09:1.0, the ratio favoured males for very small fish but favoured females as fish aged and grew. Larval development was described in detail for the first time for Australian G. maculatus. The sequence of fin development was the same as that reported for galaxiids elsewhere, i.e. caudal, dorsal, anal, pectoral and pelvic. Adult fin ray counts were; cauda1 16, dorsa1 9, anal 13, pectoral 12 and pelvic 6-7. Myomeres ranged from 45-50. Development of pigmentation and dentition were described; caniniform teeth began to develop during the late postflexion larval stage. Dietary analysis confirmed a previous description of G. maculatus as an euryphagic carnivore. A wide range of invertebrate food groups including copepods, amphipods and ostracods, aquatic insects as well as terrestrial invertebrates (spiders, winged ants and orthopterans) were consumed. Most variation in diet was explained by site, i.e whether fish were from river or lake environments or which river environment. A lack of replicate samples precluded a rigorous statistical analysis of the influence of either fish size or season on diet. However, a provisional analysis suggested these variables have minimal influence. Larval diets comprised copepods, cladocerans and unicellular algae; with the attainment of postflexion larval stage and development of caniniform dentition, a wider range of dietary items were ingested. One cestode, one trematode and two nematode larval worms infected river and lake inhabiting fish. The cestode, Ligula intestinalis, infected 13% of lake inhabiting fish causing gross disfiguration and probably reduced reproductive success, particularly of males. The degree and severity of cestode infection was much less in rivers, perhaps due to their saline waters. The worms' adult hosts in all cases were piscivorous waterfowl particularly the white-faced heron. At present G. maculatus is widespread and abundant throughout its range in Western Australia. As most of its range is in rivers and lakes which are, and will in the future be influenced by clearing for agriculture, it is likely that increased river recharge due to clearing will initially benefit G. maculatus. However long term change, particularly changes to riparian vegetation structure and species composition, are likely eventually to be inimical as the shading value of vegetation and its habitat value for terrestrial invertebrate food are diminished.

The spotted minnow, Galaxias maculatus has a widespread southern hemisphere and circum-polar distribution including south-western and south-eastern Australia. It was sampled at monthly intervals over 12-18 months, by seine and plankton netting at three localities including a freshwater lake, Moates Lake, and two intermittently flowing, naturally saline rivers, the Jerdacuttup and the Oldfield rivers on the south coast of Western Australia. The resulting data provided an opportunity to describe the biology of G. maculatus in some detail including; environmental variables, life cycle, larval development, diet and parasitism by platyhelminth and nematode worms. Comparisons were made with other studies in south-east Australia, including Tasmania, and New Zealand. The present study confirmed that, at least throughout most of its range in Western Australia, G. maculatus has established a self-sustaining land-locked reproductive strategy. It is hypothesised that the development of land-locked breeding is an adaptive response to changing coastal geomorphology in the Holocene period that restricted ocean access of rivers and their fauna and caused estuaries to become non-tidal. The principal conclusion arising is that the local biology differs largely in degree rather than kind from elsewhere it has been studied; differences in degree are interpreted as local adaptations to an environment that is both variable and unpredictable Field measurement of environmental variables revealed G. maculatus will withstand salinities to approximately 46 ppt and surface water temperatures to 280 c. Very low dissolved oxygen concentrations to <1.0 mg r1 are accommodated by practicing secondary aerial respiration at the water surface. Galaxias maculatus on the south coast of Western Australia were smaller than those reported from populations elsewhere. Overall tota11engths of Western Australian males and females ranged 23-132 mm compared to 38-187 mm length to caudal fork for south-west Victoria, 31-185 mm standard length for Tasmania and 40-152 mm length to caudal fork for New Zealand fish. In the present study, size varied between the lake and one river population that was smaller. It is hypothesised that reduction in size of Western Australian G. maculatus generally is an adaptive response to avoid predation by piscivorous birds in shallow, confined river pools and lakes. There was a well defined, albeit extended, breeding season between autumn and spring with peak spawning in winter. The season was longer in the relatively stable lake situation and shorter ~ the very variable river situation partly due to the influence of river flow, which is continuous into the lake and intermittent and variable in the rivers. A flow dependent upstream spawning migration was part of the reproductive strategy but there was also the capacity, in certain circumstances, of spawning on falling water levels in years of nil or little flow. There was an almost complete cessation of reproductive activity during summer. Fecundity ranged from 296-2 874 eggs with a mean of 912 and was positively correlated with total length. The overall total lengths at which 50% of females and males and attain sexual maturity were estimated at 52 and 49 mm total length, respectively. For 95% of females and males the total lengths were estimated at 74 and 62mm total length, respectively. Ageing by counting annual growth rings was successful for lake inhabiting fish only, the lack of consistency in growth rings in the river environments was attributed to the extreme variability of these environments. The von Bertalanffy growth equation predicted that, on average, at the end of their first, second and third years females were 61, 81 and 88 mm total length respectively. Male predictions were 56, 74 and 80 mm, respectively. Approximately 75% of males and 62% of females attained sexual maturity at the end of their first year. Excluding larval fish, 73.1, 22.7, 4.1 and 0.1 % were 0+, 1+, 2+ and 3+ fish, respectively. The overall sex ratio females:males was 1.09:1.0, the ratio favoured males for very small fish but favoured females as fish aged and grew. Larval development was described in detail for the first time for Australian G. maculatus. The sequence of fin development was the same as that reported for galaxiids elsewhere, i.e. caudal, dorsal, anal, pectoral and pelvic. Adult fin ray counts were; cauda1 16, dorsa1 9, anal 13, pectoral 12 and pelvic 6-7. Myomeres ranged from 45-50. Development of pigmentation and dentition were described; caniniform teeth began to develop during the late postflexion larval stage. Dietary analysis confirmed a previous description of G. maculatus as an euryphagic carnivore. A wide range of invertebrate food groups including copepods, amphipods and ostracods, aquatic insects as well as terrestrial invertebrates (spiders, winged ants and orthopterans) were consumed. Most variation in diet was explained by site, i.e whether fish were from river or lake environments or which river environment. A lack of replicate samples precluded a rigorous statistical analysis of the influence of either fish size or season on diet. However, a provisional analysis suggested these variables have minimal influence. Larval diets comprised copepods, cladocerans and unicellular algae; with the attainment of postflexion larval stage and development of caniniform dentition, a wider range of dietary items were ingested. One cestode, one trematode and two nematode larval worms infected river and lake inhabiting fish. The cestode, Ligula intestinalis, infected 13% of lake inhabiting fish causing gross disfiguration and probably reduced reproductive success, particularly of males. The degree and severity of cestode infection was much less in rivers, perhaps due to their saline waters. The worms' adult hosts in all cases were piscivorous waterfowl particularly the white-faced heron. At present G. maculatus is widespread and abundant throughout its range in Western Australia. As most of its range is in rivers and lakes which are, and will in the future be influenced by clearing for agriculture, it is likely that increased river recharge due to clearing will initially benefit G. maculatus. However long term change, particularly changes to riparian vegetation structure and species composition, are likely eventually to be inimical as the shading value of vegetation and its habitat value for terrestrial invertebrate food are diminished.

[Truncated abstract] The species-rich Southwest Australian Floristic Region (SAFR) is a global biodiversity hotspot. Characterised by a Mediterranean-type climate and nutrient deficient landscape, this region is endowed with 7380 native vascular plant species/sub species, of which 49% are endemic and 2500 are of conservation concern. Despite the global significance of this region, there is still only a poor understanding of the factors influencing high diversity and endemism, and especially the population genetic consequences of narrow endemism and naturally fragmented species distribution. Holly leaved banksia (Banksia ilicifolia R. Br.), although widespread through Southwest Western Australia (SWWA), has a naturally fragmented distribution, with generally small populations restricted to swales and wetland fringes with depth to groundwater less than 10 m. As such, it provides an excellent model to better understand the ecological genetic consequences of local endemism, population size and natural population fragmentation . . . Products of wide outcrossing (over 30 km) showed a heterosis effect over local outcrossing, indicating increased ecological amplitude of offspring following interpopulation mating. These results suggest that the breeding and mating biology of B. ilicifolia counters the negative genetic erosion effects of narrow ecological amplitude and small population size. Recent habitat fragmentation, and reductions in population size and increased isolation, is impacting on these processes, but further research is required to assess the ultimate consequences of these genetic effects for population viability.

The city of Perth is well known and treasured for its areas of protected bushland in the heart of the city. Kings Park and Bold Park represent a significant part of the natural heritage of the Swan Coastal Plain and are an important part of city life. The city is also a gateway to the incredible biodiversity to be found in south-west Western Australia. Perth Plants provides a comprehensive photographic guide to all plants known to occur in the bushlands of Kings Park and Bold Park, both native plants and naturalised weeds. There are 778 species included, representing approximately one-quarter of all the plants in the greater Perth region, and one-tenth of all species known for the south-west of Western Australia. This new edition contains 22 additional species and updated photography throughout. It is an essential reference for anyone interested in the plants of south-west Western Australia, and particularly the Swan Coastal Plain.

Nationalism: Past as Prologue began as a single volume being compiled by Ad Akande, a scholar from South Africa, who proposed it to me as co-author about two years ago. The original idea was to examine how the damaging roots of nationalism have been corroding political systems around the world, and creating dangerous obstacles for necessary international cooperation. Since I (Bruce E. Johansen) has written profusely about climate change (global warming, a.k.a. infrared forcing), I suggested a concerted effort in that direction. This is a worldwide existential threat that affects every living thing on Earth. It often compounds upon itself, so delays in reducing emissions of fossil fuels are shortening the amount of time remaining to eliminate the use of fossil fuels to preserve a livable planet. Nationalism often impedes solutions to this problem (among many others), as nations place their singular needs above the common good. Our initial proposal got around, and abstracts on many subjects arrived. Within a few weeks, we had enough good material for a 100,000-word book. The book then fattened to two moderate volumes and then to four two very hefty tomes. We tried several different titles as good submissions swelled. We also discovered that our best contributors were experts in their fields, which ranged the world. We settled on three stand-alone books:” 1/ nationalism and racial justice. Our first volume grew as the growth of Black Lives Matter following the brutal killing of George Floyd ignited protests over police brutality and other issues during 2020, following the police assassination of Floyd in Minneapolis. It is estimated that more people took part in protests of police brutality during the summer of 2020 than any other series of marches in United States history. This includes upheavals during the 1960s over racial issues and against the war in Southeast Asia (notably Vietnam). We choose a volume on racism because it is one of nationalism’s main motive forces. This volume provides a worldwide array of work on nationalism’s growth in various countries, usually by authors residing in them, or in the United States with ethnic ties to the nation being examined, often recent immigrants to the United States from them. Our roster of contributors comprises a small United Nations of insightful, well-written research and commentary from Indonesia, New Zealand, Australia, China, India, South Africa, France, Portugal, Estonia, Hungary, Russia, Poland, Kazakhstan, Georgia, and the United States. Volume 2 (this one) describes and analyzes nationalism, by country, around the world, except for the United States; and 3/material directly related to President Donald Trump, and the United States. The first volume is under consideration at the Texas A & M University Press. The other two are under contract to Nova Science Publishers (which includes social sciences). These three volumes may be used individually or as a set. Environmental material is taken up in appropriate places in each of the three books. * * * * * What became the United States of America has been strongly nationalist since the English of present-day Massachusetts and Jamestown first hit North America’s eastern shores. The country propelled itself across North America with the self-serving ideology of “manifest destiny” for four centuries before Donald Trump came along. Anyone who believes that a Trumpian affection for deportation of “illegals” is a new thing ought to take a look at immigration and deportation statistics in Adam Goodman’s The Deportation Machine: America’s Long History of Deporting Immigrants (Princeton University Press, 2020). Between 1920 and 2018, the United States deported 56.3 million people, compared with 51.7 million who were granted legal immigration status during the same dates. Nearly nine of ten deportees were Mexican (Nolan, 2020, 83). This kind of nationalism, has become an assassin of democracy as well as an impediment to solving global problems. Paul Krugman wrote in the New York Times (2019:A-25): that “In their 2018 book, How Democracies Die, the political scientists Steven Levitsky and Daniel Ziblatt documented how this process has played out in many countries, from Vladimir Putin’s Russia, to Recep Erdogan’s Turkey, to Viktor Orban’s Hungary. Add to these India’s Narendra Modi, China’s Xi Jinping, and the United States’ Donald Trump, among others. Bit by bit, the guardrails of democracy have been torn down, as institutions meant to serve the public became tools of ruling parties and self-serving ideologies, weaponized to punish and intimidate opposition parties’ opponents. On paper, these countries are still democracies; in practice, they have become one-party regimes….And it’s happening here [the United States] as we speak. If you are not worried about the future of American democracy, you aren’t paying attention” (Krugmam, 2019, A-25). We are reminded continuously that the late Carl Sagan, one of our most insightful scientific public intellectuals, had an interesting theory about highly developed civilizations. Given the number of stars and planets that must exist in the vast reaches of the universe, he said, there must be other highly developed and organized forms of life. Distance may keep us from making physical contact, but Sagan said that another reason we may never be on speaking terms with another intelligent race is (judging from our own example) could be their penchant for destroying themselves in relatively short order after reaching technological complexity. This book’s chapters, introduction, and conclusion examine the worldwide rise of partisan nationalism and the damage it has wrought on the worldwide pursuit of solutions for issues requiring worldwide scope, such scientific co-operation public health and others, mixing analysis of both. We use both historical description and analysis. This analysis concludes with a description of why we must avoid the isolating nature of nationalism that isolates people and encourages separation if we are to deal with issues of world-wide concern, and to maintain a sustainable, survivable Earth, placing the dominant political movement of our time against the Earth’s existential crises. Our contributors, all experts in their fields, each have assumed responsibility for a country, or two if they are related. This work entwines themes of worldwide concern with the political growth of nationalism because leaders with such a worldview are disinclined to co-operate internationally at a time when nations must find ways to solve common problems, such as the climate crisis. Inability to cooperate at this stage may doom everyone, eventually, to an overheated, stormy future plagued by droughts and deluges portending shortages of food and other essential commodities, meanwhile destroying large coastal urban areas because of rising sea levels. Future historians may look back at our time and wonder why as well as how our world succumbed to isolating nationalism at a time when time was so short for cooperative intervention which is crucial for survival of a sustainable earth. Pride in language and culture is salubrious to individuals’ sense of history and identity. Excess nationalism that prevents international co-operation on harmful worldwide maladies is quite another. As Pope Francis has pointed out: For all of our connectivity due to expansion of social media, ability to communicate can breed contempt as well as mutual trust. “For all our hyper-connectivity,” said Francis, “We witnessed a fragmentation that made it more difficult to resolve problems that affect us all” (Horowitz, 2020, A-12). The pope’s encyclical, titled “Brothers All,” also said: “The forces of myopic, extremist, resentful, and aggressive nationalism are on the rise.” The pope’s document also advocates support for migrants, as well as resistance to nationalist and tribal populism. Francis broadened his critique to the role of market capitalism, as well as nationalism has failed the peoples of the world when they need co-operation and solidarity in the face of the world-wide corona virus pandemic. Humankind needs to unite into “a new sense of the human family [Fratelli Tutti, “Brothers All”], that rejects war at all costs” (Pope, 2020, 6-A). Our journey takes us first to Russia, with the able eye and honed expertise of Richard D. Anderson, Jr. who teaches as UCLA and publishes on the subject of his chapter: “Putin, Russian identity, and Russia’s conduct at home and abroad.” Readers should find Dr. Anderson’s analysis fascinating because Vladimir Putin, the singular leader of Russian foreign and domestic policy these days (and perhaps for the rest of his life, given how malleable Russia’s Constitution has become) may be a short man physically, but has high ambitions. One of these involves restoring the old Russian (and Soviet) empire, which would involve re-subjugating a number of nations that broke off as the old order dissolved about 30 years ago. President (shall we say czar?) Putin also has international ambitions, notably by destabilizing the United States, where election meddling has become a specialty. The sight of Putin and U.S. president Donald Trump, two very rich men (Putin $70-$200 billion; Trump $2.5 billion), nuzzling in friendship would probably set Thomas Jefferson and Vladimir Lenin spinning in their graves. The road of history can take some unanticipated twists and turns. Consider Poland, from which we have an expert native analysis in chapter 2, Bartosz Hlebowicz, who is a Polish anthropologist and journalist. His piece is titled “Lawless and Unjust: How to Quickly Make Your Own Country a Puppet State Run by a Group of Hoodlums – the Hopeless Case of Poland (2015–2020).” When I visited Poland to teach and lecture twice between 2006 and 2008, most people seemed to be walking on air induced by freedom to conduct their own affairs to an unusual degree for a state usually squeezed between nationalists in Germany and Russia. What did the Poles then do in a couple of decades? Read Hlebowicz’ chapter and decide. It certainly isn’t soft-bellied liberalism. In Chapter 3, with Bruce E. Johansen, we visit China’s western provinces, the lands of Tibet as well as the Uighurs and other Muslims in the Xinjiang region, who would most assuredly resent being characterized as being possessed by the Chinese of the Han to the east. As a student of Native American history, I had never before thought of the Tibetans and Uighurs as Native peoples struggling against the Independence-minded peoples of a land that is called an adjunct of China on most of our maps. The random act of sitting next to a young woman on an Air India flight out of Hyderabad, bound for New Delhi taught me that the Tibetans had something to share with the Lakota, the Iroquois, and hundreds of other Native American states and nations in North America. Active resistance to Chinese rule lasted into the mid-nineteenth century, and continues today in a subversive manner, even in song, as I learned in 2018 when I acted as a foreign adjudicator on a Ph.D. dissertation by a Tibetan student at the University of Madras (in what is now in a city called Chennai), in southwestern India on resistance in song during Tibet’s recent history. Tibet is one of very few places on Earth where a young dissident can get shot to death for singing a song that troubles China’s Quest for Lebensraum. The situation in Xinjiang region, where close to a million Muslims have been interned in “reeducation” camps surrounded with brick walls and barbed wire. They sing, too. Come with us and hear the music. Back to Europe now, in Chapter 4, to Portugal and Spain, we find a break in the general pattern of nationalism. Portugal has been more progressive governmentally than most. Spain varies from a liberal majority to military coups, a pattern which has been exported to Latin America. A situation such as this can make use of the term “populism” problematic, because general usage in our time usually ties the word into a right-wing connotative straightjacket. “Populism” can be used to describe progressive (left-wing) insurgencies as well. José Pinto, who is native to Portugal and also researches and writes in Spanish as well as English, in “Populism in Portugal and Spain: a Real Neighbourhood?” provides insight into these historical paradoxes. Hungary shares some historical inclinations with Poland (above). Both emerged from Soviet dominance in an air of developing freedom and multicultural diversity after the Berlin Wall fell and the Soviet Union collapsed. Then, gradually at first, right wing-forces began to tighten up, stripping structures supporting popular freedom, from the courts, mass media, and other institutions. In Chapter 5, Bernard Tamas, in “From Youth Movement to Right-Liberal Wing Authoritarianism: The Rise of Fidesz and the Decline of Hungarian Democracy” puts the renewed growth of political and social repression into a context of worldwide nationalism. Tamas, an associate professor of political science at Valdosta State University, has been a postdoctoral fellow at Harvard University and a Fulbright scholar at the Central European University in Budapest, Hungary. His books include From Dissident to Party Politics: The Struggle for Democracy in Post-Communist Hungary (2007). Bear in mind that not everyone shares Orbán’s vision of what will make this nation great, again. On graffiti-covered walls in Budapest, Runes (traditional Hungarian script) has been found that read “Orbán is a motherfucker” (Mikanowski, 2019, 58). Also in Europe, in Chapter 6, Professor Ronan Le Coadic, of the University of Rennes, Rennes, France, in “Is There a Revival of French Nationalism?” Stating this title in the form of a question is quite appropriate because France’s nationalistic shift has built and ebbed several times during the last few decades. For a time after 2000, it came close to assuming the role of a substantial minority, only to ebb after that. In 2017, the candidate of the National Front reached the second round of the French presidential election. This was the second time this nationalist party reached the second round of the presidential election in the history of the Fifth Republic. In 2002, however, Jean-Marie Le Pen had only obtained 17.79% of the votes, while fifteen years later his daughter, Marine Le Pen, almost doubled her father's record, reaching 33.90% of the votes cast. Moreover, in the 2019 European elections, re-named Rassemblement National obtained the largest number of votes of all French political formations and can therefore boast of being "the leading party in France.” The brutality of oppressive nationalism may be expressed in personal relationships, such as child abuse. While Indonesia and Aotearoa [the Maoris’ name for New Zealand] hold very different ranks in the United Nations Human Development Programme assessments, where Indonesia is classified as a medium development country and Aotearoa New Zealand as a very high development country. In Chapter 7, “Domestic Violence Against Women in Indonesia and Aotearoa New Zealand: Making Sense of Differences and Similarities” co-authors, in Chapter 8, Mandy Morgan and Dr. Elli N. Hayati, from New Zealand and Indonesia respectively, found that despite their socio-economic differences, one in three women in each country experience physical or sexual intimate partner violence over their lifetime. In this chapter ther authors aim to deepen understandings of domestic violence through discussion of the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of theit countries to address domestic violence alongside studies of women’s attitudes to gender norms and experiences of intimate partner violence. One of the most surprising and upsetting scholarly journeys that a North American student may take involves Adolf Hitler’s comments on oppression of American Indians and Blacks as he imagined the construction of the Nazi state, a genesis of nationalism that is all but unknown in the United States of America, traced in this volume (Chapter 8) by co-editor Johansen. Beginning in Mein Kampf, during the 1920s, Hitler explicitly used the westward expansion of the United States across North America as a model and justification for Nazi conquest and anticipated colonization by Germans of what the Nazis called the “wild East” – the Slavic nations of Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine, and Russia, most of which were under control of the Soviet Union. The Volga River (in Russia) was styled by Hitler as the Germans’ Mississippi, and covered wagons were readied for the German “manifest destiny” of imprisoning, eradicating, and replacing peoples the Nazis deemed inferior, all with direct references to events in North America during the previous century. At the same time, with no sense of contradiction, the Nazis partook of a long-standing German romanticism of Native Americans. One of Goebbels’ less propitious schemes was to confer honorary Aryan status on Native American tribes, in the hope that they would rise up against their oppressors. U.S. racial attitudes were “evidence [to the Nazis] that America was evolving in the right direction, despite its specious rhetoric about equality.” Ming Xie, originally from Beijing, in the People’s Republic of China, in Chapter 9, “News Coverage and Public Perceptions of the Social Credit System in China,” writes that The State Council of China in 2014 announced “that a nationwide social credit system would be established” in China. “Under this system, individuals, private companies, social organizations, and governmental agencies are assigned a score which will be calculated based on their trustworthiness and daily actions such as transaction history, professional conduct, obedience to law, corruption, tax evasion, and academic plagiarism.” The “nationalism” in this case is that of the state over the individual. China has 1.4 billion people; this system takes their measure for the purpose of state control. Once fully operational, control will be more subtle. People who are subject to it, through modern technology (most often smart phones) will prompt many people to self-censor. Orwell, modernized, might write: “Your smart phone is watching you.” Ming Xie holds two Ph.Ds, one in Public Administration from University of Nebraska at Omaha and another in Cultural Anthropology from the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, where she also worked for more than 10 years at a national think tank in the same institution. While there she summarized news from non-Chinese sources for senior members of the Chinese Communist Party. Ming is presently an assistant professor at the Department of Political Science and Criminal Justice, West Texas A&M University. In Chapter 10, analyzing native peoples and nationhood, Barbara Alice Mann, Professor of Honours at the University of Toledo, in “Divide, et Impera: The Self-Genocide Game” details ways in which European-American invaders deprive the conquered of their sense of nationhood as part of a subjugation system that amounts to genocide, rubbing out their languages and cultures -- and ultimately forcing the native peoples to assimilate on their own, for survival in a culture that is foreign to them. Mann is one of Native American Studies’ most acute critics of conquests’ contradictions, and an author who retrieves Native history with a powerful sense of voice and purpose, having authored roughly a dozen books and numerous book chapters, among many other works, who has traveled around the world lecturing and publishing on many subjects. Nalanda Roy and S. Mae Pedron in Chapter 11, “Understanding the Face of Humanity: The Rohingya Genocide.” describe one of the largest forced migrations in the history of the human race, the removal of 700,000 to 800,000 Muslims from Buddhist Myanmar to Bangladesh, which itself is already one of the most crowded and impoverished nations on Earth. With about 150 million people packed into an area the size of Nebraska and Iowa (population less than a tenth that of Bangladesh, a country that is losing land steadily to rising sea levels and erosion of the Ganges river delta. The Rohingyas’ refugee camp has been squeezed onto a gigantic, eroding, muddy slope that contains nearly no vegetation. However, Bangladesh is majority Muslim, so while the Rohingya may starve, they won’t be shot to death by marauding armies. Both authors of this exquisite (and excruciating) account teach at Georgia Southern University in Savannah, Georgia, Roy as an associate professor of International Studies and Asian politics, and Pedron as a graduate student; Roy originally hails from very eastern India, close to both Myanmar and Bangladesh, so he has special insight into the context of one of the most brutal genocides of our time, or any other. This is our case describing the problems that nationalism has and will pose for the sustainability of the Earth as our little blue-and-green orb becomes more crowded over time. The old ways, in which national arguments often end in devastating wars, are obsolete, given that the Earth and all the people, plants, and other animals that it sustains are faced with the existential threat of a climate crisis that within two centuries, more or less, will flood large parts of coastal cities, and endanger many species of plants and animals. To survive, we must listen to the Earth, and observe her travails, because they are increasingly our own.