Dissertationen zum Thema „Cellules solaires à film mince“
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Altamura, Giovanni. „Développement de cellules solaires à base de films minces CZTSSe“. Phd thesis, Université de Grenoble, 2014. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01071694.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleChampory, Romain. „Cellules solaires silicium ultra-minces nanostructurées : conception électro-optique et développement technologique“. Thesis, Lyon, 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016LYSEC057/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleThin-film crystalline silicon solar cells are promising candidates for future developments in the photovoltaic industry, through expected costs reductions and applications in flexible modules. To be competitive, thin-film monocrystalline silicon solar cell technology must differentiate itself from conventional ones. It is generally based on the epitaxy of high-quality layers and then on the transfer of these layers onto a mechanical support to complete the manufacture of the cell and reuse the growth substrate. The aim of this thesis is to find the technological associations that make it possible to realize high-efficiency photovoltaic cells from thin and ultra-thin layers of monocrystalline silicon. The work presented focuses on two main axes: the development and control of technological processes for the fabrication of thin-film solar cells and the optimization of high-performance thin-cell architectures.In this framework, the development of manufacturing techniques began with the development of thin-film transfer processes: low temperature laser welding technology and high temperature fast annealing welding technology. In order to increase conversion efficiency, we have developed surface patterns using the nano-photonics concepts to improve the absorbency of thin films. With an interferential lithography at 266 nm and dry etching by RIE and wet etching by TMAH (Tetramethylammonium Hydroxide), we can produce high-performance photonic crystals on epitaxial layers of silicon. Finally, we were able to design optimized architectures of thin solar cells with homo-junction of silicon and hetero-junction amorphous silicon / crystalline silicon more efficient electrically, thanks to electro-optical simulation tools. Our theoretical approach has also led us to explain the electrical phenomena specific to thin films, and to demonstrate the full potential of thin photovoltaic cells made of monocrystalline silicon
Luo, Yandi. „Development of new buffer layers and rapid annealing process for efficient Sb₂Se₃ thin-film solar cells“. Electronic Thesis or Diss., Université de Rennes (2023-....), 2024. http://www.theses.fr/2024URENS039.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleIn this thesis, heterojunction interface behavior, grain growth process and alternative buffer layer of Sb₂Se₃ based solar cells were investigated. The absorber quality and the band alignment are identified as key parameters for reducing defect density and for facilitating the separation and the transport of photogenerated charge carriers. A strategy of Al³⁺ doping into the CdS buffer layer was introduced in Sb₂Se₃ solar cells. The band alignment and the interface quality have been significantly improved. A “spike-like” structure was obtained for the best device with an efficiency of 8.41%. Secondly, a rapid thermal annealing process has also been developed and optimized in order to improve the quality of Sb₂Se₃ absorber film with reduced defect density. The efficiency of the Sb₂Se₃ solar cells is increased to 9.03%. In addition, we have tried to replace the toxic CdS buffer layer with an environmentally friendly ZnSnO film with moreover a wider band gap. An interesting power conversion efficiency of 3.44% was achieved for the Cd-free Sb₂Se₃ thin-film solar cells
Sapori, Daniel. „Hybrid Perovskites : Fundamental properties and solar cell thin film technology“. Thesis, Rennes, INSA, 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018ISAR0017.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleIn the future, the world has to face up to major challenges: increasing the energy production, reducing the environmental impact, moving towards sustainability in energy, etc. Renewable energies such as photovoltaics can meet these challenges. This thesis concerns hybrid halide perovskite materials and their use in solar cells. These materials have recently attracted a lot of attention owing to their direct bandgaps, strong light absorption, large carrier diffusion lengths, tunable optoelectronic properties, and their facile and low-cost fabrication In few years, their energy conversion efficiency has rapidly increased from 3.8 % in 2009 to 22.7 % in 2017, hence approaching efficiencies of crystalline silicon based-devices which represent 90% of commercial photovoltaic cells. In the design of perovskite cells, the perovskite photoabsorber is generally sandwiched by two interfacial layers that yield selective charge collections: the hole and electron transport layers (HTM and ETM). Good quality and adapted interfacial layers are required to obtained high efficiency cells. In this thesis, both the perovskite material and the interfacial layers are investigated
Cheikh, Aimane. „Etudes des hétérostructures à bases d'oxydes complexes pour de potentielles utilisations en cellules solaires“. Thesis, Normandie, 2020. http://www.theses.fr/2020NORMC208.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleDue to their promising functional properties, ternary oxide thin films based on Vanadium have gained much research interest in photovoltaic technologies.During this work, we first studied the possibility to use the strongly correlated metal SrVO3 as a transparent conducting oxide (TCO). For this reason, we have studied the optoelectronic properties of SrVO3 under different growth conditions. Second, our study was focused on making band gap-graded design solar cells based on oxide heterostructures. LaVO3 is particularly interesting due to its optical band gap localized in the optimal range for harvesting solar light. Accordingly, the LaVO3 was synthetized on SrTiO3 substrate under different growth conditions. Optical measurements reveal that LaVO3/SrTiO3 heterostructure grown at low oxygen pressure possess a band gap of 1.18 eV in the ideal energy range for photovoltaic. Electrical properties show that the interface LaVO3/ SrTiO3 is conducting, serving as an electrical contact for solar cells. Another interest of LaVO3 is its crystalline structure offering the possibility to combine it with other structurally compatible transition metal oxides with larger band gap such as LaFeO3 (2.2 eV) in order to enhance the optical absorption at high energy. Once the optoelectronic properties have been established, the LFO/LVO heterostructure was synthetized on SrTiO3 substrate at low oxygen pressure. The physical properties of our system have been also investigated for different LaFeO3 thickness but, to date, no photoconductivity was obtained
Alem-Boudjemline, Salima. „REALISATION ET CARACTERISATION DE CELLULES PHOTOVOLTAIQUES PLASTIQUES“. Phd thesis, Université d'Angers, 2004. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00011294.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleLa première partie de notre travail porte sur la réalisation et la caractérisation d'une cellule photovoltaïque à base du composite poly(2-methoxy-5-(2'-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-phenylenevinylene (MEH-PPV) et [6,6]-phenyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM). L'insertion des couches interfaciales, le traitement de surface et l'amélioration de la morphologie de la couche active nous ont permis d'accroître significativement les performances photovoltaïques de la structure par rapport aux performances antérieures.
Les deuxième et troisième parties portent, respectivement, sur l'évaluation de nouveaux matériaux organiques dans les cellules à base de composite et sur le développement d'une nouvelle structure de cellules photovoltaïques améliorant leur stabilité.
Chancerel, François. „Croissance, report, soulèvement (epitaxial lift-off) et fabrication de cellules solaires InGaAs permettant le recyclage du substrat d'InP pour le photovoltaïque concentré (CPV)“. Thesis, Lyon, 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018LYSEC031/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleThis PhD thesis deals with the implementation of the epitaxial lift-off (ELO) process from an InP substrate allowing the detachment of active layers and the substrate recycling. The final target is to realize multi-junction solar cells in an economically competitive way for concentrated photovoltaic. The ELO process consists in the under-etching of a sacrificial layer inserted between the substrate and the active layers. It is well known and mastered on a GaAs substrate with the use of a sacrificial layer of AlAs with a thickness of about 5 nm. Such a layer is not usable on an InP substrate due to the high lattice mismatch between AlAs and InP. In order to adapt the ELO process to an InP substrate, this work aimed to develop a specific sacrificial layer based on an AlAs/InAlAs superlattice. Thus, it is possible to circumvent problems related to the lattice mismatch and to the strained layer growth. After optimization of growth conditions of this superlattice, using this type of sacrificial layer, we achieve a sufficient thickness and therefore a sufficient under-etching rate in order to meet the requirements of the ELO process. Then, the transfer and lift-off of thin crystalline film based InGaAs solar cells have been developed. This kind of solar cells showed performances similar to those obtained with a standard epitaxial growth on an InP substrate, or even better under concentration due to optical confinement effects. Finally, the recycling of the InP substrate carried out by a process using only two wet chemical cleaning steps made it possible to produce InP surfaces of sufficient quality to achieve a promising second epitaxial growth
Posada, Parra Jorge Ivan. „Optimisation d'un procédé hybride de co-pulvérisation/évaporation pour l'obtention de cellules solaires à base de Cu(In,Ga)Se2“. Thesis, Paris 6, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015PA066057/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleCu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) thin film solar cells are a very promising technology for high efficiency energy conversion. Several techniques are used to synthesize CIGS absorbers. Magnetron reactive sputtering is an attractive deposition technique for depositing CIGS absorbers because of its potential for providing uniform coatings over large areas, thus offering the possibility for more competitive industrial scale-up. The objective of this work is to develop and optimize a hybrid alternative co-sputtering/evaporation CIGS deposition process. To meet this goal, various studies have been conducted to ensure control of the various deposition parameters. Initially, plasma was studied with Optical Emission Spectroscopy in order to establish correlations between plasma species and thin film composition, structure and morphology. This has allowed to establish in-situ calibration curves for monitoring the deposited layers composition and their homogeneity, and to determine the existence of different sputtering modes, linked to the selenium evaporation temperature. Then, different CIGS absorbers were synthesized with the stabilized hybrid process. These absorbers were deposited in one and three stages to analyze the influence of composition gradients on their morphological, structural and optoelectronic properties. A CIGS absorber giving a maximum conversion efficiency of 10.4 % was fabricated with a one step process. A 9.3 % efficiency solar cell was obtained with a three-stage deposition process
Posada, Parra Jorge Ivan. „Optimisation d'un procédé hybride de co-pulvérisation/évaporation pour l'obtention de cellules solaires à base de Cu(In,Ga)Se2“. Electronic Thesis or Diss., Paris 6, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015PA066057.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleCu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) thin film solar cells are a very promising technology for high efficiency energy conversion. Several techniques are used to synthesize CIGS absorbers. Magnetron reactive sputtering is an attractive deposition technique for depositing CIGS absorbers because of its potential for providing uniform coatings over large areas, thus offering the possibility for more competitive industrial scale-up. The objective of this work is to develop and optimize a hybrid alternative co-sputtering/evaporation CIGS deposition process. To meet this goal, various studies have been conducted to ensure control of the various deposition parameters. Initially, plasma was studied with Optical Emission Spectroscopy in order to establish correlations between plasma species and thin film composition, structure and morphology. This has allowed to establish in-situ calibration curves for monitoring the deposited layers composition and their homogeneity, and to determine the existence of different sputtering modes, linked to the selenium evaporation temperature. Then, different CIGS absorbers were synthesized with the stabilized hybrid process. These absorbers were deposited in one and three stages to analyze the influence of composition gradients on their morphological, structural and optoelectronic properties. A CIGS absorber giving a maximum conversion efficiency of 10.4 % was fabricated with a one step process. A 9.3 % efficiency solar cell was obtained with a three-stage deposition process
Kintz, Harold. „Réalisation de couches minces nanocomposites par un procédé original couplant la pyrolyse laser et la pulvérisation magnétron : application aux cellules solaires tout silicium de troisième génération“. Phd thesis, Université Paris Sud - Paris XI, 2013. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00958453.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleVauche, Laura. „Process development and scale-up for low-cost high-efficiency kesterite thin film photovoltaics“. Thesis, Aix-Marseille, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015AIXM4355/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleFacing growing energy demand and increasing concerns about climate change and finite energy sources, solar energy use should increase. The future of the different photovoltaic technologies obviously depends on their power conversion efficiency and cost (summarized by the ratio cost per watt), but also on the elements availability. Thin films of earth-abundant kesterite, Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS), Cu2ZnSnSe4 (CZTSe) or Cu2ZnSn(S,Se)4 (CZTSSe), which can be manufactured with low-cost processes, are promising candidates for solar energy conversion at large scale.In this thesis, a copper tin and zinc precursor of controllable composition and thickness is electrodeposited on 15 × 15 cm2 substrates. Electrodeposition is a process compatible with high throughput low-cost and safety industry requirements. The precursor is converted into a semiconductor by thermal treatments in presence of sulfur or selenium. The resulting Cu-Zn-Sn-S or Cu-Zn-Sn-Se layers should be uniform and have adequate properties (phases, composition and morphology) to produce high efficient solar cells. Full device processing, including the pn junction formation steps (wet chemical etching and buffer layer deposition) is also investigated in order to maximize device efficiency. The best CZTSe solar cell exhibits a 9.1% powerconversion efficiency, setting a new record for kesterite solar cells produced by electrodeposition
Borniol, Mervyn de. „Photosensibilisation d'oxydes semi-conducteurs par des dérivés organostanniques du pérylène -3,4-dicarboximideApplication à la conversion photovoltaïque“. Bordeaux 1, 2006. http://www.theses.fr/2006BOR13310.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleRisch, Lisa Carina Mareike. „Characterization of Cu2ZnSnSe4 kesterite thin film solar cells : understanding of the fundamental material properties and quality control for process optimization and monitoring“. Thesis, Aix-Marseille, 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016AIXM4376.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleThe present thesis deals with the characterization of Cu2ZnSnSe4 (CZTSe) kesterite thin film solar cells. Over the last years, kesterite based devices have attracted growing attention. As Cu, Sn and Zn are earth-abundant metals, the kesterite compounds are promising candidates as absorber materials for the mass production of low-cost photovoltaic devices. However, kesterite solar cells suffer from a severe open circuit voltage (Voc) deficit in comparison with other PV technologies, resulting in a significant performance gap between thin film kesterite and chalcopyrite (CIGS) based devices. Best reported efficiencies for the related CIGS thin film technology are 22.6% at cell size and 17.9% for a commercial module – very close to the performance of Si solar cells – while kesterite solar cells remain below 13% power conversion efficiency. Understanding the fundamental properties of kesterite materials and devices and solving challenges associated with their fabrication are the key to improve device performances.In the framework of this thesis, different loss mechanisms related to the low Voc values of kesterite solar cells have been identified and characterized. Two major factors are thereby observed to be responsible for the significant Voc deficit: non-radiative recombination and band tailing. These aspects are related to the presence of secondary phases and defects that have a significant impact on the pn-heterojunction. Therefore, this thesis focuses on the detection of secondary phases and defects and the role of the n-type buffer layer
El, Idrissi Sidi El Bachir. „Elaboration et caracterisation de materiaux destines a des applications solaires : cu::(x)o et zn::(3)p::(2)“. Université Louis Pasteur (Strasbourg) (1971-2008), 1987. http://www.theses.fr/1987STR13010.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleBraunger, Maria Luisa. „Fabrication et caractérisations électriques de films minces pour les cellules solaires organiques“. Thesis, Pau, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015PAUU3009/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleIn the area of organic photovoltaics, there is a continuous effort to improve the efficiency of the devices. In order to reach this goal, it is necessary to evaluate the characteristics that influence their performance. Although thin films of conjugated polymers (polythiophene derivatives and low bandgap polymers) have been widely investigated for applications in photovoltaic devices, few studies relate the influence of the nanostructuring of the films in such devices. In this context, the general objective of this work was to analyze the influence of deposition technique of thin films of polythiophene derivatives in organic photovoltaic devices. The Langmuir-Schaefer (LS) technique was compared to the more common spin-coating. The polythiophene films were characterized by electrical transport measurements (current vs. voltage, photoconductivity, cyclic voltammetry and impedance spectroscopy), optical spectroscopy (UV-visible and fluorescence) and morphologicaltechniques (atomic force and Brewster angle microscopies, and perfilometry). From the direct current electrical measurements, it could be observed that the LS films are more conducting than the spin-coating ones. From the morphologic point of view, the deposition technique revealed itself to influence on the photovoltaic device’s performance, due to the organization and nanostructuring provided by the LS technique. Preliminary studies were also undertaken on thin films made of low bandgap polymers based on cyclopentadithiophene by using the Langmuir-Blodgett technique
Na área de fotovoltaicos orgânicos há um esforço contínuo no aumento da eficiência dos dispositivos. Para alcançar esse objetivo, é necessária a avaliação das características que influenciam seu desempenho. Embora filmes finos de polímeros conjugados (derivados do politiofeno e polímeros de baixo bandgap) tenham sido amplamente estudados para aplicação em dispositivos fotovoltaicos, são encontrados poucos estudos investigando a influência da nanoestruturação dos filmes nestes dispositivos. Dentro deste contexto, o objetivo geral deste trabalho foi analisar a influencia da técnica de deposição de filmes finos de derivados do politiofeno em um dispositivo fotovoltaico orgânico. Para isto utilizamos a técnica de Langmuir-Schaefer (LS) em comparação à técnica spin-coating comumente utilizada. Os filmes de politiofeno foram caracterizados por medidas de transporte elétrico (corrente vs. tensão, fotocondutividade, voltametria cíclica e espectroscopia de impedância), espectroscopia óptica (UV-visível e fluorescência) e técnicas morfológicas (microscopias de força atômica e de ângulo de Brewster, e perfilometria). Através das medidas elétricas em corrente contínua observou-se que os filmes LS apresentam maior condutividade elétrica quando comparados com filmes spin-coating. Do ponto de vista morfológico, a técnica de deposição utilizada mostrou ter influencia no desempenho do dispositivo fotovoltaico, devido à organização e nanoestruturação provida pela técnica LS. Estudos preliminares foram também realizados em filmes finos de polímeros de baixo bandgap baseados em ciclopentaditiofeno usando a técnica de Langmuir-Blodgett
Moulin, Nelly. „Cellules solaires à haute tension de fonctionnement à basede Silicium ultra mince nanostructuré“. Thesis, Lyon, 2021. http://www.theses.fr/2021LYSEI002.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleCurrent technologies see an exponential increase in the number of connected objects. These objects are integrated in every domain and come along with an important challenge: their energy supply. In this thesis, we propose a new Silicon solar cell architecture that is easy to integrate in a chip design. This solar cell is composed of several subcells connected in series by vertical tunnel junctions. We study the tunnel junction from an analytical point of view and develop two new models on the I(V) characteristic. Then, we develop a new process flow to fabricate auto-aligned vertical tunnel junctions. With this process flow, a first prototype shows 200 mV output voltage for an 18 µm wide cell. We could also demonstrate the impact of series connection on cells containing up to 10 tunnel junctions. Several optimisations solutions have been proposed and investigated, notably on the resistance sources. This thesis studies physical phenomena interacting in a vertical tunnel junction solar cell from an analytical point of view, with optical, physical and electrical simulations along with experiments
An, Yong Tao. „Films minces dopés terres rares à base de Silicium pour un effet de découpage de photons dans les cellules solaires“. Caen, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013CAEN2068.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleThe conversion from sunlight to electricity using solar-cell devices based on the photovoltaic effect represents a promising towards green and renewable energy. But the efficiency of the c-Si solar cells is limited due to the overlap between the incident solar spectrum and the spectral absorption properties of the c-Si resulting in a harmful thermalization effect. Down conversion process, which consists in converting one incident ultraviolet-visible (300-500nm) photon into two near-infrared (~1000 nm) ones minimized this thermalization, by this quantum cutting effect. This thesis is devoted to the research of such down-converter effect on two rare-earth ions codoping systems (Pr3+-Yb3+; Tb3+-Yb3+) incorporated in a Si-based materials that may be capable of improving the efficiency beyond the Shockley-Queisser limit. In the first step, we have obtained remarkable photoluminescence intensity from Pr3+ and Tb3+ ions doped in HfSiOx and SiOxNy host matrices, respectively. An investigation on emission mechanisms and factors that influence emission are detailed. Results indicate that both matrices provide various sensitizers allowing the rare-earth ions to be effectively excited by a broad-wavelength domain. In the second step, down conversion effect was successfully achieved in Tb3+-Yb3+- SiOxNy system with an internal quantum efficiency at 980 nm of 197% for the higher Yb3+ concentration. An evaluation of the additional external quantum efficiency compared with a naked solar cell is deduced from this optical system and found to be almost 2%. These down-converter films could be directly and easily integrated on top of the Si-based solar cell to improve the photoelectric conversion efficiency at a lower cost
Moreau, Antonin. „Propriétés optiques et caractérisation par photoréflectance de cellules solaires à base de couches minces CIGS électrodéposées“. Thesis, Aix-Marseille, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013AIXM4305.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleRegarding, thin film photovoltaic market, Cu(In1-x,Gax)Se2 (CIGSe) based material is one of the most advanced technologies. Its high absorption coefficient allows it to absorb an important part of the solar spectrum with only two micron thickness. But while moving from fundamental research to the development of batch flow production, issues still remain. If the standard co-evaporation process lead to the best efficiency up to 20 %, high energy consumption is needed. In an increasingly competitive market, electroplating allows to reduce operating cost related to vacuum processes while guaranteeing competitive efficiencies on large scale modules. Nevertheless, due to the specificities of electroplating, new issues occur and some properties may differ from vacuum routes. In particular, optical properties which are responsible for photo-current generation. The first part of this thesis is thus devoted to obtain the optical constants for each layer of the device by spectroscopic ellipsometry. We pay special attention to the electrodeposited CIGSe absorber layer for which a specific method have been used in order to perform measurements on the back side. The second part of this thesis is dedicated to the development of an caracterisation tool : the photoreflectance (PR). The experimental setup is precisely described. An special implementation, using dual modulation technique, increases accuracy by removing luminescence and scattering perturbations. The study of 14 CIGS samples allows finally to correlate opto-electrical parameters from I(V) curves with PR spectra
Merigeon, Julien. „Etude des verres d’encapsulation pour cellules solaires photovoltaïques en silicium monocristallin“. Thesis, Angers, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015ANGE0083.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleThe thesis studies the encapsulation glass for monocrystalline silicon solar cells. Two ways were explored to reduce the efficiency loss due to encapsulation: reducing reflection losses of silica based glasses with antireflection layers and the use of rareearth- doped fluoride glass for frequency conversion. On the one hand, antireflection layers have been deposited on the silica glass by sol-gel method. The optical characterizations were carried out by spectrophotometry and ellipsometry and the influence of different encapsulation glasses on the current density-voltage characteristics (J-V) were measured under solar simulator irradiation in standard conditions (AM1.5 and 100 mW/cm2) for various reference cells. On the other hand, the rare-earth-doped fluoride glasses which they can convert frequencies in order to change the energy of photons to energies adapted to the optical gap of the silicon has been investigated. The glasses used are fluorinated matrix ZLAG and ZBLA doped with rareearth elements (Pr3+, Tm3+, Yb3+). The effect of doping on the electrical performance of encapsulated cells was studied correlated with physical and optical properties of glasses (energy transfer, luminescence, transmittance). Frequency conversion was demonstrated by luminescence for all of the rare-earth-doped samples. Then the most promising results for encapsulating was found for codoped Yb3+-Pr3+ ZBLA glass. The benefit of the frequency conversion was shown for the first time in J-V characteristics. Then, characteristics of the reference cells with these new encapsulating glasses were compared to those from glasses commonly used in the photovoltaic modules industry
Grau, Maïlys. „Réalisation de nouvelles structures de cellules solaires photovoltaïques à partir de couches minces de silicium cristallin sur substrat de silicium préparé par frittage de poudres“. Phd thesis, INSA de Lyon, 2012. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00876657.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleKlinkert, Torben. „Compréhension et optimisation du dépôt de Cu(In,Ga)Se2 par co-évaporation en tant qu'absorbeur pour le développement de cellules solaires en couches minces à très haut rendement“. Thesis, Paris 6, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015PA066008/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleIn this thesis the growth of Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) thin films by co-evaporation has been optimised and studied systematically. Being a key parameter, the substrate temperature has been calibrated with an infrared camera. The set-up and optimisation of a three-stage process at a new co-evaporation reactor has led to cell efficiencies up to 16.7 % without anti-reflection coating. The key for this achievement was the control of the Ga gradient. In depth inhomogeneities have been characterised by a novel method based on chemical etching of the absorber layer. Break-off experiments during the 3-stage process unveiled the importance of precursor and intermediate phases on growth mechanisms, in-depth compositional gradients and film morphology. The absorber/buffer layer interface has been investigated by varying the CIGS surface composition for solar cells both with a CdS and a Zn(O,S)-based buffer layer. It has been shown that an adaptation of the CIGS surface composition is beneficial for the replacement of the CdS by a Zn(O,S) buffer layer. Equivalent efficiencies can be achieved with the two buffer layers if each of them is combined with the corresponding optimal interface Ga composition. Low temperature current-voltage measurements indicate a lower conduction band offset at the CIGS/Zn(O,S) buffer layer as reported in the literature. For the further optimisation of our CIGS devices towards 20 % and beyond three routes are proposed: the optimisation of the absorber layer deposition finalisation, the reduction of detrimental absorption in the buffer layer (larger band gap or thinner buffer) and the incorporation of potassium which has beneficial effects on CIGS
Moussa, Tankari Abdoul-Razak. „Etude et optimisation d'oxydes transparents conducteurs (OTC) à base de NPs de ZnO dopé en couches minces nanostructurés destinés à la réalisation de cellules solaires photovoltaïques“. Electronic Thesis or Diss., Perpignan, 2024. http://www.theses.fr/2024PERP0014.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleThe proposed thesis subject concerns the realization and characterization of an OTC based on doped ZnO nanoparticles to design a high-performance nanostructured optical window intended for photovoltaic applications generally found in the technology second generation thin-film solar cells based on Cu (In, Ga) Se2 (CIGS) or amorphous silicon. The choice of a purely experimental approach will be necessary for the optimization of the protocol for synthesizing doped ZnO nanoparticles and conditions for depositing them in a nanostructured thin layer. The objective is to implement at the PROMES laboratory a new process for synthesis of doped ZnO nanoparticles from the aqueous sol gel technique, low cost and non-polluting in order to develop thin layers of nanostructured OTCs and heterojunctions Photosensitive P-N on rigid or flexible substrates intended for the production of solar cells based on CIGS and / or amorphous silicon. For their development, an experimental protocol innovative will be developed from the coupling of two chemical synthesis processes and physical respectively: Aqueous sol-gel process and low frequency radio frequency sputtering pressure
Al, ghzaiwat Mutaz. „Fabrication and study of solar cell modules based on silicon nanowire based radial junction solar cells“. Thesis, Université Paris-Saclay (ComUE), 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018SACLX101/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleIn this thesis, we have used a low-temperature plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) reactor to fabricate Si nanowire radial junction solar mini-modules on 5x5 cm2 glass substrates with the assistance of the laser scribing technique for the series connection of the cells.We have used fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) deposited on soda-lime glass substrates (SLG) as a back contact as well as the source of the Sn catalyst which was formed by a direct reduction of FTO using a H2 plasma. Subsequently, p-type SiNWs were grown using plasma-assisted vapor liquid solid (VLS) process, followed by the deposition of intrinsic a-Si:H and n-type µc-SiOx:H layers to achieve pin radial junction solar cells. We have obtained an energy conversion efficiency of 6.3 % with an active area of solar cells of 0.126 cm2, which is to our knowledge, the highest efficiency obtained based on FTO layers as a source of Sn catalyst.Laser scribing was used to perform a selective removal of thin-film materials in order to fabricate minimodules. With laser scribing, a monolithic series connection between adjacent RJ SiNW solar cells on the same glass substrate was achieved. In particular, the laser scribing system has been used to perform selective removal of FTO thin-film and RJ SiNWs, which are commonly known as step P1 and P2, respectively, and to perform a final scribe to isolate the active region from the rest of the substrate. The transparent top ITO contact was sputtered and cell stripes were defined using the lift-off technique (step P3).We have carried out a detailed study of the P2 laser scribe obtained with either green (532 nm) or IR (1064 nm) laser setups. The power of the laser has to be controlled as it has a direct impact on the removal of SiNW RJs and it can damage the underneath FTO contact. We have found that the scribing using a green laser produces a partial melting outside the scribed spots, unlike the IR laser which provides a cleaner scribing and less crystallized material at the edges of scribed spots. Mapping of the scribed spots using Raman spectroscopy allowed analyzing the material composition within the scanned area inside the craters left by the laser pulses. We have demonstrated that the use of the IR laser is preferable for P2 scribing because it can provide a high-quality series connection between cells.Finally, the optimized 10 cm2 SiNW RJ mini-module has reached an energy conversion efficiency of 4.37 % with power generation of 44 mW, thanks to the improved P2 laser scribing and the dense Ag grid printed using the ink-jet method. This performance represents, to the best of our knowledge, the highest reported power generation for silicon nanowire-based solar modules on glass substrates
Patel, Jayeshkumar Dineshbhai. „Development of Pb and Cd chalcogenide nanomaterials, nanocomposites and thin films : synthesis, characterization and applications in solar cells and photocatalysis“. Thesis, Université Laval, 2014. http://www.theses.ulaval.ca/2014/30719/30719.pdf.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleMetal chalcogenides have emerged as an important class of materials due to their potential significance in many technological applications. In this work, easy and low cost approaches have been developed to prepare metal chalcogenide nanomaterials and thin films from their metal-organic complex precursors. The use of synthesized nanomaterials and thin films in solar cells and photocatalytic water purification has been discussed. The first approach adopted involves the synthesis of metal sulphide nanomaterials using metal-thiourea (M-TU) complex precursors. Lead sulphide (PbS) nanocrystals (NCs) and nanostructures were synthesized from methanolic lead-thiourea (Pb-TU) complex via various precipitation techniques based on the decomposition of methanolic Pb-TU complex. We have also synthesized cadmium sulphide (CdS) nanostructures through hydrothermal and solvothermal treatment of aminocaproic acid (ACA)-mixed cadmium-thiourea complex precursor. The as-synthesized CdS nanostructures were found to exhibit highly efficient photocatalytic activities for the degradation of methyl orange and rhodamine B (RhB) in aqueous medium. We have also developed simple synthetic routes to prepare metal chalcogenide nanomaterials from metal-oleate (M-O) complexes. Sulphurizations of M-O complex precursors at relatively low temperatures produced highly stable metal sulphide NCs because oleic acid (OA) is chemisorbed as a carboxylate onto the surface of NCs. The cadmium-oleate (Cd-O) complex precursor was also used to prepare CdSe NCs. Surface treatments of the as-synthesized CdSe NCs with pyridine and tert-butylamine were very effective to replace long chain OA ligands. Bulk-heterojunction solar cells made from surface treated cadmium selenide (CdSe) NCs showed greater improvement in photovoltaic performances compared to those made from untreated CdSe NCs. Solvothermal decomposition of thiourea-mixed Cd-O complex precursor also produced nanocrystals composed of cauliflower-like CdS microspheres with good physicochemical properties and photocatalytic ability to degrade RhB in aqueous medium. The spin-coating deposition technique was used to develop PbS and CdS thin films from their methanolic M-TU complex precursors. The obtained films had smooth surface and showed size quantized band gaps. The possible reasons behind the low efficiency of CdS/PbS thin film solar cell device were also discussed.
Gérenton, Félix. „Procédés innovants adaptés aux cellules photovoltaïques PERC en couches minces de silicium cristallin“. Thesis, Lyon, 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016LYSEI143/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleThe cost of fabrication of photovoltaic modules is a critical figure for settling solar power into the energy mix. One way to lower this cost is to decrease silicon use in photovoltaic cells. It is technically possible to produce crystalline silicon solar cells only a few dozens of microns thick, although this represents a challenge both for their fabrication process and their optimization. This last one is different from cells of standard thickness, especially by the need of high level light trapping and surface passivation. Two structures will be studied in order to fulfill these aspects : a reflector on the rear side of the cell, and an innovative texturing process used to limit the etching of the already thin silicon absorber. Eventually, the implementation of the rear side reflector into photovoltaic cells will be discussed. The rear side reflector optimized for thin-film crystalline silicon solar cells has shown very good passivating and reflecting properties, as well as compatibility with the overall fabrication process. Moreover, the advanced texturation process developped in this work has shown a large potential gain in photogeneration for thin solar cells. These structures have been characterized and have shown a reflectivity and a passivation level coherent with the state-of-the-art. Finally, solar cells of standard thickness have been fabricated with the thin solar cells process, and have shown an improvement from the rear side reflector in comparison with a standard cell structure. Moreover, making these cells with the thin cells process has shown that the non-standard steps of this process are compatible with high-performance solar cells fabrication
Klinkert, Torben. „Compréhension et optimisation du dépôt de Cu(In,Ga)Se2 par co-évaporation en tant qu'absorbeur pour le développement de cellules solaires en couches minces à très haut rendement“. Electronic Thesis or Diss., Paris 6, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015PA066008.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleIn this thesis the growth of Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) thin films by co-evaporation has been optimised and studied systematically. Being a key parameter, the substrate temperature has been calibrated with an infrared camera. The set-up and optimisation of a three-stage process at a new co-evaporation reactor has led to cell efficiencies up to 16.7 % without anti-reflection coating. The key for this achievement was the control of the Ga gradient. In depth inhomogeneities have been characterised by a novel method based on chemical etching of the absorber layer. Break-off experiments during the 3-stage process unveiled the importance of precursor and intermediate phases on growth mechanisms, in-depth compositional gradients and film morphology. The absorber/buffer layer interface has been investigated by varying the CIGS surface composition for solar cells both with a CdS and a Zn(O,S)-based buffer layer. It has been shown that an adaptation of the CIGS surface composition is beneficial for the replacement of the CdS by a Zn(O,S) buffer layer. Equivalent efficiencies can be achieved with the two buffer layers if each of them is combined with the corresponding optimal interface Ga composition. Low temperature current-voltage measurements indicate a lower conduction band offset at the CIGS/Zn(O,S) buffer layer as reported in the literature. For the further optimisation of our CIGS devices towards 20 % and beyond three routes are proposed: the optimisation of the absorber layer deposition finalisation, the reduction of detrimental absorption in the buffer layer (larger band gap or thinner buffer) and the incorporation of potassium which has beneficial effects on CIGS
Ehré, Florian. „Elaboration et caractérisation de films d'oxynitrure de silicium dopés cérium et ytterbium : applications aux diodes électroluminescentes et au découpage quantique pour les cellules solaires“. Thesis, Normandie, 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017NORMC260/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleThis thesis is dedicated to cerium doped and cerium-ytterbium co doped oxynitride silicon films optical applications grown by radio frequency magnetron sputtering. Growth parameters have been optimized in order to obtain a strong cerium emission visible to the naked eye in the matrix host SiOxNy, especially the nitrogen flux has a dominant role. We showed that cerium ions have a high solubility without clustering at very high annealing temperature (1200°C). Those excellent properties lead to a first application: the elaboration of blue LED. First results show a weak electroluminescence signal but are still encouraging for further study. The second application is the elaboration of frequency conversion layers to increase the efficiency of Si based solar cell. Indeed solar cell are limited by the mismatch between the solar spectrum and the cell absorption range. The elaboration of Ce/Yb co doped SiOxNy films to convert a UV photon (300-400 nm) into two infrared photons (980 nm) allows to overcome the solar cell theoretical limit. Layers grown show an Yb3+ ion emission in presence of Ce3+ ions in the host matrix SiOxNy. Ce3+ ions sensitize Yb3+ ions on a large spectral range and their cooperative energy transfer mechanism is detailed. An efficiency of 185% is obtained for the higher dopants atomic concentration. In order to improve this system, the effect of adding Bragg mirrors placed between the conversion layer and the silicon substrate, which represents the solar cell, is theoretically studied. Their aim is double: increase the maximum flux of UV photons trapped in the frequency conversion layer and transmit a maximum of infrared photons, which are easily absorbable, toward the solar cell
Korolkov, Ilia. „Propriétés photoélectriques de vitrocéramiques et cristaux de chalcogénures“. Thesis, Rennes 1, 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017REN1S145/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleEnergy crisis and global ecological problems are considered as important challenges of nearest future. Eco-friendly and renewable sources of energy are still severely undeveloped and contribute weakly to the energy production. One of the most attractive and promising domains of renewable energy is a solar light harvesting. However, existing solar panels still possess negative quality factor, i.e. their fabrication and maintenance require more energy that they are capable to produce during their life cycle. Despite exponential reduction of the price, solar cells are not efficient enough in terms of light to energy conversion. Recent breakthroughs in material science contributed a lot to the increase of efficiency, however further investigation of novel materials are needed. Here, chalcogenide glassceramics of GeSe2-Sb2Se3-CuI system were studied in details. Within this system various chemical compositions were prepared and analyzed for their structure and photoelectric properties. We found that Sb2Se3 phase, responsible for the appearance of photoelectric effect in glass-ceramics, have a great potential for light harvesting due to its suitable optical properties. In the present work we demonstrated the influence of various dopants on photoelectric properties of Sb2Se3 crystals. We showed a possibility of conductivity type and resistivity tuning of bulk Sb2Se3 crystals in a wide range of values. Thin film devices based on studied bulk compositions were prepared by RF sputtering and characterized structurally and electrically as well. We demonstrated a fully functional thin film solar device based on iodine doped Sb2Se3 and 40GeSe2-40Sb2Se3-20CuI glass-ceramic
Souidi, Ramzi. „Etudes des propriétés physiques et chimiques de la surface des substrats de Silicium après découpe dans les applications aux cellules solaires photovoltaïques“. Thesis, Université Grenoble Alpes (ComUE), 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018GREAY017/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleFor photovoltaic industry (PV), the optimization of cutting silicon ingot into wafers represents both an economic and a scientific issue. Economic challenge in that it is important to reduce the loss of material induced by cutting. Scientific issue in that it is necessary to understand the impact of sawing on the quality of silicon near the surface. This PhD research work aims to characterize the nature and extent of the damage generated by an innovative cutting technique using diamond wires. A major objective is to evaluate the thickness of the subsurface damage layer (called SSD). In order to characterize the SSD, physical and chemical investigations as a function of depth were performed on either as-cut surface, bevel or transverse sectioned samples or by removal of material by sequential etching in diluted solutions. Sample preparation protocols as well as many characterization techniques were used. In particular microscopy techniques (optical, confocal, electronic SEM and TEM), photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy and mechanical strength tests allow multiscale characterization of wafers and coupons. A low bevel angle polishing lets to extend the observation zone of deep defects and to make a statistical analysis. Furthermore, methods from measuring the minority carrier lifetime are used to evaluate the recombination processes on the disturbed layer. The lifetime was obtained by photoconductivity decay (PCD) measurements on SiNx: H and Al2O3 passivated surfaces obtained from PECVD and ALD deposition processes respectively. First, characterizing samples from as-cut wafers indicates that the major defects of the SSD are cracks generated by cutting and propagated into the subsurface. These cracks are distributed over varying and heterogeneous depths depending on the sawing conditions. Second, the results of the sequential removal method show, on the one hand, an effect of the SSD in recombination processes. The evaluation accuracy of this effect is conditioned by optimized surface passivation and reliable measurements of lifetime. On the other hand, an interaction of chemical attack with cracks is shown. This is crucial in the evaluation of the absolute thickness of SSD layer that may impact the solar cells performance
Medjnoun, Kahina. „Etude et réalisation de semi conducteurs transparents ZnO dopé vanadium et oxyde de vanadium en couches minces pour des applications photovoltaïques“. Thesis, Perpignan, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015PERP0020.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleOur research work has been performed with the aim of developing new transparent semiconductor nanomaterials of ZnxV1-xO alloys in nanostructured thin films for applications in optoelectronic devices and in particular in photovoltaic cells in CIGS based thin films. Our main objective is to realize buffer layers/window layers based on materials not containing cadmium, aluminum nor indium, such as ZnxV1-xO at respectively high and low vanadium concentration. The originality of my work is in the realization, starting from the same deposition process, of two elements of the CIGS cell using the PVD (rf-magnetron sputtering) technique, in which the sputtering targets are based on nanocrystalline powders previously synthesized by the sol-gel process. This elaboration method gives rise to a significant decrease in the production cost. In order to achieve this, first of all structural, morphological, optical and electrical characterization of the thin films have been carried out and their physical parameters have been measured in order to determine the optimal conditions of deposition for the desired films. The obtained results exhibit that vanadium concentrations of 20% and 1% are respectively suitable for realizing the desired buffer layers and Transparent Conducting Oxides (TCO). Finally, in order to anticipate and improve the photovoltaic parameters, a new architecture of photovoltaic structure of the type Glass/(n+)Zn0.99V0.01O/(n)Zn0.80V0.20O/(p)Cu(In,Ga)Se2 /Mo has been defined and modeled by simulation using the experimental data already obtained. This work has allowed us to define the criteria which the CIGS absorber must respect in order to obtain the best conversion efficiency of the proposed cell
Roger, Charles. „Developpement de cellules photovoltaïques à base de CIGS sur substrats métalliques“. Phd thesis, Université de Grenoble, 2013. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00965592.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleBarbos, Corina. „Passivation de surface des cellules photovoltaïques en silicium cristallin : Dépôt par ALD et caractérisation de couches minces d’Al2O3“. Thesis, Lyon, 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016LYSEI149/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleThe reduction of recombination at the surfaces of solar cells is a fundamental challenge for the photovoltaic industry. Passivation of surface electrical defects can be achieved by the formation of chemical bonds or by the supply of electric charges capable of repelling a type of carrier. These effects can be obtained by means of functionalized thin layers deposited on the surfaces of the materials which constitute the cells. In this thesis we studied the surface passivation of silicon by thin layers of Al2O3 deposited by ALD. The physical, optical, structural and chemical characterization of the deposited layers was carried out. An optimization of the preparation process (pre-deposition cleaning, deposition and annealing parameters) of alumina layers was necessary to meet the requirements of reduction of surface recombinations and to obtain optimized passivation results. Finally, various technological bricks necessary for the integration of these layers in the architecture of a silicon solar cell have been studied and developed
Cariou, Romain. „Epitaxial growth of Si(Ge) materials on Si and GaAs by low temperature PECVD: towards tandem devices“. Palaiseau, Ecole polytechnique, 2014. https://theses.hal.science/tel-01113794/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleThis thesis focuses on epitaxial growth of Si and SiGe at low temperature (200°C) by Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD), and its application in thin film crystalline solar cells. Our goal is to gain insight into this unusual growth process, as well as to investigate the potential of such low temperaturedeposited material for single and multi-junction solar cells. First, we have proposed a one pump-down plasma process to clean out-of-the-box c-Si wafer surface and grow epitaxial layers of up to 8µm thick, without ultra-high vacuum, in a standard RF-PECVD reactor. By exploring the experimental parameters space, the link between layer quality and important physical variables, such as silane dilution, ion energy, or deposition pressure, has been confirmed. Both material and electrical properties were analyzed, and we found that epitaxial quality improves with film thickness. Furthermore, we could bring evidence of SiGe and Ge epitaxial growth under similar conditions. Then, with the whole process steps <200°C, we have achieved PIN heterojunction solar cells on highly doped substrates with 1-4µm epitaxial absorber, reaching 8. 8% efficiency (without light trapping) and 80. 5% FF. Replacing Si absorber by epitaxial Si0:73Ge0:27 resulted in 11% boost in Jsc. The use of an engineered wafer/epitaxial layer interface and stress enables easy lift-off: e. G. We successfully bonded 1. 5µm thick 10cm^2 epi-Si to glass. Additionally, we have considered the impact of photonic nanostructures on device properties. Together, the control of growth, transfer and advanced light trapping are paving the way toward highly efficient, ultrathin (<10µm) and low cost c-Si cells. Finally, in contrast with general trend of growing III-V semiconductors on Si, we have studied the hetero-epitaxial growth of Si on III-V. Good crystal quality was achieved by direct Si deposition on GaAs, thanks to reduced thermal load and suppressed polarity issues in this approach. Using MOCVD, we could build GaAs cells with 20% efficiency and III-V tunnel junctions reaching 55A/cm^2. Tunneling improvement upon H-plasma exposure was shown. Those results, combined with III-V layer lift-off, validate milestones toward high efficiency tandem AlGaAs(MOVD)/SiGe(PECVD) metamorphic solar cells
Gerthoffer, Arnaud. „Propriétés mécaniques des cellules photovoltaïques à base de CIGS sur substrats en verre ultra-fin“. Thesis, Université Grenoble Alpes (ComUE), 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016GREAI077/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleThe goal of this work is to study and to develop CIGS thin-film solar cells on an innovative substrate: the ultra-thin glass. This material has advantageous properties, mainly attributed to its high temperature resistance, its lightweight, its barrier property against moisture, its transparency and its mechanical flexibility. Here we tried to use these properties for the fabrication of lightweight and conformable CIGS solar cells. First, we demonstrate the feasibility of CIGS solar cells on 100 mm-thick ultra-thin glass substrates. We reached 12.1 % efficiency by using a bilayer back contact consisting of a pure Mo layer and a sodium doped Mo layer, which is up to now the record efficiency for CIGS solar cells on ultra-thin glass substrate. Then we show that solar cell performances can deteriorate under cyclic bending fatigue conditions with a radius of curvature of 5 cm. This is partially explained by the formation of cracks in the cells. Then, we report on the mechanical properties of the Mo and the CIGS layers measured by nanoindentation. The hardness and the Young’s modulus of each layer is given and, for the first time, the toughness and the residual stresses of the CIGS. These results are then used to calculate the CIGS internal stresses when the cells are bent. Finaly, we propose a glass-glass structure optimized to lower the CIGS internal stresses under bending
Froger, Vincent. „Couches minces de chalcogénures de zinc déposées par spray-CVD assisté par rayonnement infrarouge pour des applications photovoltaïques“. Phd thesis, Paris, ENSAM, 2012. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00797548.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleGregori, Alberto. „Synthesis of Conjugated Polymers and Adhesive Properties of Thin Films in OPV Devices“. Thesis, Pau, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015PAUU3028/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleOrganic photovoltaic (OPV) devices are one of the most promising applications of organic semiconductors due to their compatibility with flexible plastic substrates resulting in light weight, inexpensive and decorative products. For a long time poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) has been the polymer of choice in OPV devices in combination with [6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methylester (PC61BM) as acceptor. However, recent research has focused on polymers with improved absorbance and processability that can ensure higher efficiencies and longer lifetimes (Low BandGap polymers (LBGs)). This has been fully demonstrated with a power conversion efficiency (PCE) above 11%. This thesis reports synthesis and characterization of two series of so-called “push-pull” (or donor-acceptor) LBGs based on the donor unit 4,4′-bis(2-ethylhexyl)-5,5’-dithieno[3,2-b:2′,3′-d]silole (DTS) and either 3,6-dithiophen-2-yl-2, 5-dihydropyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-dione (DPP) or 5,7-di(thienyl)thieno[3,4-b]pyrazines (DTP), as acceptor unit. All π-conjugated molecules and polymers were characterized by chemical investigation and their optoelectronic, morphological, and photovoltaic properties are reported. The DTS-DPP series was chosen because representative of a large number of LBG polymers and provided an easily accessible and useful template to discover the importance of the type of side-chain used on the polymer optoelectronic and thermal properties. First studies on DTS-DPP:PC61BM devices have been conducted, in order to investigate any effect on their photovoltaic properties. The best device obtained had a PCE of 1.7% with JSC of 5.9 mA•cm-2, VOC of 0.54 V and FF of 0.58. The DTS-DTP series was chosen for the high stability of the two units and for the ease of substitution of the side-groups. The synthesis was partially successful and only oligomers were obtained. Nonetheless, chemical characterization was performed but their application in OPV was not explored. In terms of device stability, the electrical failure mechanisms in OPV devices have been investigated, while little is known about their mechanical stability. The characteristic thin film stresses of each layer present in organic solar cells, in combination with other possible fabrication, handling and operational stresses, provide the mechanical driving force for delamination of weak interfaces or even their de-cohesion, leading to a loss of device integrity and performance. A technique to probe weak layers or interfaces in inverted polymer:fullerene solar cells is presented. It was developed by establishing a new set-up for the pull-off test. The technique was developed using inverted device, with the structure glass/ITO/ZnO/P3HT:PC61BM/PEDOT:PSS/Ag. The delaminated devices showed that the weakest point was localized at the active layer/hole transporting layer interface, in good agreement with the literature. The technique was extended varying both sensitive layers, using different p-type low bandgap (co)polymers for the active layer (PSBTBT and PDTSTzTz) in combination with two different PEDOT:PSS formulations, the water based CleviosTM HTL Solar and a new organic solvent based HTL Solar 2. The half-devices produced upon destructive testing have been characterized by contact angle measurement, AFM and XPS to locate the fracture point. A difference in the stress at break for devices made with different combinations of active and hole transporting layers is visible, suggesting different fracture paths, as confirmed by surface characterization and could be correlated to the different behavior of the active layer with the two PEDOT:PSS formulations. Another solution adopted, it had been the introduction of amphiphilic block-copolymer interlayer to enhance the compatibility of the two layers. This strategy was not successful and the new architecture showed reduced adhesion strength. Further development of device processing could make this new architecture a viable alternative
Tosoni, Olivier. „Conception, élaboration et intégration d'électrodes transparentes optimisées pour l'extraction des charges dans des dispositifs photovoltaïques“. Phd thesis, Université de Grenoble, 2013. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00955867.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleAlkarsifi, Riva. „Synthesis and characterization of composite nanomaterials as interfacial layers in organic solar cells“. Electronic Thesis or Diss., Aix-Marseille, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019AIXM0433.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleThis thesis deals with the chemical synthesis of new metal-based nanocrystals and the incorporation of these solution processed materials as hole transport layers (HTLs) and electron transport layers (ETL) in Organic Solar Cells (OSCs). Several strategies were applied to increase the efficiency of the OSCs such as the incorporation of suitable interfacial layers. Interfacial layers were mainly prepared through vacuum deposition methods such as thermal evaporation, however, they require complex equipment, which limits their use in low-cost, large area device fabrications. Therefore, the solution processed interfacial materials have attracted significant attention to overcome the problems of vacuum depositions. During this work, we focused the HTL studies on the synthesis of NiOx nanocrystals. We synthesized pristine NiOx as well as Li, Cu and Sn doped NiOx nanoparticles at different doping levels. By following a specific strategy, we were able to transform the dispersion from water into isopropanol that can be easily deposited onto the active layer. Molecular doping was used to improve the work function using F4-TCNQ molecule. After optimizations, 7.4% and 7.9% efficiencies were obtained with the regular and the inverted device structures, respectively. As for the ETL studies, we focused this work on the development of a new class of organic-inorganic hybrid materials. Three types of antimony-based hybrid materials were synthesized and crystallized using a slow evaporation method and then solubilized as nanocrystals in alcohols, before being used in both regular and inverted devices giving 8.19% and 6% efficiencies, respectively, for the best working hybrid material
Amrani, Rachid. „Croissance et propriétés des couches minces de silicium hydrogéné déposées au voisinage de la zone de transition amorphe nanocristalline par PECVD à partir d’un plasma de silane dilué dans un gaz d’argon“. Thesis, Montpellier 2, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013MON20058.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleThe main objective of this thesis is to contribute to the understanding of the optoelectronics properties of hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon thin films, a detailed study has been conducted. The samples were deposited by 13.56 MHz PECVD (Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition) of silane argon mixture. The argon dilution of silane for all samples studied was 96% by volume. The substrate temperature was fixed at 200 °C. The influence of depositions parameters on optical proprieties of samples was studied by UV-Vis-NIR spectroscopy. The structural evolution was studied by Raman spectroscopy, TEM, AFM, FTIR and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Intrinsic-layer samples depositions were made in this experiment in order to obtain the transition from the amorphous to crystalline phase materials. The deposition pressure varied from 400 mTorr to 1400 mTorr and the RF power from 50 to 250 W. The structural evolution studies show that beyond 160 W, we observed an amorphous-nanocrystalline transition, with an increase in crystalline fraction by increasing RF power and working pressure. Films near the amorphous to nanocrystalline transition region are grown at reasonably high deposition rates (3.5- 8 Å/s), which are highly desirable for the fabrication of cost effective devices. The deposition rate increases with increasing RF power and process pressure. Different crystalline fractions and crystallite size can be achieved by controlling the process pressure and RF power. These structural changes are well correlated to the variation of optical and electrical proprieties of the thin films
Vandamme, Nicolas. „Nanostructured ultrathin GaAs solar cells“. Thesis, Paris 11, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015PA112111/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleThe thickness reduction of solar cells is motivated by the reduction of production costs and the enhancement of conversion efficiencies. However, for thicknesses below a few hundreds of nanometers, new light trapping strategies are required. We propose to introduce nanophotonics and plasmonics concepts to absorb light on a wide spectral range in ultrathin GaAs layers. We conceive and fabricate multi-resonant structures made of arrays of metal nanostructures. First, we design a super-absorber made of a 25 nm-thick GaAs slab transferred on a back metallic mirror with a top metal nanogrid that can serve as an alternative front electrode. We analyze numerically the resonance mechanisms that result in an average light absorption of 80% over the 450nm-850nm spectral range. The results are validated by the fabrication and characterization of these multi-resonant super-absorbers made of ultrathin GaAs. Second, we use a similar strategy for GaAs solar cells with thicknesses 10 times thinner than record single-junction photovoltaic devices. A silver nanostructured back mirror is used to enhance the absorption efficiency by the excitation of various resonant modes (Fabry-Perot, guided modes,…). It is combined with localized ohmic contacts in order to enhance the absorption efficiency and to optimize the collection of photogenerated carriers. According to numerical calculations, the short-circuit current densities (Jsc) can reach 22.4 mA/cm2 and 26.0 mA/cm2 for absorber thicknesses of t=120 nm and t=220 nm, respectively. We have developed a fabrication process based on nano-imprint lithography and on the transfer of the active layers. Measurements exhibit record short-circuit currents up to 17.5 mA/cm2 (t=120 nm) and 22.8 mA/cm2 (t=220 nm). These results pave the way toward conversion efficiencies above 20% with single junction solar cells made of absorbers thinner than 200 nm
Lee, Heejae. „Analysis of Current-Voltage Hysteresis and Ageing Characteristics for CH3NH3PbI3-xClxBased Perovskite Thin Film Solar Cells“. Thesis, Université Paris-Saclay (ComUE), 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018SACLX009/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleOrganic-inorganic lead halide perovskites are very promising materials for the next generation of solar cells with intrinsic advantages such as a low-cost material due to the availability of source materials and low-temperature solution processing as well as a high power conversion efficiency of the sunlight. However, perovskite solar cells are still unstable and show deleterious current-voltage hysteresis effects. Inthis thesis, analyses of CH3NH3PbI3-xClx based perovskite thin films and solar cells are presented. The electrical transport characteristics and the ageing processes are investigated using different approaches.The synthesis of the halide perovskite materials is optimized in a first step by controlling the deposition conditions such as annealing temperature (80°C) and spinning rate (6000 rpm) in the one step-spin-casted process. CH3NH3PbI3-xClx based perovskite solar cells are then fabricated in the inverted planar structure and characterized optically and electrically in a second step.Direct experimental evidence of the motion of the halide ions under an applied voltage has been observed using glow discharge optical emission spectroscopy (GDOES). Ionic diffusion length of 140 nm and ratio of mobile iodide ions of 65 % have been deduced. It is shown that the current-voltage hysteresis in the dark is strongly affected by the halide migration which causes a substantial screening of the applied electric field. Thus we have found a shift of voltage at zero current (< 0.25 V) and a leakage current (< 0.1 mA/cm2) in the dark versus measurement condition. Through the current-voltage curves as a function of temperature we have identified the freezing temperature of the mobile iodides at 260K. Using the Nernst-Einstein equation we have deduced a value of 0.253 eV for the activation energy of the mobile ions.Finally, the ageing process of the solar cell has been investigated with optical and electrical measurements. We deduced that the ageing process appear at first at the perovskite grain surface and boundaries. The electrical characteristics are degraded through a deterioration of the silver top-electrode due to the diffusion of iodides toward the silver as shown by GDOES analysis
Bottois, Clément. „Nanoparticules pour la réalisation de couches de transport de trous appliquées au photovoltaïque organique“. Thesis, Université Grenoble Alpes (ComUE), 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015GREAI025/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleIn organic solar cells, a doped polymer is the most used material for hole transport between the active layer and the electrode, but his stability can be an important issue. The goal of this PhD thesis was to develop inorganic materials, expected to be more stable, in order to replace polymer based hole transporting layers. Another requirement was to keep the compatibility with solution-based deposition methods. The target was to develop nanoparticle dispersions, deposited at low temperature and giving directly a functional layer, without the need of further treatments which are usually required via sol-gel processes. A first objective of the present work was thus the elaboration of nanoparticles of tungsten oxide, hydrated or non-hydrated, and copper thiocyanate. A microwave-assisted heating synthesis has been used for tungsten oxide, leading to mono-dispersed particles around 30 nm. Concerning copper thiocyanate, a ball milling technique has been chosen. The process parameters have been optimized to obtain nanoparticles to narrow the size distribution as much as possible. The deposition of the nanoparticles has allowed the formation of thin layers and the characterization of their optoelectronic properties, such as work function, which was shown to be a relevant parameter for a use in devices. Organic solar cells with standard or inverted structures have been fabricated using these materials as a hole transporting layer. Good photovoltaic performances have been obtained, especially in the inverted structure, in which the possibility to use copper thiocyanate has been demonstrated for the first time. Ageing experiments under light in a controlled atmosphere have also been carried out and have shown a rapid drop in performances for these cells compared to cells incorporating polymer based hole transport layers
Aliouat, Mouaad Yassine. „Etude structurale, mécanique et optique des matériaux polymères pour le photovoltaïque étirable“. Electronic Thesis or Diss., Aix-Marseille, 2020. http://theses.univ-amu.fr.lama.univ-amu.fr/201117_ALIOUAT_890hbteq235slkzy966adclc157r_TH.pdf.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleSolar cells have shown tremendous progress in terms of applications thanks to the use of π-conjugated semi-conducting polymer layers as active materials. This has generated a new family of photovoltaic cells called ‘organic’. Moreover, using stretchable supports opens many new nomadic applications in all fields. However, there is still a lack of understanding of the behavior of the electrical and the optical properties of polymer layers under mechanical load. This work is aiming firstly at improving the quality of polymer layers. Then at studying their structural, optical and mechanical properties. For that purpose, two characterization methods have been used: X-ray diffraction at synchrotron is used to probe the structural properties of polymer layers and to know how polymer chains are oriented, spectroscopic ellipsometry is used to extract their optical indices. The obtained results revealed that the structural properties measured by XRD are in good correlation with the optical properties extracted from the optical measurements. In addition to that, we have developed a novel methodology for in-situ XRD measurements coupled with optical microscopic observations to measure the structural parameters of layers and to probe the mechanical behavior of polymer chains under uniaxial tensile load. It is observed that until a given value of stretching, the polymer chains are in compression stress under tensile strains, and they become more oriented. Beyond this value of stretching, the polymer order declined and the compressive stress was relaxed. This relaxation is explained by the increased number of cracks spreading over the entire film as observed using optical microscopy
Perraudeau, Amélie. „Couches mésoporeuses de TiO2 déposés par PECVD à la pression atmosphérique en vue d'applications photovoltaïques“. Thesis, Limoges, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019LIMO0092.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleAn atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition process equipped with an axial injection torch was chosen for the TiO2 thin films synthesis. A dynamic deposition mode, i.e. moving the substrate holder in front of the plasma jet, was developed to cover a square centimeter surface. Towards the integration of the titania films as the active layer in DSSCs, a porous columnar structure crystallized under the anatase phase was required. The optical emission spectroscopy analysis of the discharge, without and with titanium precursor, provided information about the huge thermal flux transferred to the substrate by the plasma, thanks to gas temperature from 3000 to 4000 K, at distances between 5 and 15 mm from the nozzle. The atomic relative densities estimation, mainly of nitrogen, oxygen and titanium, combined with the process parameters influence on the film microstructure highlighted several growth mechanisms. From these results, a microstructure diagram was built to predict more easily the morphology and the crystallinity of the TiO2 films deposited on silicon substrates, as a function of microwave power and torch-substrate distance. Optimized conditions were found for the synthesis of thin films matching the DSSC active layer specifications. The process parameters were then adapted to replicate the microstructure on glass/FTO substrates, confirming the microstructure diagram, even though the thin film did not fulfill the requirements. Perovskite solar cells were finally made to investigate the interest of the layers developed on silicon substrates
Pastorelli, Francesco. „Light enhancements in nano-structured solar cells“. Doctoral thesis, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/10803/145638.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleEn el presente siglo, algunas de las prioridades son la escasez de la energía y la contaminación. Este trabajo describirá brevemente estos problemas y propondrá un plan de acción que combina el ahorro energético con diferentes fuentes sostenibles de energía. Dentro de estas fuentes de energía renovables, la energía solar es la más abundante. Con el objetivo de hacer la tecnología solar más sostenible y eficiente económicamente nos concentramos en aumentar las características ópticas en celdas solares de película delgada. Dentro de esta categoría, las celdas solares orgánicas son una buena opción porque su desarrollo requiere bajas cantidades de materiales y su fabricación es de baja energía embebida. Adicionalmente, esta tecnología puede ser liviana, transparente, flexible mecánicamente y modular para ser aplicada e integrada en varias soluciones arquitectónicas y de electrónica de consumo. Luego de estudiar los procesos físicos en tales dispositivos y de determinar las metodologías para aumentar ópticamente sus desempeños, mostraremos algunos ejemplos donde teórica y experimentalmente se colecta la radiación solar mediante antenas ópticas. Se reporta por primera vez, una antena de nanogap que acopla eficientemente la luz en la capa activa de la celda solar. Finalmente, se desarrolla el concepto de tecnología fotovoltaica integrada en edificaciones tras introducir algunos ejemplos de fachadas solares. Basados en nuestra investigación, fue posible diseñar y fabricar una celda solar orgánica transparente cuya transparencia en el rango visible estuvo por encima del 20% y una eficiencia de conversión foton-electron aumentada ópticamente que resulto notoriamente similar a la celda solar orgánica opaca equivalente.
La rareté grandissante des ressources en énergie associée à une augmentation de la pollution font partie des enjeux plus importants de ce siècle. Cette thèse décrira brièvement ces deux problématiques et proposera un plan d’action combinant économie d’énergie et diversité des sources d’énergies renouvelables. Parmi les formes d’énergies renouvelables disponibles, l’énergie solaire est la plus abondante. Pour faire de l’énergie solaire une ressource plus durable et plus rentable économiquement, nous proposons d’amplifier les propriétés optiques de cellules solaires en couches minces. Dans cette catégorie, les cellules solaires organiques représentent un choix pertinent de part la faible quantité de matériau nécessaire ainsi que la faible énergie nécessaire au procédé de fabrication. Cette technologie peut être légère, transparente et flexible de sorte qu’elle peut être utilisée dans différentes solutions architecturales s’adaptant à des produits électroniques pour le grand publique. Suivra la théorie sous jacente à ces dispositifs et l’explication de la manière dont leurs performances sont améliorées. Nous présenterons quelques exemples où l’on collecte la radiation solaire avec une antenne optique. Ainsi, nous faisons la toute première démonstration d’une antenne auto-assemblée qui couple efficacement la lumière dans le matériau constituant la couche mince que nous utilisons. Finalement, nous développons le concept de cellules photovoltaïques intégrées en présentant différents cas de façades solaires. Ces travaux nous ont permis de concevoir et de fabriquer une cellule solaire organique transparente avec une transparence dans le visible de 20% et une efficacité de conversion photon-électron améliorée, similaire à une cellule équivalente opaque.
La difficile reperibilità di risorse energetiche e l’inquinamento sono alcuni dei problemi più importanti di questo secolo. In questo lavoro saranno presentati brevemente questi temi proponendo un piano d’azione che abbini il risparmio energetico alle differenti fonti di energia rinnovabili. Nell’insieme delle fonti energetiche rinnovabili l’energia solare è senz’altro la più abbondante. Con l’obbiettivo di rendere lo sfruttamento di tale energia più sostenibile ed economicamente vantaggioso, ci premuriamo di migliorare le caratteristiche ottiche di celle fotovoltaiche a film sottile. In questa categoria utilizziamo, tra le diverse opzioni, le celle solari organiche in quanto la loro fabbricazione richiede una quantità di materiale minimo e un basso consumo energetico. Inoltre questi tipi di dispositivi possono essere leggeri, trasparenti, flessibili e conformabili alle superfici su cui sono applicati. Questa è una tecnologia che potrebbe essere implementata e integrata in varie soluzioni architettoniche o nell’ elettronica di consumo. Dopo aver presentato i principi fisici di tali dispositivi e determinato le metodologie ottiche per aumentarne le prestazioni, vengono illustrati alcuni esempi dove, teoricamente e sperimentalmente, riusciamo a intercettare la radiazione solare con antenne ottiche. Riportiamo, per la prima volta in letteratura, un’antenna ottica con nano-gap che accoppia efficacemente la luce solare nel nostro materiale attivo a film sottile. Nell’ultima parte sviluppiamo il concetto di tecnologia solare integrata negli edifici, introducendo alcuni esempi di facciate solari. Basando il design sulla nostra ricerca, è possibile realizzare una cella solare fotovoltaica organica trasparente, con una trasparenza superiore del 20% e un’ efficienza di conversione fotone-elettrone migliorata grazie all’ottica, che risulta molto vicina all’ equivalente cella fotovoltaica organica non trasparente.
Dai, Letian. „Silicon nanowire solar cells with μc-Si˸H absorbers for tandem radial junction devices“. Thesis, Université Paris-Saclay (ComUE), 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019SACLS303.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleIn this thesis, we have fabricated silicon nanowire (SiNW) radial junction solar cells with hydrogenated microcrystalline silicon (μc-Si:H) as the absorber via low-temperature plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD). To control the density of NW on the substrates, we have used commercially available tin dioxide (SnO₂) nanoparticles (NPs) with an average diameter of 55 nm as the precursor of Sn catalyst for the growth of SiNWs. The distribution of SnO₂ NPs on the substrate has been controlled by centrifugation and the dilution of the SnO₂ colloid, combined with the functionalization of the substrate. Subsequently, SnO₂ is reduced to metallic Sn after the H₂ plasma treatment, followed by the plasma-assisted vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) growth of SiNWs upon which the P, I and N layers constituting the radial junction solar cells are deposited. We have achieved a high yield growth of SiNWs up to 70% with a very wide range of NW density, from 10⁶ to 10⁹ /cm². As an additional approach of controlling the density of SiNWs we have used evaporated Sn as the precursor of Sn catalyst. We have studied the effect of the thickness of evaporated Sn, the effect of duration of H₂ plasma treatment and the effect of H₂ gas flow rate in the plasma, on the density of SiNWs.In-situ spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE) was used for monitoring the growth of SiNWs and the deposition of the layers of μc-Si:H on SiNWs. Combining in-situ SE and SEM results, a relationship between the intensity of SE signal and the length and the density of SiNWs during the growth was demonstrated, which allows to estimate the density and the length of SiNWs during the growth. We have carried out a systematic study of materials (intrinsic, p-type,n-type µc-Si:H and µcSiOx:H doped layers) and solar cells obtained in two plasma reactors named “PLASFIL” and “ARCAM”. The thicknesses of coating on the flat substrate and on the SiNWs have been determined with a linear relation which helps to design a conformal coating on SiNWs for each layer with an optimal thickness. The parameters of the SiNWs and the materials, affecting the performance of radial junction solar cells, have been systematically studied, the main ones being the length and the density of SiNWs, the thickness of intrinsic layer of μc-Si:H on SiNWs, the use of the hydrogenated microcrystalline silicon oxide (μc-SiOx:H) and the back reflector Ag. Finally, with the optimized silicon nanowire radial junction solar cells using the μc-Si:H as the absorber we have achieved an energy conversion efficiency of 4.13 % with Voc = 0.41 V, Jsc = 14.4 mA/cm² and FF = 69.7%. This performance is more than 40 % better than the previous published record efficiency of 2.9 %
Guillet, Joëlle. „Dépôt de couches minces de silicium polycristallin par décomposition du silane sur un filament chaud pour la réalisation de cellules photovoltaïques“. Grenoble INPG, 1998. http://www.theses.fr/1998INPG0134.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleCissé, Lamine. „Etude des propriétés électroniques des cristaux liquides discotiques pour applications photovoltaïques“. Toulouse 3, 2008. http://thesesups.ups-tlse.fr/246/.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleShort excitons diffusion length and the low charges-carrier mobility organic semiconductors seriously limit the performance of organic solar cells. Using disc-like molecules which can be regularly arranged in columns, offers an opportunity to improve these properties. However, one of the biggest problems for the implementation of this strategy lies in the instability of discotic materials that appears during the transition to the isotropic phase when they are aligned as thin films. In this thesis, we show through the study of a benzoperylene derivative crystal liquid that this instability can be avoided by a surface treatment using an Atmospheric Pressure Townsend Discharge. Measures excitons diffusion length in a homeotropic oriented and non-oriented benzoperylene derivative:benzo [g,h,i]perylene1,2,4,5,10,11 -hexacarboxylic1,2-di-(2-ethylhexyl)ester4:5,10:11-di-(4-heptyl)imide, Bp2I2CEH) indicate an increase of its value of 25% with the homeotropic organization. The study of Schottky-type structures ITO/Bp2I2CEH/Al based on Bp2I2CEH oriented and non-oriented thin films shows an increase in the photocurrent by a factor of 16 compared to a cell carried out with the same non-oriented film. We have also modelled organic solar cells since the absorption of light to charges carrier generation. Numerical simulations results (with a program developed in C language) show that the solar cell architecture can be optimized to improve the photocurrent generated by the device
Kinadjian, Natacha. „Chimie intégrative dédiée aux morphosynthèses de matériaux composites multi-échelles et études de leurs applications en photoluminescence, photocatalyse et photovoltaïque“. Thesis, Bordeaux, 2014. http://www.theses.fr/2014BORD0049/document.
Der volle Inhalt der QuelleThe shaping of functional materials and the control of their texture at all length scales are sine qua non conditions for the improvement of current systems. This PhD project consists in creating complex solid architectures using interdisciplinary methods such as sol-gel chemistry or complex fluids physics. Therefore, it is possible to synthesize Titanium Dioxide macroscopic fibers orfilms which possess a hierarchical porosity. This organization allows the optimization of the matter transport (liquid/gaz) for air depollution application (photocatalysis) or dye-sensitizedsolar cells. In another project, we were able to control the alignment of zinc oxide nanorods within a macroscopic fiber. This alignment provides to the fiber an anisotropic photoluminescence behavior which can be useful for switching devices application. Finally, we synthesized anisotropic particles and nano-sheets of polypyrrole (conducting polymer) in order to obtain smooth thin films presenting interesting electrical properties. The objective was to use them as electrolyte and/or electrode in dye-sensitized solar cells
Altamura, Giovanni. „Développement de cellules solaires à base de films minces Cu2ZnSn(S,Se)4“. Phd thesis, 2014. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01060095.
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