Zeitschriftenartikel zum Thema „Castles – Europe“

The article reveals the history of the restoration activity formation on the example of the castle ruins restoration in Ukraine and Europe during the 19th-20th centuries. Castles have been constantly transforming since their foundation. Each subsequent owner of the castle strengthened it, restored it after its destruction, made changes to the building architecture. And in the 19th century, an understanding of the value of such architectural objects was developed, and various methods for their preservation began to be proposed. Stylistic restorations are considered on the example of Trakai Island Castle (Lithuania) and Pierrefonds castle (France). Archaeological restorations aimed at conserving objects reflect the Upper Castle in Vilnius (Lithuania) and Heidelberg Castle (Germany). Scientifically based, the restoration is presented at facilities in Olesko Castle (Ukraine) and in Warsaw, Inovlodz (Poland). Woodstock Palace (England) is an example of the architectural monument destruction, and Tatar Tower of Ostroh Castle (Ukraine) is a symbol of a good future which is revealed in front of the castles in a state of long ruin. Positions on the restoration of architectural monuments have been analyzed by a number of scientists such as Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, Alois Riegl, Camillo Boito, Yan Zakhvatovich. It was the restoration of the castle ruins that sparked a discourse on how to preserve architectural monuments. After all, a castle is one of the most complex types of structures, including its structure, location, and function. Since the beginning of their founding, castles have been the subject to constant interference with their material structure, which in the 19th century became more important than their utilitarian purpose. The conservation method comes out on top, but it is often paired with fragmentary restoration. In any case, the object must function and be visited, regardless of whether it is compositionally complete or fragmentarily preserved, because the interest in it ensures its further existence.

The main purpose of the presented work is a cultural and historical analysis of the evolution of the cul-tural development of medieval Livonia on the example of monuments of defense architecture. The task is to conduct an art analysis of the existing variety of architectural forms of medieval castle complexes of the 13th and 16th centuries, located in different regions of Latvia and Estonia, which have undergone expansion by the feudal Germany, Denmark and Sweden. Creation of architectural and historical clas-sification of castle forms that were in the regions of the medieval Livonian Order of State in the Baltics. As a result of the analysis, the author summarized the historical diversity of the existing architectural and artistic forms of feudal castles of medieval Latvia and Estonia. The common and special in the ar-chitectural forms of castles on the basis of the introduction to this north-eastern region of Europe bor-rowed customs of European castle-building and architectural traditions of the monastic order of the Cistercians of Burgundy has been revealed. It is determined that the castle of the Order of Livon, the fortified residence of medieval bishops in Livonia and Estland, privately owned castles was a whole space, synthesized in the natural environment, social order, system world understanding of the knights-monks of the Order of Livon, which was directly reflected in the architectural forms of castle complexes of the 13th - 16th centuries. taking into account the existing pan-European and local architectural, de-fense and cultural differences. The study makes a significant contribution to the theory and history of art. A new scientific direction has been developed - the history and typology of the castle architecture of medieval Latvia and Estonia.

The scientific problem undertaken is the importance of castles for the functioning of cultural tourism in the opinion of the inhabitants of Central Europe. What is the use of medieval monuments for the art of fortifications today? The main method of research is a diagnostic survey carried out with the use of a survey on a group of N, important according to the statistics in the number of n = 614 respondents. Statistical analyzes were performed using Statistica version 13.3. On the basis of the presented research results, it can be concluded that the interests of the respondents are very broad and varied. Taking into account the relatively large group of respondents, the research results can be considered reliable. An important goal was supplementing the knowledge, meeting the needs of learning about history, and getting acquainted with the prevailing historical tradition in castles of Europe. The questions presented here accent the interests of castles for the functioning of cultural tourism in the opinion of the inhabitants of Central Europe.

The article concentrates on an analysis of the forms of castles erected by the Teutonic Order in their conquered domain in Prussia, which were a medium of ideas and manifestation of symbols. The most significant forms were structures of the castell type. That type of fortresses, which had been built since the Antiquity, usually associated with strong centralized state authority and used as a sign of the power propaganda, was later adopted in Western Europe. The Teutonic Knights adjusted that castle type to their needs in the 1270s and 1280s as a sign of the state and the centralized idea of the knight-monks’ authority. Repetitiveness and perfect geometric archi- tectonic forms depicted the character of their rulership, modelled after the Divine Order, and their role as milites Christi, defenders of Christianity. Towers were another construction element with a strong semantic charge as a sign and symbol of feudal power. The beginnings of tower-type residences date back to the 10th century Normandy, from where they spread around Europe in the following centuries. Habitable towers were also used by the Teutonic Order, who built them in 14th century as residences of some lower rank officials. Erecting a palace for the grand masters in Malbork at the end of the 14th century, they also referred to the form of donjon as a symbol of a sovereign and a ruler seat. The castle in Sztum was a result of yet another tradition – a residence situated nearby the capital as a leisure and hunting place for the overlord. That was an expression of court culture and a sign of prestige of a ruler – in this case, the grand master.

The main purpose of the study is to conduct architectural and historical analysis of the formation of medieval feudal castles as a phenomenon of chivalrous culture of Europe and the Middle East. The task of the study is to analyze the general and special in the evolution of forms in the castle architecture of Western Europe and the Jerusalem medieval kingdom. Creation of architectural and historical typology of castle forms that existed in the regions of medieval Western Europe and the Levant. In the course of the analysis of the formation of Middle Eastern castle complexes of the 12th - 13th century. found that on the one hand they were traditionally based on cultural and construction practices, Introduced to the regions of the Levant by European knights ‒ tower-donjon type of castle, which arose during the conquest in the areas of Israel, Palestine and Syria, on the other ‒ somewhat different from the architectural traditions of Western Europe, local technologies for processing stone quads, the construction of walls that have a boot, the use of cement solution, the creation of a tower-shaped building at the towers-don having a significant amount. Applied in the Middle East construction innovations with the active use of Romano-Byzantine traditions, getting to the territory of Western Europe, developed a chivalrous culture of castle building. As a result of cultural and historical analysis of European and Middle Eastern castle forms of the 12th and 13th century. it was determined that a better system of protection ‒ small wall niches, vaulted system of overlaps ‒ was introduced into the European fortification art by returning crusader knights. Thanks to the acquired building experience, the Crusaders in Western Europe were introduced to a new type of castle, the castel, which was borrowed from the old Roman-Byzantine military architecture during the conquest of the Levant. Based on the study of European castle forms, it was revealed that the new composition of the castle was introduced by knights-pilgrims from the middle east to the lands of Western and Central Europe, where it got its development, thanks to the French masters-fortifiers who formed this classic castle type in the 13th - 15th centuries.

Збереження замкових і фортифікаційних комплексів є однією з актуальних проблем збереження культурної спадщини. Особливо проблематичним є збереження замків через складність пристосування до сучасних функцій, що обмежує можливості їх використання. Досвід Європи демонструє, що вирішення цієї проблеми полягає у визначенні нових функцій, що дозволяють пристосувати пам’ятки архітектури для сучасних потреб. Мета: систематизування підходів до реновації замкових комплексів та визначення прийомів їх пристосування під сучасне використання. Завданнями дослідження є аналіз вітчизняного та закордонного досвіду реновації і пристосуванні замків для актуального їх використання та повернення до життя, систематизацій прийомів з пристосування замків та їх реновації та активного використання.Методологія. У статті використанно традиційні наукові методи порівняльного аналізу і узагальнення позитивного досвіду, аналізу та метод системно-структурного аналізу.Результати. У статті опрацьовано причини занедбання та не використання замків, передумови їх реновацій та поєднання історичного та сучасного. Проаналізовано приклади з практики реновації та пристосування замкових комплексів. Виявлено прийоми, що покращують стан замку, привертають увагу туристів та відвідувачей, і як наслідок — інвестиції та кошти на збереження. Встановленно, що важливу роль у реновації замків грає саме їх привнесена функція, наскільки вона влучна саме для певного об’єкту спадщини. А вже під нові функції ведуться роботи як з реставрації так і використовуються різні прийоми пристосування, облаштування, та оснащення. виявлені прийоми реновації та пристосування замкових комплексів до сучасного використання.Як впровадження результатів досліджень, авторами цієї статті було розроблено конкурсний проєкт на на кращу проєктну пропозицію реставрації з пристосування під культурно-мистецький центр пам’ятки архітектури національного значення - замку XV - XVII ст. (ох.№481) у с. Свірж Львівського району Львівської області.Наукова новизна. Виявлено особливості реновації та пристосування замкових комплексів, вперше систематизовано європейський досвід щодо пристосування замків до сучасних потреб. Практична значущість. Практичну цінність мають прийоми реновації та пристосування замкових комплесів до сучасного використання. Застосовано отримані данні при розробленні конкурсного проєкту по пристосуванню пам’ятки архітектури національного значення - замку у с. Свірж Львівської області. The modern use of castles is especially problematic due to the complexity of their functional adaptation. The experience of Europe shows that the solution to this problem is to define new functions to adapt architectural monuments to modern needs. The aim of the author's research was to determine approaches to the renovation of castles and to determine the methods of their adaptation to modern objects. Methods. The article uses traditional scientific methods of comparative analysis, generalization of positive experience and the method of system-structural analysis. Results. The article deals with the reasons for the abandonment and non-use of castles, the prerequisites for their renovation and the combination of the historical and the modern. The examples of the practice of renovation of castles are analyzed. Revealed techniques that improve the condition of the castle, which attract the attention of tourists and visitors, and as a result - investments and funds for preservation. An important role in the renovation of castles is played by their introduced function, as far as it is accurate for a certain heritage site. For the new functions, restoration work is being carried out, as well as various adaptation techniques are used. Scientific novelty. The features of the renovation of castle complexes are revealed, for the first time the European experience of adapting castles to modern facilities is systematized. Practical significance. The methods of renovation and adaptation of castles are of practical value. The data obtained were used in the development of a competitive project for adaptation to a cultural and tourist complex and a house of creativity of the National Union of Architects of Ukraine - an architectural monument of national importance - a castle in the village Svirzh Lviv region

The Loštice goblets, goods primarily intended for a circle of high feudal lords originating from North Moravian workshops at the end of the Late Middle Ages, were used in the castles all over Central Europe. Their distribution in the area of medieval Slavonia has not been considered so far in specialist literature. However, archaeological excavations (and one historical record) confirm their presence at six Slavonian castles and one rural settlement. The local and foreign imitations of Loštice goblets have also been found on several Slavonian sites. These new data open up possibilities of further reflections on late medieval trade and fashion practised by the Central European medieval elites.

At a time when the whole of Europe is growing ever more united, the study of cultural phenomena observable all over the continent gains in importance. One such phenomenon is the occurrence of earthworks of both prehistoric and historical date. Initially associated with tribal Europe and with that period of its history when early states began to emerge, these defensive features began to decline with progressing feudalization. Within Latin Europe they were replaced by imperial ‘pfalze’, feudal seats of the motte type, and castles. Built by rulers, ecclesiastical dignitaries and knights all over the area stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to Russia, they were the most outstanding feature of the cultural landscape of medieval Europe. With the decline of the Middle Ages, changes began to affect those castles that were built on an extensive scale as well as smaller defensive features such as the keep on a mound. The picture of European defensive architecture also changed under modern cultural influences from transalpine Italy. One trend led towards ‘military architecture’ in the narrow sense of the word. Modern fortifications became the concern of specialists: engineers and practicians of the battlefield in the period termed by Michael Howard the era ‘of wars of mercenaries, merchants and professionals’ (1976). The other trend was to shape modern civilian architecture, in terms of the development unfortified palaces. The division between architectura civilis and architectura militaris became a fact.

Relics of cultivation in the vascular flora of medieval West Slavic settlements and castlesThis monograph presents results of research on relics of cultivation and the present vascular flora of sites of medieval fortified settlements and castles in Central Europe. Special attention was paid to 109 West Slavic sites located in Poland, northeastern Germany, and the Czech Republic. For comparison, floristic data were collected also at 21 sites of medieval settlements and castles of Baltic tribes, East Slavs, and Teutonic knights. Results of this study confirm the hypothesis that remnants of medieval fortified settlements and castles are valuable habitat islands in the agricultural landscape, and are refuges of the plants that have accompanied West Slavs since the Middle Ages. At the 109 West Slavic archaeological sites, 876 vascular plant species were recorded. The present flora of the study sites is highly specific, clearly distinct from the surrounding natural environment, as shown by results of analyses of taxonomic composition, geographical-historical and synecological groups, indices of anthropogenic changes of the flora, and degrees of hemeroby (i.e. human influence) at the studied habitats. The sites of fortified settlements and castles are centres of concentration and sources of dispersal of alien species. Aliens account for nearly 21% of the vascular flora of the study sites. Among them, a major role is played by archaeophytes (101 species). Some archaeological sites are characterized by a high contribution of so-called species of old deciduous forests (98 species). Despite many features in common, floras of archaeological sites vary significantly, depending on their geographical location, size, typology, and chronology of their origin. Historical sites occupied in the past by West Slavs differ in the current vascular flora from the sites occupied in the Middle Ages by East Slavs or Baltic tribes and from Teutonic castles. West Slavic archaeological sites are primarily refuges for 22 relics of cultivation. Considering the time of cultivation, 3 groups of relics were distinguished: (i) relics of medieval cultivation (plants cultivated till the late 15thcentury); (ii) relics of cultivation in the modern era (introduced into cultivation in the 16thcentury or later), and (iii) relics of medieval-modern cultivation. These species play a special role in research on the history of the flora of Central Europe and thus also of the world flora. Thus the best-preserved sites of medieval West Slavic settlements and castles should be protected as our both cultural and natural heritage. This work is a key contribution to geobotanical research on transformation of the vegetation associated with human activity. Considering the problem of relics of cultivation it corresponds also to basic ethnobotanical issues.

The significance of birds in the medieval human diet has been greatly explored in Europe. However, there is a lack of systematic analysis of data from Croatia. Avian remains dated to the Late Medieval and Early Modern Periods from five archaeological sites in continental Croatia underwent skeletal and taxonomic analysis. Age groups were determined and sex identification was conducted using visual and X-ray diagnostics. Chicken bone measurements were taken, and the logarithmic size index (LSI) technique was performed. Statistical analysis was applied to explore differences between sites. A total of 694 avian remains were studied, revealing 10 species/genera. Avian remains ranged from 8.88% to 20.32% across sites, with the highest percentage found at the urban site BAN. Hens outnumbered cockerels across all sites, with adult chickens prevailing over immature and subadult ones. Chicken sizes were generally consistent across sites, except for castle MIL, where a larger breed was identified. Cockerels tended to be larger than hens, except for one small-sized spurred specimen. To conclude, bird exploitation complemented the use of other animals in diets. Chickens were vital for eggs and meat, with monasteries excelling in bird husbandry over castles. Inhabitants of urban areas mainly consumed bird meat. Castles showed high status through game and imported birds. The aim of this article was to fill in the gap of information regarding the exploitation and consumption of birds at Croatian sites during the Late Medieval and Early Modern Periods.

The study of fortresses on the territory of the Kyiv area in the Lithuanian period is one of the actual tasks of the formation of a new look on the Ukrainian history. As it is known it was the stage of the castell tower system of fortification, taking not only defense, but social and political, economic position, status of administrative centers and places of living of the social elite. In the course of the Lithuanian period, the following stages of the development of system of castell constructing are fixed: At the end of 14th — at the beginning of 15th century the castell tower system of fortification had been formed; On the second stage at the middle of 15th — in the second half of 16th century — the period of adaptation of the castell tower system to the artillery and the appearance of the system of basteja. In the Kyiv area two types of fortress constructing were fixed. The North and central parts of the area: the continuation of Old Rus traditions of the fortification on the base of wooden and earth constructions with two or three flour wooden towers. The transmission to the arm stage on the base of artillery took place. Planning structure: triangle and rectangular forms. On the South — the transition to the stone tower system, fortificated with wooden-earth constructions and stone counterforts, two or three flour towers, distribution of European types artillery. Planning structure: triangle and rectangular forms. For example: the Kyiv Castle which became the center of statehood in the time of Vladimir Olgerdovich; the system of castles in the rest of the territory; the creation of the fortification system of the South by Prince Vytautas, which facilitated trade in Europe from Krakow to the Black Sea coast and composition of the new federal state.

Medieval archaeology in Ireland has been described twice in the last 30 years as ‘in its infancy’, by Delaney (1977: 46) andby Barry (1987: 1). Neither was strictly correct. Ireland played a full part in the general English interest in medieval castles and churches around 1900, with Champneys, Orpen and Westropp in particular listing and describing them and relating to their historical and European context. In Ulster the medieval period had occupied a central place in archaeological research and excavation, rcmarkable within Europe and unique within the British Isles, from 1950 (Tope 1966).

The Koło castle (Wielkopolskie voivodeship) is the best-preserved royal stronghold in the broadly defined historical province of Wielkopolska (Greater Poland). The castle owes this status not so much to the scale of the structures preserved to this day (i.e., ruins of the bergfried; the west curtain walls, still visible today in full length and considerable height; the greater part of the north curtain wall; and a section of the south one), but rather to the dilapidated condition of other castles founded by Polish monarchs. For a number of years (1977–1983), the Koło castle was subjected to archaeological research led by Łucja Pawlicka-Nowak (Regional Museum in Konin). Among other things, the excavations uncovered the residential tower discussed in thispaper. The excavations at the time covered the western half of the building’s interior, both of its outer southern corners, and the north-western area. The research was resumed in 2019, and the authors of this paper faced the challenge of verifying the earlier fieldwork, the extent of which was very wide and not fully documented. The investigations presented here shed completely new light both on the construction history of the Koło castle, and the issues concerning its chronology, which, in the light of current research, would have been as follows: Casimir the Great acquires the village and founds the town of Koło in 1362; the construction of the castle commences and the work on the site of the residential tower quickly progresses following 1365 (or 1367); the monarch dies in autumn 1370, before or shortly after the unfinished castle is consumed by fire. The article concludes with a chapter showing the Koło tower against the background of similar structures in Europe.

In the second half of the fifteenth century there was a dynamic development in firearms. Improvements were made both to the artillery and firearms, as well as to the technique of using this type of weapon. In Central Europe, the war between the Kingdom of Poland and the Confederation of Prussian states with the Teutonic Or�der, known as the Thirteen Years War, served as a training ground for the development of firearms. The use of fire�arms and artillery in this conflict, during both field battles and, above all, during the numerous sieges of cities and castles, draws closer attention to the influence that these struggles have had on the defensive architecture of the Kingdom of Poland. This article analyses the defences of the headquarters of the most important Polish military commanders (such as Piotr Szamotulski, Piotr Dunin, Paweł Jasieński), created during the war and immediately after the war. The study demonstrated that the experiences of the Thirteen Years War were not fully exploited by its most important combatants on the Polish side. The majority of Polish noblemen (who were jointly commanders of mercenaries, state armies or mass levées) in the formulation or reconstruction of their headquarters emphasised prestige, so these often appear archaic from the military point of view, but with a representative form – the residen�tial tower. Perhaps the reasons were economic considerations, or the belief that large military forces with strong artillery made small concentrations of resistance futile, so it was not worth investing in their excessive fortification. Only in the architecture of Peter Dunin’s castle in Ujazd are there visible attempts at the modernization of its de�fences, however, alongside the simultaneous development of the residential and representative zone.

Abstract Emigration from Poland has a rich and complicated history. Also nowadays, international mobility is still a constant element present in the life of Polish society and in worldwide trends. Migrating beyond the borders of a given country has become a feature of contemporary citizens of the world. The new global mobility trends are: globalization, acceleration, diversity and transnationality, feminization (Castles, Miller, 2011). In reference to the issue of the volume, major emphasis was placed on the first of these trends, i.e. globalization. The purpose of this paper is to show how migrants have communicated with members of their families during cumulative dislocations from the late 19th century to modern times. Particular attention was paid to the ways of maintaining contact with family and the country of origin.

Abstract Understanding the structure of the geological subsoil should be the first stage in the construction of any major building. Therefore, if the problem of rescue and restoration of various historical buildings is currently being addressed, it is necessary to study their subsoil in detail. Among the important historical buildings that have been preserved in Slovakia are numerous castles and chateaux. Nowadays, many of these buildings need to be extensively restored to prevent their gradual devastation. The issue of rehabilitation of some buildings has been addressed for several decades. The reasons for the rehabilitation of these buildings have varied. In the case of the ruins of Strečnian Castle and its subsoil, it was primarily the safety of traffic on the adjacent important road. In the case of Spiš Castle, it is a monument of world importance. It is one of the largest castle complexes in Europe. The beginnings of the construction of this complex date back to the 11th century. Its current state is due, among other factors, to the instability of its geological subsoil. For this reason, the stabilisation of the travertine body, which has been severely damaged, particularly by tectonics and karst processes, has already been addressed in the past. The solution of this problem in the past has already produced positive results, but due to exogenous processes and, hypothetically and certainly, seismicity, the bedrock may move again in the future. For this reason it is necessary to pay attention to continuous monitoring of the movement of its rock blocks. As far as the castle itself is concerned, its current state is mainly due to the fire at the end of the 18th century, followed by its rapid devastation. In view of the world importance of the castle, the restoration of the site may therefore also take other directions. One possibility is, for example, its reconstruction according to contemporary records, which would bring its final appearance even closer to its original grandeur.

Historical reenactment is becoming a top-tier teaching tool in the countries of Southern Europe. In Spain specifically, this discipline is experiencing a boom as a heritage education method, particularly in informal settings. This article is the outcome of a qualitative research study of the results obtained from one hundred and fifteen educators from historical reenactment groups. The study analyses the methods used by the exponents of this discipline to teach war in the Middle Ages, specifically in three Spanish castles dating from the 11th to the 12th centuries. It has made it possible to analyse how the educational discourses are organised in relation to Medieval war within military spaces from this period, and how historical reenactment is a coadjutant in the construction of teaching/learning spaces from a heritage education perspective.

Alfred McCoy's paper offers a masterful analysis of the way in which the Philippines, and more generally Southeast Asia, were used as base and laboratory for extending US dominance—its hegemony—in the twentieth century, and in particular the Cold War era and its aftermath. He offers a succinct summary of the way in which US organs of global domination—the National Security Council, the CIA, the Defense Department—worked throughout the developing world and in Europe to ensure compliant, anti-communist regimes during the Cold War period, which also meant that more than once the United States was thwarting democracy in a number of locales and thus casting its own ideology of democratic progress and prosperity into doubt.

The silk road path to the northern part from China to Europe and from southern paths to lateral paths of Iran- Mesopotamia to Antioch and Mediterranean, had been the place of construction the historical monuments and works such as castles, towers, mills, graves, and intercity Ribats. Sufi Ribats as the mystical orientation and educational centers had a special place in the Silk Road, these intermediate buildings are buildings that functioned militarily in the first centuries of Islam (8th, 9th, and 10th centuries AD), and over time have been used to mean monasteries. The architectural style of the Ribats was similar to that of a military castle, and most of them consisted of a rectangular building with four watchtowers. Examining the Ribats of the Silk Road, it will become clear that the architectural form and plan of the Ribats are very similar to those of religious schools and Caravanserais. The Sufi historians and researchers have recorded many reports over these Ribats, have investigated the introduction, application, and position of Ribats in detail and have left fairly invaluable information to the futures. In this regard, the historical books and Sufi educational books and mystical literature are endowed with reports over intra-city and intercity Ribats built mainly on the way of main paths, particularly the main path of the Silk Road and its lateral ways. In this article, these Ribats have been described in detail as well as their role on the Silk Road.

Of all the negative associations commonly made with medieval Europe, the subterranean world of the dungeon is one the darkest, and also one of the strongest. The dungeon serves as a physical locus for the metaphorical darkness of the (imagined) Middle Ages and yet, even though the dungeon should repulse us, we continue to be drawn towards it, both emotionally and physically. The dungeon inhabits our literature and our art as an established constant, an unambiguous resonance, but it also draws us in physically. We flock to see dimly lit chambers in castles and stately homes, or to pass through 'dark tourism' destinations like the London Dungeon. Every year millions of people voluntarily enter dungeons to be educated, shocked, appalled, and amused. This paper focuses on the phenomenon of the medieval dungeon as it exists in the popular imagination.

Historians are held hostage by the sources that are available to them, and for that reason, the historiography of medieval towns is dominated by research on thirteenth-, fourteenth- or fifteenth-century case-studies. In preceding centuries, literacy was largely the monopoly of ecclesiastical milieus, who were often hostile or simply not interested in describing the urban settlements which then emerged all over Europe. An interesting exception, however, is the Breton town of Redon, which took shape around an abbey that was established in 832 with support of the Carolingian Emperor Louis the Pious. By navigating the unusually extensive set of Carolingian cartularies of this abbey, as well as the available cartographic and archaeological evidence, Julien Bachelier has developed an incisive sketch of the development of a town in the shadow of the Carolingian abbey in the eleventh and twelfth centuries (‘Une ville abbatiale bretonne. Redon du IXe au XIVe siècle’, Histoire Urbaine, 48 (2017), 133–54). This case-study confirms once again that the urbanization of medieval Europe was more than a side-effect of the rebirth of long-distance trade as the canonical Pirenne thesis would have it. The Redon case provides a valuable contribution to the revisionist perspective that stresses the importance of local demand from abbeys, episcopal palaces and castles as a stimulus for urban development (see esp. the seminal work of A. Verhulst, The Rise of Cities in North-West Europe (Cambridge, 1999)).

Early modern rulers in asia and europe frequently sought to secure a better grasp of the land and other resources that provided them with the economic resources t o maintain their governments, expand their power, and permit them to conquer new lands (see, for example, Tilly 1985; Hellie 1971; Ali 1966). The “reunification” of Japan and consolidation of authority in the hands of Toyotomi Hideyoshi and his Tokugawa successors is generally viewed in this same light. There is widespread scholarly agreement that Hideyoshi's authority and that of the early Tokugawa shoguns represented a new, unprecedented level of political centralization in Japan. Hideyoshi's edicts on class separation, pacification of the countryside through sword hunts, and inventories of daimyo financial resources are all taken as emblematic of this new authority. So, too, are the Laws of the Military Houses, Tokugawa edicts compelling the destruction of castles, and related measures.

The province of Jaen (Southern Spain) has one of the largest concentrations of medieval fortresses of all Europe. Moreover ancient Iberian settlements located in <i>oppida</i> (fortified villages) and dated at VI-IV BC also are outstanding examples of historical heritage landmarks in the region. Most of these places are being restored or under documentation analysis to prevent their progressive deterioration. These places have several geometric characteristics in common, such as isolated locations, elongated shapes, largemedium size objects (in the order of tens to few hundred of meters), architectural features with vertical development (such as masonry or rammed earth walls, towers, gates, battlements, etc) or without it (walls, buildings or paths layouts at ground level). The object size, the required level of details and accuracy (of the order of some few cm) and both vertical and horizontal features imply that present UAS techniques can be advantageously used with respect to conventional aerial and terrestrial photogrammetric techniques. Vertical stereoscopic and oblique convergent UAS photogrammetric networks combined with processing techniques based on Structure from Motion (SfM) algorithms allow detailed low cost 2D/3D products. The proper selection of the UAS, camera, image acquisition mode (stop and/or cruising), the network and the processing software will determine the quality of final products and their usefulness in metric documentation, 3D modelization or museology. The efficiency of the use of UAS has been analyzed in several selected examples in Jaen (Burgalimar and Berrueco castles, Xth and XIIIth centuries, respectively, and the Iberian Puente Tablas oppidum, Vth-IVth centuries BC).

The province of Jaen (Southern Spain) has one of the largest concentrations of medieval fortresses of all Europe. Moreover ancient Iberian settlements located in &lt;i&gt;oppida&lt;/i&gt; (fortified villages) and dated at VI-IV BC also are outstanding examples of historical heritage landmarks in the region. Most of these places are being restored or under documentation analysis to prevent their progressive deterioration. These places have several geometric characteristics in common, such as isolated locations, elongated shapes, largemedium size objects (in the order of tens to few hundred of meters), architectural features with vertical development (such as masonry or rammed earth walls, towers, gates, battlements, etc) or without it (walls, buildings or paths layouts at ground level). The object size, the required level of details and accuracy (of the order of some few cm) and both vertical and horizontal features imply that present UAS techniques can be advantageously used with respect to conventional aerial and terrestrial photogrammetric techniques. Vertical stereoscopic and oblique convergent UAS photogrammetric networks combined with processing techniques based on Structure from Motion (SfM) algorithms allow detailed low cost 2D/3D products. The proper selection of the UAS, camera, image acquisition mode (stop and/or cruising), the network and the processing software will determine the quality of final products and their usefulness in metric documentation, 3D modelization or museology. The efficiency of the use of UAS has been analyzed in several selected examples in Jaen (Burgalimar and Berrueco castles, Xth and XIIIth centuries, respectively, and the Iberian Puente Tablas oppidum, Vth-IVth centuries BC).

The article is devoted to the historical and cultural aspects of the development of Czech art in the late Middle Ages on the example of an exhibition held from August 16 to November 3 at Prague Castle, which was dedicated to the 600th anniversary of the death of the Czech and Roman King Wenceslas IV. The author of the article considers the significance of the Czech culture and sacred art in the context of the political and historical specifics of the development of medieval Bohemia and the features of the reign of Vaclav IV, who wasthe son of the Holy Roman Emperor and the Czech King Charles IV . Wenceslas IV is a complex and controversial figure in Czech history, who stood at the «crossroads» of epochs and cultures, around him various disputes persist in historiography up to our time. This article provides an overview of the nature of the sacred artifacts of culture and art presented at the exhibition «Czech and Roman King Wenceslas IV: «beautiful style» of Gothic art», as well as the characteristics of the artistic style , defined in terms of historical and cultural, internal and external political development of the Czech Republic, crosscultural dialogue of the Czech Republic with European countries on the background of the emerging religious controversy in the country. The work takes into account the features of the Late Gothic style in the Central Europe. On the example of the remarkable works of painting, sculpture, fragments of architectural monuments, decorative and applied art and manuscripts, first of all the monumental Wenceslas Bible, many of which were brought to Prague from various European Galleries and Castles of Poland, Germany, France, New York, as well as from private collections, can demonstrate the rise of Czech culture and art in the late XIV-early XV centuries, which was presented the process of cultural accumulation of the European style of the late Gothic, received Czech national artificial identity.

Hans Andersson & Jes Wienberg (red.): Medeltiden och arkeologien. Mer än sex decennier.(Mette Svart Kristiansen)Birgit Arrhenius & Uaininn O’Meadhra (eds.): Excavations at Helgö XVIII – Conclusions and New Aspects.(Margrethe Watt)Mogens Bencard m.fl. (red.): Ribe Excavations 1970-76, Vol. 1-6.(Olaf Olsen)J. Benjamin, C. Bonsall, C. Pickard & A. Fischer: Submerged Prehistory.(Felix Riede & Peter Moe Astrup)Hans Browall: Alvastra Pålbyggnad, 1909-1930 års utgrävningar.(Rune Iversen)Aleksander Bursche: Illerup Ådal 14. Die Münzen.(Helle Horsnæs)Martin Carver & Jan Klápštĕ (eds.): The Archaeology of Medieval Europe, 2, Twelfth to Sixteenth Centuries.(Jes Wienberg)Inge Bødker Enghoff: Regionality and biotope exploitation in Danish Ertebølle and adjoining periods.(Kenneth Ritchie)Vivian Etting: The royal castles of Denmark during the 14th century - an analysis of the major royal castles with special regard to their functions and strategic importance.(Lars Meldgaard Sass Jensen)Ingo Gabriel & Torsten Kempke: Starigard/Oldenburg – Hauptburg der Slawen in Wagrien, bd. VI, Die Grabfunde. Einführung und archäologisches Material.(Silke Eisenschmidt)James Graham-Campbell, Søren M. Sindbæk og Gareth Williams (red.): Silver Economies, Monetisation and Society in Scandinavia, AD 800-1100.(Claus Feveile)Poul Grinder-Hansen: Søren Abildgaard (1718-1791). Fortiden på tegnebrættet.(Else Roesdahl)Martin Hansson, Jan Kock & Jens Vellev (red.): Renæssanceglas i Norden.(Vivi Jensen)Wilhelm Heizmann & Morten Axboe (Hrsg.): Die Goldbrakteaten der Völkerwanderungszeit – Auswertung und Neufund.(Ulla Lund Hansen)Felix Jakobson: Die Brandgräberfelder von Daumen und Kellaren im Kreise Allenstein, Ostpr.(Karen Høilund Nielsen)Volgker Hilber: Masurische Bügelfibeln. Studien zu den Fernbeziehungen der völkerwanderungszeitlichen Brandgräberfelder von Daumen und Kellaren.(Karen Høilund Nielsen)Lis Helles Olesen, Henrik Dupont & Claus Dam: Luftfotos over Danmark. Luftfotoserier i private og offentlige arkiver.(Michael Vinter)Martin Rundkvist: Mead-halls of the Eastern Geats. Elite Settlements and Political Geography AD 375-1000 in Östergötland, Sweden.(Mads Dengsø Jessen)Lothar Schulte: Die Fibeln mit hohem Nadelhalter (Almgren Gruppe VII).(Rasmus Birch Iversen)Annette Siegmüller: Die Ausgrabungen auf der frühmittelalterlichen Wurt Hessens in Wilhelmshaven.(Morten Søvsø)Katrin Struckmeyer: Die Knochen- und Geweihgeräte der Feddersen Wierde. Gebrauchsspurenanalysen an Geräten von der Römischen Kaiserzeit bis zum Mittelalter und ethno­archäologische Vergleiche.(Anna S. Beck)Karsten Vibild: Kirke i købstad. Ny historie om gammelt hus. Køge Sct. Nicolai.(Morten Larsen)

he paper focuses on the iconic chivalric formal combat that took place in Bretagne on March 26th, 1351, during the War of the Breton Succession. Conflicts between the French and English small castles of Josselin and Ploërmel were resolved in a duel between thirty Montfortist knights led by Robert Bemborough, and thirty supporters of Charles de Blois led by Jean de Beaumanoir. Thirty fighters by each side clashed in fierce unmounted melee. Victory of French party had not any tactical impact upon the war, but took air far beyond of the Duchy of Brittany as exemplary deed of arms. The article aims to investigate martial practices and tools of combat and its receptions in texts and images of the Hundred Years War period. Another discussing question is the Combat of Thirty’s reproduction in East-Central Europe – the battle of Koronovo (October 10th, 1410), which has striking similarities with conflict between Josselin and Ploërmel. “Flos duellatorum”, illustrated fighting manual of north Italian master Fiore dei Liberi are exploring for research of fighting techniques with Combat of Thirty’s principal weapons: lance, sword, pollaxe, and dagger. I express my deep gratitude to Professor Steven Muhlberger for giving me opportunity to acquaint with updated version of his article on the Combat of Thirty.

The tradition of burying horses in Lithuania lasted from the Early Roman period until the late 14th C AD. It was the longest-lasting custom in Europe, which has left about 2000 known horse burials. This paper publishes the osteometric data and age of horses found in Lithuanian cemeteries and castles of the 3rd–14th C AD, over 200 individuals in total. These are the remains of all the horses still stored in Lithuanian institutions. The paper discusses the dynamics of horse body size in order to test previously suggested hypotheses regarding the relationship between large horse body size and its military use, possibly non-local breed, and high social status of the owner. Moreover, we are publishing the AMS 14C dates of 13 horses previously assigned to the Migration period. The research results corrected the existing chronology. The abundant data also allowed an assessment of the development of the size and age of the horses in Lithuania between the 3rd and 14th C AD. Osteometric analyses have shown that Late Roman–post-Migration-period horses were unusually large compared to the Viking and medieval horses in Lithuania. Meanwhile, we suggest that the semi-slender-legged 118–125-cm-tall horse, which predominated in the Viking period, is the most consistent with the local horse type. In general, the horses in Lithuania in the 3rd–11th C AD were small compared to those in Central and Western Europe or Scandinavia. More significant changes can be observed in the Middle Ages. In the 12–14th C AD, there was a much greater variety of horses and the expansion of taller (140–150 cm) individuals. However, the continued abundance of small horses in the medieval times, found buried with saddles and other equipment, allows one to renew the debate on the formation of the cavalry, the tactics of combat, and the social composition of horsemen in Lithuania.

Fortresses and castles are important symbols of social and cultural identity providing tangible evidence of cultural unity in Europe. They are items for which it is always difficult to outline a credible prospect of reuse, their old raison d'être- namely the military, political and economic purposes for which they were built- having been lost. In recent years a Research Unit of the University of Bologna composed of architects from different disciplines has conducted a series of studies on fortified heritage in the Emilia Romagna region (and not only) often characterized by buildings in ruins. The purpose of this study is mainly to document a legacy, which has already been studied in depth by historians, and previously lacked reliable architectural surveys for the definition of a credible as well as sustainable conservation project. Our contribution will focus on different techniques and methods used for the survey of these architectures, the characteristics of which- in the past- have made an effective survey of these buildings difficult, if not impossible. The survey of a ruin requires, much more than the evaluation of an intact building, reading skills and an interpretation of architectural spaces to better manage the stages of documentation and data processing. Through a series of case studies of fortified buildings in ruins, we intend to describe the reasons that guided the choice of the methods and tools used and to highlight the potentials and the limits of these choices in financial terms.

El Proyecto Integración Regional, Universidad y Desarrollo Sostenible en Centroamérica IRUDESCA es un Proyecto auspiciado por la Unión Europea dentro del Programa Europeo de Educación, Formación, Juventud y Deporte, ERASMUS +. En el proyecto, participan 12 universidades de Centroamérica, el Consejo Superior Universitario de Centroamérica (CSUCA), el Centro Regional de Promoción de la Micro y Pequeña Empresa (CENPROMYPE). Además, por la parte europea, participan la Escuela Superior de Comercio de París (ESCP Europe, sede Madrid), la Universidad Camilo José Cela (España), Dinamia Sociedad Cooperativa (España) y el Instituto Politécnico de Viana do Castelo - IPVC (Portugal), quien lidera y coordina este Proyecto.

Introduction. The article explores the role of the European Union in the unification of Eastern and Western Europe, in the development of a stable economic and social situation in Germany, the development of tourism in Brandenburg, namely in the city of Cottbus. The purpose of the paper is to explore to develop the tourism sector in Germany, to create a design model for the Cottbus tourist and recreational cluster. Results. Germany is a special country trying to overcome the negative consequences of the tragic past. The two world wars are reflected in the architecture, cultural and historical monuments. The European Union is a new political institution created by nation-states after World War II. The European Union is now achieving economic and political integration, and this process is one of its most ambitious projects. Using the author's own experience, we have analyzed the changes that took place in the German city of Cottbus over a rather long historical period, namely: in the German Democratic Republic and after the unification of Germany. Cottbus hotels and restaurants are being researched to help cater to such top tourist needs as accommodation and food. The Cottbus Tourism and Recreation Cluster will enhance the region's competitiveness and integrate the management, research, hotels, restaurants, travel agencies, museums, festivals, exhibitions, fairs, zoos, planetariums, castles and other structures. Conclusion. Therefore, it is precisely through the cooperation of public authorities, scientific, research institutions, tourist agencies, hotel and restaurant complexes, information-tourist centers, transport companies, banking institutions, insurance companies that the competitiveness of enterprises and organizations increases, a synergistic effect arises. Research on the problems and prospects of green tourism development in Germany needs to be continued.

The article examines a layer of questions related to the issue of the use by the security service of the Third Reich of the strategy of capturing and keeping high-ranking hostages from occupied countries in special institutions for VIP prisoners, some of which were located on the territory of the “Alpine Fortress”. This topic is a “white spot” on the background of research in the field of world history, because there is a rather limited amount of research carried out by German, American and English historians. Despite their undeniable value for science, these studies were carried out to highlight a clearly defined range of questions, which, however, do not give an idea of ​​the problem as a whole. At the same time, the purpose of this article is to focus on the implementation of a comprehensive approach to the study of this problem and the formation of a global view of the strategy of the Third Reich to keep VIP-prisoners on the territory of the “Alpine Fortress”. The main tasks are the description of the process of creating two separate specialized prisons, the verification of those VIP prisoners who passed through them and the outline of a possible global strategy of the leadership of the Third Reich for keeping high-ranking prisoners. Based on the results of the tasks set, the article reconstructs the ways of implementing the mentioned strategy, identifies its executors from among the servicemen of the SS and SD, and determines its impact on postwar international relations. The article emphasizes that the global strategy of the Reich's leadership is characterized by situationism and ill-consideredness. The Nazis invested great resources in the process of converting castles and hotels into prisons for VIP prisoners and provided them with reliable security. At the same time, it is extremely difficult to determine whether the German leadership had specific plans for what to do with VIP prisoners. However, no matter how paradoxical it may sound, it was the ill-conceivedness of this strategy that made it possible to create the prerequisites for phenomenal events that preserved for Europe and the world outstanding political and military figures who had considerable influence on their post-war system.

La historiografía sobre fortificaciones medievales en el ámbito medieval cristiano es tan amplia como dispersa. Abundan los estudios de carácter local abordados con metodologías y desde disciplinas diversas, empezando por los clásicos trabajos de Historia del Arte e Historia de la Arquitectura, y, por supuesto, los de contenido estrictamente histórico, planteados desde el estudio de las fuentes escritas y, más recientemente, desde la Arqueología. Faltan, no obstante, estudios de conjunto y aunque se ha abordado el tema de la conceptualización y clasificación tipológica de estas fortalezas, creemos que sigue siendo una asignatura pendiente en el ámbito de la castellología. El presente trabajo pretende pues abordar la problemática sobre la definición y límites del castillo medieval, para pasar después a plantear una clasificación tipológica y funcional de los castillos cristianos peninsulares, para lo cual tendremos en cuenta no sólo la producción historiográfica reciente, sino también nuestras propias investigaciones de base fundamentalmente arqueológica. Palabras clave: Castellología, castillo feudal, tipología castral, reinos cristianos peninsulares, poliorcéticaTopónimos: Península IbéricaPeríodo: siglos VIII-XV ABSTRACTHistoriography on the subject of medieval fortifications in the medieval Christian area is as wide as it is disperse. There is an abundance of local studies undertaken employing different methodologies, starting with the History of Art, the History of Architecture and, of course, those of strictly historical content, based on the study of written sources and, more recently, on Archaeology. However, there is a lack of comprehensive studies and, although the problem of the conceptualisation and typological classification of these fortresses has been addressed, I believe that this continues to be an unresolved issue in the field of castellology. This article aims to address the problem of the definition and limits of the medieval castle, and then propose a typological and functional classification of peninsular Christian castles, taking into account not only recent historiographical production but also my own archaeological research. Keywords: castellology, feudal castle, castral typology, peninsular Christian kingdoms, polyorceticPlace names: Iberian PeninsulaPeriod: 8th-15th centuries REFERENCIASAcién Almansa, M. (2002), “De nuevo sobre la fortificación del emirato” en Mil anos de Fortificações na Península Ibérica e no Magreb (500-1500). Actas do simpósio internacional sobre castelos, Lisboa, pp. 59-75.Almedia, C. A. F. de (1991), “Castelos e cercas medievais. 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(1996), “Una comarca periférica en la Edad Media: Sayago, de la autonomía a la dependencia feudal”, Studia Historica. Historia Medieval, 14, pp. 97-155.Martín Viso, I. (2014), “Castra y elites en el suroeste de la Meseta del Duero post-romana”, en R. Catalán Ramos, P. Fuentes Melgar y J. C. Sastre Blanco (coords.), Fortificaciones en la tardoantigüedad: élites y articulación del territorio (siglos V-VIII d. C.), 2014, pp. 247-274.Martín Viso, I. (2016), Asentamientos y paisajes rurales en el Occidente medieval, Madrid.Mattoso, J. (1982), Ricos-Homens, Infanções e Cavaleiros. A nobreza medieval portuguesa nos séculos XI e XII, Lisboa.Menéndez Fueyo, J. L. (2002), “La red de torres para la defensa del litoral costero en la provincia de Alicante durante el siglo XVI: una propuesta de evolución cronotipológica”, en Mil anos de Fortificações na Península Ibérica e no Magreb (500-1500). Actas do simpósio internacional sobre castelos, Lisboa, pp. 733-757.Molero García, J. M. (2005), “Del hisn al castillo: fortificaciones medievales en La Mancha toledana”, en Espacios fortificados de la provincia de Toledo (Congreso celebrado en Toledo, 2003), Toledo, pp. 331-376.— (2011), Fortificaciones medievales y organización del espacio en el campo de Calatrava (siglos IX-XVI). Tesis Doctoral. Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha.— (2014), “Retener castillos, controlar la frontera. La estrategia de Castilla frente al reino nazarí de Granada al final de la Edad Media”, en P. Sanz Camañes y D. Rex Galindo (coords.), La frontera en el mundo hispánico, pp. 123-150.— (2016), “Los primeros castillos de Ordenes Militares. Actividad edilicia y funcionalidad en la frontera castellana (1150-1195)”, en R. Torres Jiménez y F. 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The article provides information on existing quarries for sandstone mining as promising geotourism locations within the Ternopil region (Western Ukraine). The study area is famous for its ancient mining of natural stone from Terebovlya sandstones. The object of research is located within the Eastern European platform on the territory of Zastinoche and Budanіv deposits. Since princely times, stone has been mined here for the construction of fortresses and defensive structures. Sediments of the Neogene and Devonian ages take part in the geological structure of the Zastinoche deposit. The mineral is represented by Devonian sandstone with an average thickness of 12 m, broken by horizontal and vertical cracks into boulders. Macroscopically, sandstone is represented by red-brown, brownish-red, greyish-red, reddish-grey, brownish-grey, pink-grey, greenish-grey and light grey variations. The Budaniv deposit is composed of Quaternary, Neogene, Cretaceous and Devonian rocks. The minerals here are the sandstones of the Ivanovo formation (Devonian), the sandstone stratum consists of two horizons. The average thickness of sandstones of the first horizon (red, thick-tiled) is 14.4 m, in the thickness of sandstones there are layers of argillites and siltstones. Sandstones of the second horizon are more thinly tiled, characterized by a thickness of 2.6 to 4.3 m. With depth, sandstones have a pink and pink-red colour. Both gray and pink variations of sandstones are fine-grained, quartz, feldspar-quartz, mica.. Cement is iron-clay; the clay part of it is sericite-silicon. Mining of sandstones at both deposits is carried out manually with the help of crowbars and wedges to the full depth. All processes for the extraction and manufacture of side and rubble stone are performed manually. Terebovlya sandstone is environmentally friendly, so it is used for the construction of facades as a natural heat insulator. Sandstone is frost-resistant and acid-resistant. It is widely used in modern architectural design and restoration of historical monuments in Europe; it is made of almost everything for facades. Among the architectural structures built of Terebovlya sandstone – a nine-arch railway bridge-viaduct near the village. Plebanivka, Terebovlya and Budaniv castles, Pidhoryany monastery of St. Basil the Great, a large number of churches and cathedrals. Geological and geotourism survey of Zastinoche and Budanіv sandstone quarries in the Ternopil region gives grounds to consider these locations as potential geotouristic objects.

During the Renaissance and Mannerist periods, in most European countries the fashion for decorating walls with sgraffiti covered a large part of continent, from Portugal to Romania, and from Central Italy to the German countries and Poland. Its popularity in the middle part of Europe peaked in the 16th and 17th centuries. In many regions, sgraffito was the dominant method of decorating buildings. Sgraffito styles were differentiated by design, artistic level, local conditions and investor preferences. In many regions north of the Alps, sgraffito decorations were, on the one hand, a frequently used method of modernizing medieval buildings, and, on the other, a form of expressing views, often religious ones. Everywhere, however, they expressed supranational belonging to the world of a post-medieval, revival community. It was no different in Silesia, where the sgraffiti madness arrived, thanks to artists who came from the northern regions of Italy around 1540 and settled down until the middle of the next century. The research carried out by the author has proven that, for Silesia, sgraffito was an iconic sign of the architecture of that period. In this region, then belonging to the Habsburg Monarchy, sgraffito decorations covered a wide variety of architectural objects, from barns, walls, and gates to tenement houses, manors, castles, and churches. In the case of the latter, research has shown that temples in Gothic style are heavily decorated with sgraffiti, which should be considered a distinctive feature when compared to other regions. At the same time, it was found that the vast majority of them appeared in forms and themes known to us from other countries covered by the sgraffito fashion. The frame composition made in this technique and, most probably modeled directly on the template by S. Serlia (Tutte L’opere d’Architettura et Prospettiva) from 1619, should be considered as the Silesian contribution to the sgraffito heritage as well as oval bossages. While studying Silesian sgraffito, some local technological differences were also noticed. With the advent of the Baroque period, a large part of the sgraffito decoration was covered (and thus preserved) with a new, baroque decorative costume. We still discover them in the present while carrying out conservation works (sometimes multiple) on historic buildings. Many others, those constantly on display, have been restored to preserve their original shape, or have been reconstructed. Various and simultaneously modernized methods are used to implement these works. Their correct selection depends on in-depth knowledge of sgraffito (historical, artistic, technological and technical) and their regional specificity. It also depends on the constant exchange of experiences between all those dealing with sgraffito heritage.

The marriage of Alfonso VIII of Castile and Leonor Plantagenet was not only the first political alliance between a Spanish kingdom and England in the Middle Ages, but it is also a very interesting case of study for the collaborative and corporate nature of twelfth-century royal rulership in Europe. Queen Leonor was described in the sources as a very capable and virtuous ruler and the study of her reign as consort reveals that she exercised queenship as an active political companion and partner in rule to her husband, thus contributing significantly to one of medieval Spain’s most successful reigns and perhaps setting a model for queens in the late medieval period. Una cum uxore sua, the king did not simply exercise his power and authority in the passive company of Leonor, but with her consort reigned over the kingdom as one body, thus making the most of her family prestige and networks, and fully availing her capacity and virtues for Castile’s political, dynastic and cultural prospects.

The purpose of this article is to investigate the main vectors of photo tourism development in Ukraine as an innovative trend in active tourism. On the basis of systematization of the definitions available, the author presents her own vision of the concept “photo tourism”, as well as its main functions. The author gives a brief outline of the geography of the most popular photo tours in the world and emphasizes prospects for development of photo tourism within Ukraine on the basis of the touristic recreational potential available. Among the most popular destinations of photo tourism in the world for street photography and genre photography we can highlight Europe. Paris, Rome, Amsterdam, Madrid, Prague and Lisbon are considered to be truly picturesque photo locations. In terms of scenery tours, the top ranking directions are exotic ones, such as South-East Asia, Central Asia, the Middle East, India, Tibet, China, Nepal, Ethiopia, Bhutan and Malaysia. The whole territory of Ukraine is appealing in terms of photo tour development, though the Ukrainian Carpathians and the Crimea possess the best qualities for scenery, panoramic and genre photography. At present photo tours are being actively carried out only in the Western regions of the country. The most interesting natural locations have been described, which might become the basis for photo tours within the boundaries of Ukraine in the future. The objects to be captured by the camera lens are mostly historical and cultural heritage – castles, fortresses, palace complexes. The Chornobyl Exclusion Zone has become a particularly interesting photo location. A range of schematic maps depicting tourist photo locations in the West of Ukraine has been created. The second vector of the development of photo tourism in Ukraine is the landscapes of the Carpathian Mountains. The following photo tours are successfully implemented and the most popular among tourists: “The Marmaros Mountains: photo trip along the Ukraine – Romania border”; “Verkhovyna Watershed Ridge”; “Borzhava Mountain Valley”; “ Pre-Watershed Gorgany”; “Svydovets Massif”; “Marmaros Massif”. The article analyzes the photo tour proposals nowadays available for Ukrainian tourists, their value and territorial organization. The findings of the research suggest that photo tourism is predominantly directed outside the boundaries of Ukraine whereas the development of internal photo tourism is significantly slower. The benefit of the study is that the author has developed a new tourist product in the market of tourist services of Ukraine – the programme of the photo tour “Gastronomic Transcarpathia”. Food photography of Transcarpathian cuisine is considered to be a promising and innovational element in the development of the tourist industry in the region. This article mentions limiting factors hindering development of photo tourism in Ukraine and in Transcarpathian region in particular.

Charlotte Boje Andersen og Jytte Nielsen (red.): Metaldetektiverne. Detektorfund fra Thy og Mors.(Jens Jeppesen)Rainer Atzbach, Lars Meldgaard Sass Jensen & Leif Plith Lauritsen (red.): Castles at War.(Lars Krants)Thomas Bertelsen & Martin Wangsgaard Jürgensen (red.): hikuin 39. Sorø-Studier. Om kirkens og klosterets historie og brug.(Morten Larsen)Margareta Biörnstad: Kulturminnesvård i efterkrigstid – med Riksantikvarieämbetet i centrum.(Ulf Bertilsson)Anders Bøgh, Helle Henningsen og Kristian Dalsgaard (red.): Nørre Vosborg i tid og rum.(Rikke Agnete Olsen)Tom Christensen: Lejre bag myten. De arkæologiske udgravninger.(Lotte Hedeager)Daniel Dübner: Untersuchungen zur Ent­wiklung und Struktur der frühgeschichtlichen Siedlung Flögeln im Elbe-Weser Dreieck.(Torben Egeberg)Anton Englert: Large Cargo Ships in Danish Waters 1000-1250. Evidence of specialised merchant seafaring prior to the Hanseatic Period.(Otto Uldum)Pernille Foss og Niels Algreen Møller (red.): De dødes landskab. Grav og gravskik i ældre jernalder i Danmark.(Martin Winther Olesen)Catherine Frieman & Berit Valentin Eriksen (eds.): Flint daggers in prehistoric Europe.(Jan Apel)Julia Gräf: Lederfunde der Vorrömischen Eisenzeit und Römischen Kaiserzeit aus Nordwestdeutschland.(Ulla Mannering)Svend Illum Hansen: Jættestuebyggerne. Arkitektur i Danmarks stenalder.(Anne Birgitte Gebauer)Kristina Hegner: Aus Mecklenburgs Kirchen und Klöstern. Der Mittelalterbestand des Staatlichen Museums Schwerin.(Morten Larsen)Christofer Herrmann & Dethard von Winterfeld (Hrsg.): Mittelalterliche Architektur in Polen. Romanische und gotische Baukunst zwischen Oder und Weichsel, Bd. 1-2.(Hans Krongaard Kristensen)Jesper Hjermind & Hugo Støttrup Jensen: Vitskøl Kloster. Den middelalderlige bygningshistorie.(Morten Larsen)Anne Nørgård Jørgensen & Hans Chr.H. Andersen: Ejsbøl Mose. Die Kriegsbeuteopfer im Moor von Ejsbøl aus dem späten 1. Jh.v.Chr. bis zum frühen 5. Jh.n.Chr.(Rasmus Birch Iversen)Hans Krongaard Kristensen: Franciskanerklostret i Horsens.(Martin Wangsgaard Jürgensen)Tenna R. Kristensen (red.): Haderslev – en købstad bliver til. Udgravninger ved Starup og Møllestrømmen.(Hans Krongaard Kristensen)Mette Svart Kristiansen, Else Roesdahl and James Graham-Cambell (eds.): Medieval Archaeology in Scandinavia and Beyond. History, trends and tomorrow.(Axel Christophersen)Ulrik Langen: Tyven. Den utrolige historie om manden, der stjal guldhornene.(Jeanette Varberg)Nina Lau: Das Thorsberger Moor, Band 1: Die Pferdegeschirre. Germanische Zaumzeuge und Sattelgeschirre als Zeugnisse kriegerischer Reiterei im mittel- und nordeuropäischen Barbaricum.Ruth Blankenfeldt: Das Thorsberger Moor, Band 2: Die persönlichen Ausrüstungen. Susana Matešić: Das Thorsberger Moor, Band 3: Die militärische Ausrüstungen. Vergleichende Untersuchungen zur römishcen und germanischen Bewaffnung.Ruth Blankenfeldt, Claus von ­Carnap-Bornheim, Walter Dörfler, Julia Gräf, Klemens Kelm, Nina Lau & Susana Matešić: Das Thorsberger Moor, Band 4: Fund- und Forschungsgeschichte, naturwissenschaftliche und materialkundliche Untersuchungen. (Xenia Pauli Jensen)Jim Leary: The Remembered Land. Surviving Sea-level Rise after the Last Ice Age.(Peter Moe Astrup)Allan A. Lund: Tacitus – Germania.(Thomas Grane)Jens Christian Moesgaard: King Harold’s Cross Coinage. Christian Coins for the Merchants of Haithabu and the King’s Soldiers.(Jon Anders Risvaag)Viggo Nielsen og Niels-Chr. Clemmensen: Oldtidsagre i Danmark. Fyn og Langeland.(Mette Løvschal)Lis Helles Olesen og Esben Schlosser Mauritsen: Luftfotoarkæologi i Danmark.(Jens Andresen)Teresa Østergaard Pedersen: Sammenlignende vandalisme. Asger Jorn, den nordiske folkekunst og arkæologien.(Inger-Lise Kolstrup)Dalia Anna Pokutta: Population Dynamics, Diet and Migrations of the Unetice Culture in Poland.(Rune Iversen)Felix Riede (ed.): Past Vulnerability. Volcanic eruptions and human vulnerability in traditional societies past and present.(Mads Ravn)Christiane Ruhmann & Vera Brieske (red.): Dying Gods – Religious beliefs in northern and eastern Europe in the time of Christianisation.(Kent O. Laursen)Martin Rundkvist: In the Landscape and Between Worlds. Bronze Age Deposition Sites Around Lakes Mäleren and Hjälmaren in Sweden.(Lise Frost)Olaf Wagener (Hrsg): Arborte im Mittelalter und der Frühen Neuzeit. Bauforschung. Archäologie. Kulturgeschichte.(Lars Meldgaard Sass Jensen)Rainer-Maria Weiss & Anne Klammt (Hrsg.): Mythos Hammaburg. Archäologische Entdeckungen zu den Anfängen Hamburgs.(Silke Eisenschmidt)

ABSTRACTThe castle was one of the most characteristic features of the western European landscape in the Middle Ages, dominating social and political order from the eleventh century onwards. The origins of the castle are generally assigned to the ninth and tenth centuries, and the standard story begins with the defensive fortifications established against the Vikings during the reign of the West Frankish king Charles the Bald (843–77). In this article I argue that there are serious problems with this origin story, by re-evaluating some of the key sources on which it rests – particularly the Edict of Pîtres (864). I seek to demonstrate that my analysis of this source has important implications for how we think about the relationship between fortifications and the state in the Carolingian Empire; and by extension the evolution of the castle in north-western Europe between the ninth and twelfth centuries.

This contribution deals with the urban development of the Hradčany area, within its position in the capital city, but especially within the area itself. Great emphasis is placed on historical development, as it significantly affects the current situation. Prague Castle, perceived as a historical and architectural complex, is unique in its complexity and size, we will not find a similar example in any of the surrounding countries. Prague Castle, as an important part of Hradčany, was and still is the seat of the monarch, or today the president of the Czech Republic. The development of Czech history influenced the appearance of the Castle (alternation of royal families, growth and decline in the importance of Prague, ie the Czech kingdom in Central Europe). The combination of secular and ecclesiastical power in one place is also remarkable. At the same time, it is possible to find evidence of development in the field of culture, technical conveniences, architectural and engineering arts, over the course of ten centuries. Based on archival research and the study of references, the reader is acquainted with the gradual change in the formation of the current plan of the city and the Castle. The connection between morphological assumptions and the location of first a Slavic fort, later a stone castle, is pointed out. The castle area was followed by a settlement in the sub-castle, which in the 14th century became a serf town of Hradčany. The alternation of artistic styles over the centuries and the related change in the structure and scale of buildings, but especially the panorama of Hradčany with the silhouette of the Castle, is discussed. In the end, the potential of the Hradčany area and the possibility of modernization interventions are also evaluated.

Professional musicians first appeared in medieval Europe during the tenth century. These jongleurs, or minstrels, earned a precarious living by travelling alone or in small groups from village to village and castle to castle, singing, playing, dancing, performing magic tricks and exhibiting trained animals. These itinerant performers were often viewed as social outcasts, and were frequently denied legal protection as well as the sacraments of the church. With the revival of the European economy and the growth of towns during the twelfth century the opportunity for more stable living conditions emerged, and the minstrels began to organise themselves into brotherhoods or confraternities, eventually developing guilds of musicians. By forming corporations and thus voluntarily placing themselves under the power of rulers or civic authorities, the musicians could achieve a modicum of social acceptance and legal protection.

Kronborg Castle in the Danish town of Elsinore is a location strongly associated with Shakespeare thanks to the setting of Hamlet. It is a place where fiction currently eclipses history, at least in the context of a cultural tourist industry where Shakespeare’s name is worth a great deal more than Danish national heritage sites. Indeed, Kronborg is now widely marketed as ‘Hamlet’s Castle’ and the town of Elsinore has acquired the suffix ‘Home of Hamlet’. This article examines the signifiers implied in the naming and renaming of Kronborg as a Shakespearean location, while also looking at its unique international Shakespearean performance tradition, which spans two centuries. It describes how the identity of the castle has been shaped by its Shakespearean connection against the backdrop of changing ideologies in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, and poses questions as to how this identity may continue to develop within the current contexts of renewed nationalism in Europe and the world.

In 1618, members of the Bohemian estates threw Habsburg officials out of a window of the Prague castle. The Prague defenestration, which has been viewed as the catalyst for the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War, is one of the best known acts of uprising in early modern Europe. Less well known is an earlier popular uprising that took place below the castle in the Old and New Cities of Prague on Carnival Tuesday, 15 February 1611. In the midst of a bizarre diplomatic and military episode during which foreign troops led by the Bishop of Passau invaded the city, mobs plundered cloisters and monasteries and, in a few cases, threw members of religious orders from church towers.

The iron hand prosthesis now in the custody of the Rehabilitation Institute Ljubljana, was excavated some 80 years ago in the ruins of the Vransko castle. The hand, its form and function are described. It was manufactured somewhere in Europe between the years 1500–1650. The owner, probably one of the local nobles, has remained unknown.

AbstractIn 1577 Teresa de Jesús composed the Interior Castle, an account of her spiritual experiences that deployed architectural images designed to incite readers to piety and devotion. Critical readings have identified the castle as a spiritual and aesthetic emblem of Christian hegemony, emplotting de Jesús's works in the rhetorical frame of Reconquista narratives. But the Castle, like the houses in the 1562 Book of Life and the palaces in the 1562-1564 Way of Perfection, moves readers to remember landscapes that differ from a monocultural event, as it narrates the ultimate spiritual encounter in frank dissidence with the hegemonic politics and aesthetics of Catholicism that became the law of the land in Spain after 1492. In line with a diversity of medieval mystical traditions from Europe and the Middle East, the choice of a castle—a key architectural sign of the Middle Ages—as the place of paradox, memory, and experience of the sublime offers clues that de Jesús figured out a way to communicate what seemed to be an unaccountable event in Counter-Reformation Spain: being in the presence of divinity and living to tell such story in cross-confessional terms. This essay analyzes the polysemic traces of the castle built by this mystic woman with the figurative fragrance of multicultural medieval Iberia, a space where she carefully negotiated war, crusades, and other kingdoms of heaven with contemplation, survival (pervivencia), and adaptation.

In this article for the first time the methods of the complex historical and town-planning analysis of urban defense complexes of the city of Vinnytsia formed during the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is applied. The author compares chronicle and act sources, historical cartography and the results of modern field research to establish the location of ancient castle and urban fortifications. The thesis about the formation of the primary urban structure of Vinnytsia during the Lithuanian era according to the principles of urban planning on Rus’ law is proved. Two stages of town-planning development of defense complexes of the city of Vinnytsia are singled out. The first stage is dated to the late 15th middle 16th century. At this time, a castle appears on the basis of a probable ancient Rus’ settlement on Castle Hill in the Old Town area. Next to it, but at a distance, the city center is being built - a fortified post. Planning relics of the ancient city center could be read now. The topological unity of Vinnytsia city center planning with the cities of the medieval Romanesque and Old Rus’ tradition in the cities of Western Europe and Ukraine has been established by means of comparative analysis. Reconstruction of the view of Vinnytsia Castle on Castle Hill at the beginning of 16th century according to the lustrations of 1545 and 1552. The second period is associated with the construction of a new castle until 1558 on the opposite (right) bank of the Southern Bug and the development of a new middletown near castle. At this time, the Ukrainian lands are still dominated by the same principles of urban planning that existed during the construction of the Old Town. Therefore, the outline of the city fortifications, the market square and the parcelling of the New Vinnytsia city are similar to those in the Old City. Instead, the castle is already merging with the city's fortifications into a single system, which allows us to talk about a holistic urban defense complex.