Dissertationen zum Thema „Care farming“

Care farms seek to support and empower people who are in some way vulnerable by enabling them to engage with agricultural places and farming activities. Their numbers have increased substantially in the UK and elsewhere over the past decade, but there is a paucity of evidence concerning that which takes place, associated outcomes and consequential change. This mixed methods study investigated care farming from multiple perspectives in order to provide an enhanced understanding of overall impact. It was informed primarily by qualitative and quantitative data provided by service users and providers but also incorporates input from representatives of other significant stakeholder groups. The evidence of sixty seven care farmers highlighted the challenges associated with the initiation and development of sustainable enterprises, but simultaneously demonstrated this to be an activity that can benefit farming people and places. Altruistic intent was identified as a common denominator and care farming was found to have enabled both new and established farmers to engage with activities that support the land and develop community. Productive and consumptive elements interlink to provide multifaceted value. Agricultural and familial connections were presented as having been enabled, on-farm employment as having increased and farms as having regained their position as a social hub. Multivariate statistical analysis of health and well-being measure scores provided by two hundred and sixteen care farm participants identified statistically significant positive relationships (p<.001) between the amount of time that people had been attending care farms and subjective happiness, satisfaction with life and more generic mental well-being. Analysis of qualitative data suggested that service users often received support initially from the animals, plants and wider natural environment, but that people and associated social interactions were increasingly enjoyed and influential as time progressed. An assessment of the overall impact associated with an individual care farm was provided through the application of Social Return on Investment. This took account of all elements of associated change and assigned justified financial proxies so that overall value could be conceptualised. The analysis suggested that, for every £1 that was invested, there was a return that exceeded £3.50. Value was presented as having emanated from the natural, social, learning and physical elements of the care farm space, but consequential positive outcomes were also demonstrated to impact outside this space. This study found care farming to be a cost effective vehicle for enabling the improved health and well-being of both individuals and wider society. Associated dividends are apparent and it is hoped that this will help policy makers and service commissioners to recognise and understand the value that care farms provide.

The use of agricultural landscapes to create interventions to improve health and wellbeing (care farming) is increasingly being advocated as a viable alternative to more traditional forms of health and social care. Yet the views and experiences of people with intellectual disabilities (the UK care farm industry’s main service user) have rarely been sought. Given the current lack of evidence, this study aims to fill this gap through an in-depth exploration of the wellbeing effects of care farming for people with intellectual disabilities. Theoretically, this thesis is situated within the field(s) of social and health geography. Specifically, it draws together recent work on therapeutic landscapes, non-representational theory and disability geographies to build a conceptual framework, through which to explore the material, embodied, relational and inter-subjective elements that foreground people’s therapeutic landscape encounters. Using a range of qualitative methods of data collection (including photography and film) this research draws on empirical findings from seven ethnographic case studies. Three substantive chapters examine the experiences of people with intellectual disabilities engaged in care farming activities for health and wellbeing. The first describes participants’ embodied engagements with various features of the care farm environment and ways in which these served to facilitate or hinder the formation of a therapeutic landscape experience. The second explores the wider impact that these kinds of encounters had on the everyday lives of participants. The third chapter examines in more detail the place experiences described in the previous two chapters, and the extent to which these experiences may facilitate feelings of belonging (both at the care farm and within the wider community). This, I argue, is an important wellbeing outcome of care farming for people with intellectual disabilities. In drawing together the arguments presented throughout, I argue that this thesis contributes to the field of therapeutic landscapes by drawing attention to the transformative power of the therapeutic encounter, as well as the broader socio-spatial environments in which people live and ways in which these can limit that power. This thesis also contributes to disability scholarship by moving beyond purely discursive accounts of disability centred on meaning and identity, to consider actual visceral experience, as this relates to health and impairment.

Early childhood development has a lifelong impact on the future of each human being. However, all South Africans do not have equal access to the same quality ECD opportunities and services. As a means to advance knowledge in this regard, this study explores parents' perceptions regarding early childhood development (ECD) and their involvement therein, particularly within the Langkloof farming communities. Furthermore, the objective is to formulate guidelines, which can be applied to promote parents‘ involvement in ECD at home and at the ECD partial care facility the children are enrolled at. For this reason an interpretive, descriptive research design was utilised as methodology, which enables the determination of practical applicability. The data for this study was gathered by means of five focus groups, consisting of not more than eight participants per group. Participants were sampled though a purposeful sampling strategy to ensure that the most informative participants were selected for the study. Gathered data were transcribed and analysed on the basis of the basic qualitative analysis process, incorporating the thematic analysis strategy. The findings of this study indicate that parents have a pertinent understanding of ECD and parental involvement in relation to existing literature on ECD. Participants‘ perceptions complement existing ECD-related literature, indicating that parental involvement in ECD includes a home-centred as well as a facility-centred approach. Participants made reference to their concerns and satisfactions with the ECD services that they are currently receiving. They furthermore made reference to the challenges that prohibit them from optimal parental involvement in the ECD of their children, both at home, as well as at the ECD partial care facilities their children are enrolled at. Participants made suggestions on how they could be supported to address their concerns and challenges in both home-centred and facility-centred approaches in order to enhance parental involvement in their community. In general findings suggest that parents have the skills and are aware of their rights and responsibilities with regard to ECD parental involvement. However, if their insights were to be additionally buttressed in particular ways, their children‘s development in the early years could be enhanced. Based on the findings therefore, this study recommends that governmental departments focus on determining the actual requirements of parents, based on their unique understanding of their circumstances and beliefs by means of practice-based research in less fortunate communities. Furthermore it is recommended that government departments, other role players involved in community-based ECD service delivery and farm owners should play a developmental, empowering and supportive role to assist parents to improve in respect of home-centred, as well as facility-centred parental involvement in ECD. In general the findings of this study therefore suggest that support services to parental involvement in ECD must be individualised based on research and theory and the requirements of parents and children in a specific context.<br>Thesis (MSW)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

Agriculture-based interventions fall under the umbrella of nature-based interventions, meaning social and care interventions such as rehabilitation, habilitation and daily activities in conjunction with animals and/or nature. The purpose of the study was to examine Grön Arena-organizers' experiences working in green care based on the questions of "what makes one choose to work in green care?" and "which factors encourage and inhibit organizer motivation in their work with green care?". During march of 2021, eight semistructured interviews were performed on the subject. The transcribed material was then analyzed with thematic analysis. A total of three themes were identified: Humanitarian action, Resistance and obstacles with the two sub-themes (Negative attitudes and experiences as well as Economics and politics), and Conviction in method. The results of the study shows the presence of both significant motivational and demotivational factors that affect the drive and motivation of the organizers. A need for the organizers to help and work with other people became clear, as did a desire to be closer to nature and animals. Furthermore, a deep-seated belief in the healing bond between humans and nature was a central and recurring motivational theme. On the other hand is a sense of external resistance springing from a lack of public knowledge about green care initiatives, as well as assumptions surrounding organizers' motives in opening green care facilities, coupled with difficulties of economic sustainability and reliability. The study shows that there is room for further research into the nature of these initiatives, as well as significant potential for these types of interventions to complement a traditional care model going forward.<br>Lantbruksbaserade insatser går in under paraplybegreppet naturbaserade insatser som innebär att sociala och vårdande insatser som rehabilitering, habilitering, daglig verksamhet kombineras med djur och/eller natur. Studiens syfte var att utforska anordnare inom Grön Arenas upplevelse av att arbeta med grön omsorg utifrån frågeställningarna "varför arbetar man med grön omsorg? samt "vilka faktorer främjar och hämmar anordnares motivation i arbetet med grön omsorg?". Sammanlagt genomfördes åtta semistrukturerade intervjuer i mars 2021. Transkriberat material analyserades utifrån metoden tematisk analys. Totalt tre teman identifierades: Humanitärt intresse, Motkrafter och hinder med två underteman (Negativa attityder och erfarenheter, Ekonomi och politik) och Övertygelse om metod. Resultatet visar att det förekommer både motiverande och demotiverande faktorer som påverkar anordnares drivkraft och motivation. En stark vilja att arbeta med och för människor framträdde tillsammans med en önskan om närhet till djur och natur som positiva motivationsfaktorer. Vidare beskrevs en tilltro till det band som finns mellan människa och naturen och de fördelar som kommer med detta band. Demotiverande var det upplevda yttre motstånd som låg kring en liten kännedom om fenomenet grön omsorg, negativa uppfattningar kring anordnares motivation till att starta en grön omsorgsverksamhet och en viss svårighet kring stabilitet gällande grön omsorg som inkomstkälla. Studien visar att det finns utrymme för utökad forskning kring området och en stor framtidspotential för konceptet som komplement till sedvanlig vård.

Enhancement of smallholder production to improve rural livelihood is an important policy goal in developing countries. Research findings indicate that smallholder production can be improved through establishment of new smallholder irrigation schemes, and the rehabilitation of abandoned ones. Smallholder irrigation has a potential to contribute significantly in shifting smallholder farming to commercial farming. Although the roles of irrigating farmers are clearly defined, smallholder farmer’s development results in South Africa have been disappointing. The performance of smallholder irrigation is unsatisfactory. Smallholder irrigation has failed to improve the standard of living and livelihoods of smallholder farmers in South Africa. The majority of farmers are still producing at subsistence level. This study, therefore, aimed to contribute to smallholder irrigation literature in two ways; firstly by evaluating the extent of irrigation participation of smallholder farmers towards commercialization in the study areas. The study also examined the determinants of irrigation participation among smallholder farmers. A sample of 80 households was drawn by random sampling of smallholders in four villages as follows: 40 respondents from Mgxabakazi and Dinizulu villages and 40 respondents from Ncorha flats and Tshatshu. The sample included both irrigators and non-irrigators. Descriptive analysis shows that irrigators had better production and wellbeing than non-irrigators. For the inferential analysis of the data, two models were employed namely, Binary Logistic Regression Model (BRM) and Truncated Regression Model (TRM). The Binary Regression model was used to predict the probability of farmers participating in irrigation schemes. Whether or not a farmer participated in irrigation was introduced as the binary dependent or response variable that could be explained by a range of explanatory or predictor variables such as source of water, land size, ability to sustain business, membership in the scheme, market access, availability of the irrigation system, willingness to irrigate, farming type commercial or subsistence and institutional support services. From these predictor variables, being part of the irrigation, ability to sustain business and market were found to be factors influencing farmer’s decision to participate. The second model required the in-depth investigation of the influence of irrigation participation as reflected by extent of commercialization. In order to do this, the level of commercialization was measured by calculating Household Commercialization Index. Then the truncated regression model (TR) was used to test the factors that affect the level of commercialization for the farmers who are participating in the irrigation schemes.Age, irrigated land, willingness to commercialize and gross value of production were found to exert strong influence on the level of commercialization among farmers participating in irrigation. The study recommends that investments in smallholder irrigation should receive high priority, with emphasis on collective action, promotion of contract farming and strengthening the support services from government and the private sector, and ensuring enhanced access to market to all farmers.

Magister Scientiae - MSc<br>This research investigated the nature, source and the spatial variation of the salinity of the water used for irrigation in the urban farming area of Philippi, which lies in the Cape Flats region of the Cape Town Metropolitan Area, South Africa. The irrigation water is mainly drawn from the Cape Flats aquifer, and pumped into ponds for eventual crop irrigation. Water samples were collected in summer and in winter from fifteen selected sites using standard water sampling procedures. Each site consisted of one borehole and one pond. The samples were routinely analyzed for salinity levels, and concentrations of major and minor ions. From the same boreholes and ponds, water was sampled in summer for isotope analysis to assess effects of evaporation on the water quality and salinity. Descriptive statistics were used to display the variation in range of specific ions in order to compare them with the recommended ranges. Geographical Information Systems analysis described the spatial distribution of the salinity across the study area, and hydrogeochemical analysis characterized the various waters and detected similarities between the water samples in the study area and other waters found in the Cape Flats region. In addition, the US salinity diagram classification of irrigation water developed by Richards (1954) was used to assess the current suitability of groundwater and pond water samples collected during the entire sampling period for irrigation activities. The research indicated that the concentrations of some ions such as chloride, nitrate, potassium and sodium exceeded in places in the study area, the target range values set by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF, 1996) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (Ayers and Westcot, 1985). It revealed that borehole and pond water were mostly brackish across the area regarding their total dissolved salts content, and fresh water was only found in the middle part of the study area. The research found that sea water does not intrude into the aquifer of the study area, and the accumulation of salts in groundwater and soil in the study area is mainly due to the agricultural activities and partially due to the natural movement of water through the geological formation of the Cape Flats region. The conceptual model of the occurrence of the salinization process supported these findings. From this investigation it is understood that the groundwater and pond water in the study area were generally suitable for irrigation purposes but they have to be used with caution as the vegetables are classified as sensitive and moderately sensitive to salt according to DWAF Irrigation water guidelines (1996). The quality of these waters was mainly affected by the land use activities.<br>South Africa

This investigation is conducted against the background of current attempts to rehabilitate and revive the now defunct Tyhefu irrigation scheme. The poor track record of many irrigation schemes (despite huge investments) in the former homelands has prompted the government to reconsider its active and direct role in small-scale irrigation farming. This has resulted in the closure of many irrigation schemes including Tyhefu irrigation scheme. The new policy framework in South Africa, known as the irrigation management transfer, is premised on the transfer of ownership, authority and responsibility of small-scale irrigation schemes from government to the farmers. Tyhefu irrigation scheme was a state-driven, top-down initiative. This study argues that the justifications for the Tyhefu irrigation scheme were conflated, with the result that the need for political control of the Tyhefu area far outweighed the considerations regarding the financial viability and sustainability of the proposed project. Given the repressive political climate of the time in South Africa, the planners' proposals were a mechanism for the realization of the socio-political and economic agendas of the apartheid state and Ciskei government. Although technical factors critical for project success were examined, little or no attention was paid to the socio-economic aspects. For the planners, the main requirements for success entailed centralized managerial control, no participation of the beneficiaries, capital intensive and sophisticated agricultural techniques and the production of high value crops. Therefore, it can be argued that the nature of the planning and implementation of the Tyhefu irrigation scheme was ill-conceived, short-sighted and misguided. A review of the literature on irrigation development on the African continent provided useful insights for this study. The lessons from irrigation development experience in Sub-Saharan Africa indicate that the continent is littered with examples of derelict and costly failures. What stands out in many of these irrigation projects is their over-emphasis on technical issues to the complete neglect of human and other social aspects. Working partnerships between the farmers and irrigation scheme management could, thus, not be realized. Almost without exception the case studies used here indicate that the industrious type of farmer was never developed as was envisioned in the planning documents. Neither were rural livelihoods improved in a sustainable manner. The findings of this study suggest that irrigation management transfer is a complex and delicate process. In this new set of arrangements, beneficiaries face formidable challenges in terms of capacity (human and financial) if small-scale irrigation farming is to become a viable sector. No doubt, the viability and sustainability of the Tyhefu irrigation scheme demands a comprehensive package of interventions that address various issues of markets and marketing, capital investment and access to finance, technology, education and training, support and extension services. It is evident that institutional aspects and the related issue of functional literacy require much more attention than thus far. As a result, at the moment there is no possibility for independent agricultural production.<br>KMBT_363

Thesis (MPhil) --Stellenbosch University, 2003.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The incidence of organic agriculture, seen as the sustainable agriculture of the future, was investigated in the Western Cape Province (WCP). Informationabout organic farms in the WCP was obtained through the Internet, over a period of three months. These farms occupy about 33% (771 122 hal of the area within the WCP which is presently being used for the cultivation of crops and horticulture. The information obtained with regard to the type of agriculture and the location thereof was processed and presented graphically. Further, the utilisation of land in the WCP was researched, as well as the problems experienced with the degradation thereof. The possibility of making municipal commonage available to communities and small farmers for sustainable agriculture was also investigated. Taking cognisance of the above variables (organic farms, soil quality and municipal commonage), "Go Organics at Spier" (GOAS) was investigated as a case study. Recommendation was then made on how organic agriculture in the WCP could be promoted.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die voorkoms van organiese landbou, gesien as die volhoubare landbou van die toekoms, is ondersoek in die Wes~Kaap Provinsie (WKP). Inligting oor die organiese plase in die WKP is verkry deur middel van die Internet, oor 'n periode van drie maande. Hierdie plase beslaan ongeveer 33% (771 122 ha) van die oppervlakte binne die WKP wat tans vir die verbouing van gewasse benut word. Die inligting wat verkry is ten opsigte van die tipe landbou en die ligging daarvan is verwerk en grafies voorgestel. Verder is daar ondersoek ingestel na die benutting van grond in die WKP en die probleme wat ondervind word met die degradasie daarvan. Daar is ook ondersoek ingestel na die moontlikheid om munisipale gemeenskapsgronde beskikbaar te stel aan gemeenskappe en klein boere vir volhoubare landbou. Met inageneming van bogenoemde veranderlikes (organiese plase, grond kwaliteit en munisipale gemeenskapsgrand), is "Go Organics at Spier" (GOAS) as 'n gevallestudie ondersoek. Voorstelle word dan gemaak oor die bevordering van organiese landbou in die WKP.<br>Thesis

Masters of Art<br>Using a qualitative feminist methodology grounded on post-modemist and postcolonial framework, this research represents an attempt to determine the factors influencing the farming and subsistence agriculture strategies used by rural women of U-Mhlanga village, in the Eastern Cape in the past and the present. It also explores what these women perceive to be their successes and highlights obstacles they encountered in the past and the present in farming. The Eastern Cape has one of the poorest populations of South Africa, and the poorest of these are women. Despite access to land, people are going hungry. This study explores this rural poverty that is feminized and goes on to highlight the social, political and economic issues related to ability or inability to utilize the resources that are accessible. The most prominent problem highlighted by these women goes back to colonial and apartheid times where discrimination in terms of race was used as a determining factor to accessing resources, and how these continue to play out today. However, despite the obstacles, my informants still believe that the local agriculture and farming can sustain rural communities.

South Africa (SA) is food secure on a national level, however citizens in rural and marginalised areas face household food insecurity due to lack of access to this food. South Africa has low fertility soils and scarce water resources. Climate change reports of unpredictable weather conditions will further exacerbate these challenges. The majority of the agricultural production methods in SA are industrialised and rely heavily on external inputs. Alternative agricultural production methods which are environmentally less taxing, are affordable and yield nutritious food, need to be investigated and adopted. A long-term trial investigating the differences in yields between conventional and organic farming systems was established at the NMMU George Saasveld campus. A baseline study preceded the cropping seasons to establish pre-treatment soil conditions before the two farming systems were be implemented. The trial was a randomized complete block design split into organic, conventional and control plots. In the first cropping season (summer) three crops cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata), sweet potato (Ipomea batatas) and cowpea (vigna ungucuilata) were planted under the different treatments. Soil fertility changes after application of chemical and organic fertilizer were measured. Soil pH and phosphorus increased whilst potassium and soil carbon decreased from baseline levels. The organic plots were found to have higher soil pH, potassium and carbon, whilst P was higher in the conventional plots. The organic cabbages had a yield 12% lower than conventional cabbages, organic cowpeas were 51% lower than conventional cowpeas. Baboons damaged sweet potato plots before maturity. Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica), radish (Raphanus sativa) and green pea (Pisum sativum) were planted in the second cropping season (winter). Organic broccoli yields were 51% lower than conventional broccoli, organic green peas were 18 % lower than conventional green peas. The organic radish yields were 36% lower than conventional yields and this was statically significant. The yield differences were statically significant between control and conventional cabbages (25%) and broccolis (68%). The results indicate that there is on average an initial 25% yield difference between organic and conventional farming systems. Similar studies have shown that the yield gap can be reduced within three to four years. This study presents preliminary results of trials that are to continue for ten years, during which time the yield differences may vary.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2002.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT:ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Organic agriculture is a growing sector world wide due to the ecological and SOCIOeconomic crisis in conventional agriculture. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (!FOAM) estimated a growth rate of between 20 and 30 percent annually across the world. This trend is also detectable in South Africa although it is still a relatively new movement. During the last two years the number of farmers who had converted to organic farming has increased sixfold and although they still account only for a minute small percentage of the total agricultural production, the increasing importance of this sector can now be observed. This was the reason for this study, which dealt specifically with the conversion process to organic farming. Based on survey results, knowledge was gathered about organic farmers in South Africa concerning sociodemographic aspects, farming operations, motivations and problems of the conversion process. In the second part of the study, the focus was placed on three farming systems in the Western Cape, including pome fruit, vegetables and table grapes. Six farms were evaluated on the basis of technical, social and economic aspects of the conversion period. Several differences were observed between organic and conventional farmers, including a higher level of education and a younger age of organic farmers. Mainly horticultural holdings were converted, with a potential for exporting. Problems farmers had to face during the conversion period included the lack of knowledge and information, higher weed infestation and high certification and inspection costs. On most of the farms it was still too early to assess the financial impacts of the conversion, but where it was possible, the feedback was mainly positive. The changes that took place during the conversion period included technical changes such as the approach to pest and disease control, fertilization and seed inputs. Essential investments at the beginning of the conversion period were a financial burden. Variable costs rose mainly as a result of an increase in labour and machinery input. The conversion period had no obvious impact on the fixed costs and thus the net farm income. With respect to these findings it was recommended to support the conversion to organic farming not only financially with different instruments such as subsidies for certification costs but also to develop an improved infrastructure for marketing, networking and information exchange. Several areas for research were identified to increase the knowledge of organic farming in the South African context.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Organiese boerdery is wêreldwyd 'n groeiende bedryf as gevolg van die ekologiese en sosioekonomiese krisis waarin konvensionele landbou verkeer. Die International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (lFOAM) het die groeikoers op tussen 20 en 30 persent per jaar wêreldwyd beraam. Hierdie neiging is ook in Suid-Afrika waar te neem, alhoewel dit hier nog' n relatief nuwe beweging is. Gedurende die afgelope twee jaar het die getal boere wat na organiese boerderyomgeskakel het, sesvoudig toegeneem. Alhoewel hulle nog 'n baie klein persentasie bydra tot die totale landbouproduksie, is die toenemende belangrikheid van die bedryf waarneembaar. Dit was die beweegrede vir hierdie studie, wat spesifiek klem gelê het op die omskakelingsproses na organiese boerdey. Beskrywende inligting oor organiese boere in Suid-Afrika, soos sosio-demografiese eienskappe, boerdery-aktiwiteite, motiverings en probleme met die omskakelingsproses, is met behulp van 'n opname verkry. In die tweede gedeelte van die ondersoek is daar op drie boerderystelsels in die Wes-Kaap gefokus, naamlik vrugte, groente en tafeldruiwe. Ses boerderye is aan die hand van tegniese, sosiale en ekonomiese aspekte van die omskakelingsperiode geëvalueer. Verskeie verskille is waargeneem tussen organiese en konvensionele boere, insluitend 'n hoër vlak van opvoeding en 'n jonger ouderdom van organiese boere. Hoofsaaklik boerderye in die hortologie, met uitvoer moontlikhede is omgeskakel. Van die probleme wat boere gedurende die omskakelingsperiode ondervind het, het 'n gebrek aan kennis en inligting, hoër voorkoms van onkruid, asook hoë sertifiserings- en inspeksiekoste ingesluit. By die meeste van die boerderye was dit nog te vroeg om die finansiële impak van omskakeling te kon beoordeel, maar waar dit tog moontlik was, is hoofsaaklik 'n positiewe terugvoer gevind. Die veranderinge wat gedurende die omskakelingsperiode plaasgevind het, het tegniese veranderinge soos die benadering tot pes- en siektebeheer, bemesting en saad ingesluit. Noodsaaklike investerings aan die begin van die omskakelingsperiode het 'n finansiële las tot gevolg gehad. Koste het hoofsaaklik weens 'n toename in arbeid- en masjinerie insette gestyg. Op grond van die bevindinge van die ondersoek is aanbeveel dat ondersteuning vir die omskakeling na organiese boerdery nie net finansieel deur middel van verskillende instrumente soos subsidies vir sertifiseringskoste gegee word nie, maar om ook 'n verbeterde infrastruktuur vir bemarking, netwerke en inligtingsuitruiling te ontwikkel. Verskeie gebiede vir verdere navorsing IS geïdentifiseer om kennis oor orgamese boerdery in die Suid- Afrikaanse konteks uit te brei.

The spread of contract farming in South Africa in recent years has provoked an ideological debate in literature. Linking small-scale vegetable farmers with lucrative agricultural markets through agribusiness value chains is seen as one of the foremost emerging agricultural practices to develop the subsistence farming sector into a mainstream economic sector – thereby revitalising the rural economy and alleviating poverty levels in the developing rural areas of South Africa. However, the challenges agribusiness and small-scale farmers experience in contract farming engagement and the prospects for enhancing the inclusion of small-scale farmers into modern value chains remain open to debate – two decades after transition to democracy. Yet the factors and mechanisms influencing the effective application of contract farming in the transition to commercial farming by small-scale farmers have not been thoroughly explored in South African research. Despite the efforts and the substantial investments made and the various policies and initiatives instigated to fast-track the linkages of small-scale farmers into high-value markets, the success stories of previously disadvantaged farmers operating in commercial agri-food chains are rare. Given the millions of small-scale farmers in former homelands alone, the negligible number of small-scale farmers successfully operating in commercial agri-food chains shows that the objectives to enable small-scale farmers to improve their livelihoods through participation in commercial agri-food chains have not yet been met. The broad objectives of the study were therefore to investigate the agribusiness challenges inherent in contract farming and the conditions and incentives required by agribusiness firms to engage small-scale vegetable farmers in contract farming programmes. Furthermore, the study examined the role played by the South African government to reduce the high transaction costs incurred by agribusinesses when engaging small-scale farmers in contractual arrangements. The Amathole and Sarah Baartman (formerly Cacadu) district municipalities in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa were chosen as the composite survey area for this study. A predominantly qualitative research approach was applied to gather data on the phenomena under study. The following methodologies and research instruments and tools were selected. Firstly – as the secondary component of the research – a systematic review of literature to date was conducted to guide the empirical research and primary methodology. Secondly, the empirical component of the study comprised a questionnaire survey, unstructured interviews and focus group discussions. The questionnaire survey was used to collect data from the agribusiness firms in the area surveyed concerning the following aspects: the significant determinants of contract farming, the incentives required by the agribusiness firms to engage small-scale vegetable farmers in their contract farming programmes and the challenges faced by agribusiness firms in their interaction with small-scale farmers in contractual arrangements. Unstructured interviews were used to gather data from officials at each of the three levels of government – the Department of Rural Development and Land Reform nationally, Department of Agriculture and Land Reform provincially and (at local government level) two district municipalities – on the role played by government to reduce the high transaction costs incurred by agri-firms when procuring agricultural raw materials from small-scale vegetable farmers. Focus group discussions were conducted with small-scale farmers regarding their perspective on working with agribusiness firms and to establish the distinguishing characteristics of small-scale farmers in the area surveyed. Relevant policy documents collected from two of the three representative groups of the study population, i.e. agribusiness personnel and government officials, provided the essential context. The study revealed a limited number of contract farming business linkages between small-scale vegetable farmers and agribusiness firms in the survey area. Those that do exist are problematic to both the agribusiness firms and the small-scale farmers. It emerged that the contract farming environment in the area surveyed is highly polarised and characterised by a fundamental conflict of interest between agribusiness and farmer. Among the divergent key factors inhibiting contract farming engagement were a lack in terms of quality seeds, trust, entrepreneurial skills and formal contract agreements. Asset endowment (both land and non-land assets) was found to be significant pre-selection determinants in the farmer’s capacity to be contracted. Access to innovative technology, as well as government incentives such as production inputs, were found to be critical to agribusiness firms to engage smallscale farmers in their contract farming programmes. Government assistance in terms of high transaction costs to agribusiness firms working with large groups of small-scale farmers was found to be essential but inadequate under current policy. This impacts directly on the effectiveness and promotion of contract farming. Furthermore, the current results corroborate the findings of numerous South African studies in the vast body of worldwide research. Firstly, lack of land and non-land assets continue to be major impediments to the direct participa-tion of small-scale farmers in contract farming programmes and, secondly, the transaction and market information costs incurred by agribusiness prevent the participation of less endowed farmers in contract farming programmes. Conducted within the interpretivist paradigm, the explorative research identified wide-ranging challenges in the relationship between agri-business and small-scale farmers which directly impact the effective-ness of contract farming as a development and agrarian reform strategy. Despite their problematic relationship, however, agribusiness and small-scale contract farmers were in agreement that the government needs to expand its support for agri-firms to incentivise greater numbers of small-scale farmers having the opportunity to achieve commercial status through contract farming. The study therefore recommends a collaborative partnership between private firms and government, with state support through revised policies and development programmes. These amendments are crucial to enhancing the engagement of small-scale vegetable farmers in lucrative agri-food chains.

Magister Artium (Development Studies) - MA(DVS)<br>In 1994, the first democratically elected South African government promised to redistribute 30 % of white-owned farmland to the formerly disadvantaged people in order to rectify the racially-based unequal distribution of land and to improve their socioeconomic conditions. The ANC-led government opted to promote agriculture for achieving the latter aim since agriculture is generally seen to have a strong potential for poverty alleviation and economic development in the under-resourced areas.

Family businesses are considered to be among the most important contributors to wealth and employment in virtually the world. This qualitative study looked at farming family businesses. Farming family businesses present certain unique features that discern them from other family businesses and are worthy of investigation. Two domains are identified in the literature and research about conflict in family business: The business and the family. The researcher postulated that the domain of the family is too broadly drawn and that farming family systems in the Sibling Partnership Stage, with their unique way of life and functioning, consist of several sub-systems which impact on the business. Conflict develops in and between the sub-systems. This study looked at conflict within farming family businesses from a systemic viewpoint, particularly focusing on the process aspects, the interactional dynamics in and between the sub-systems. Four active types of subsystems were identified in the case studies: Couples subsystems, parent child subsystems, sibling subsystems, in-law subsystems or subsystems of which at least one member is an in-law. The research aim was to explore the circular patterns in the two cases as systems and to uncover the function of the conflict in these systems. In both cases, circular conflict patterns came to the fore with the subsystems part of the feedback loops. The conflict escalation happened between the subsystems as elements and the conflict paths were circular, not linear. Sub-themes around family scripts, communication and perceptions about fairness were also uncovered in the research. Both cases were family businesses in the two-generational development stage. The function of the conflict in both systems could only be hypothesised due to the exploratory nature of the research. The researcher hypothesized that the function of the conflict in the systems centred around conflict as an attempt in the system to shake loose from entrenched restricting family scripts. The important themes that presented themselves in the research not envisaged in the planning stage. These themes are part of the systemic patterning in both the cases: Perceptions of fairness or rather unfairness feed into the conflict loop. Rewards and compensation are sensitive matters in all families. The more there are perceptions of unfairness in a subsystem, the more entrenched that belief becomes, the more the conflict in the system escalates and the bigger the emotional distance gets from the assumed beneficiaries of benefits.

Thesis (PhD (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Water storage in reservoirs forms an integral part of the agricultural landscape in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. A few large reservoirs serve primarily as a drinking and industrial water supply, while on private farms, small reservoirs provide irrigation water for the dry summer period. Protection of water quality to secure irrigation and drinking water quality, and the extension of water use efficiency are priority issues in the Western Cape. In the current study, the suitability of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) cage farming as a non-abstractive water use was investigated. The current study concentrated on the identification, and where possible quantification of aquaculture impacts, the identification of successful sites and a description of requirements in which net-cage aquaculture has none or a very low negative impact on water quality (e.g. <15 % change from previous water quality conditions for phosphorus concentrations). In order to study the effects of 5 t trout cage production units in reservoirs <15 ha in area, the general ecology of the irrigation reservoirs was assessed. Sixteen reservoirs without aquaculture production (reference reservoirs) were compared to 26 reservoirs with aquaculture production (production sites with varying production histories). Catchment characteristics were also monitored. Water from different depths (0 m, 2 m, 6 m and near bottom) was tested for physical and chemical qualities as well as nutrient concentrations. Phytoplankton and zooplankton biomass and species composition was monitored. In addition to the general phytoplankton findings, cyanophytes were evaluated for their contribution to algal taint problems that emerged at a number of production sites. Sediments were tested for total phosphorus content and phosphorus release capacity. Indicators and minimum conditions to avoid the most common production problems were formulated. In order to determine long-term production success, which prevents trophic level changes of reservoirs, a mass balance approach (nutrient budget) was employed to indicate the limits for nutrients that can be added. The phosphorus balance indicated long term trends for reservoirs with and without aquaculture. The detailed mass balance approach was compared to a “ready to use” carrying capacity model that estimated the maximum fish load each reservoir could support. The anthropological input of phosphorus into the reservoirs causes a decreasing water quality in the studied reservoirs and this development was also reported for lowland rivers. Twenty percent of the studied reservoirs are in a condition that could be an immediate threat to fish or water bird health (e.g. free ammonia concentrations and pH). Harmful algal blooms were not observed. Aquaculture production evoked changes in water chemistry and ecology in most of the studied reservoirs. Adverse effects of aquaculture sites versus non-aquaculture sites were: increased phytoplankton biomass and species shifts towards sizes >80 μm. The increased phytoplankton abundance influenced pH maxima to values >9 at mid-day. The high pH fluctuations were greatly influenced by the naturally low alkalinity and hence low calcium buffering capacity of Western Cape waters. The deoxygenation of the hypolimnion during stagnation (summer) occurred faster in reservoirs of certain character, greatly dependent on elevation and surface area, with consequent acidification of the hypolimnion, as well as ammonia and total phosphorus (TP) accumulation. In this context, a diversity of each reservoir with and without aquaculture production, with a similar ratio of undisturbed reservoirs to reservoirs with influence of e.g. agriculture, were compared to each other. When grouping the respective differences from the average reference reservoir (i.e. no trout production), a low impact on water quality was manifested at four sites (15 %) with <15 % increase of bottom TP and ammonia, while eight sites (31 %) showed medium effects (59 % mean increase), and a high impact was found at 54 % of the sites (312 % mean increase). In reservoirs without aquaculture, the extent of incoming phosphorus (which could represent an influence by runoff from agricultural land) was very high. However, in small reservoirs (<5 ha), these values were exceeded by the incoming phosphorus from aquaculture practices. In the case of small reservoirs where the carrying capacity was clearly surpassed, effects caused by aquaculture were severe and the assimilation of waste by the system was not possible (in extreme cases aquaculture waste delivered 60 to 90 % of all incoming phosphorus – two to nine times the phosphorus brought in by rivers and runoff). With regards to sediment, only indirect conclusions could be drawn. Aquaculture production increased hypolimnetic anoxia and the latter was shown to increase potential phosphorus release from sediments. This implies that not only will aquaculture increase the phosphorus concentration of surface waters directly, but it will also increase internal loading. The sedimentation rate was increased with cage aquaculture which affects a hypothesized area of approximately 0.2 to 1.0 ha depending on reservoir hydrology. The composition of the sediment increased organic components which can impact on sediment processes. It can be postulated that increased sedimentation of aquaculture waste and extended anoxic conditions impact on macrozoobenthos. Hydrological and nutrient mass exchange of the reservoirs indicated that no annual increase of phosphorus was achieved with low nutrient input (good inflowing water quality) or good water exchange (>5 times per year), and sometimes with extraction of hypolimnetic water during the stagnation period (summer). A model developed by Beveridge (1984) showed similar results to the mass balance approach and can therefore serve as a more ready model to determine suitable stocking rates. The small (man-made) reservoirs in the Western Cape are in a eutrophication process which far exceeds the speed of natural eutrophication (trophic states indicating highly eutrophic or hypertrophic conditions after approximately 10 to 20 years following construction of the reservoirs) and this process is triggered by agricultural practice (indicated by literature – not a subject of this study). However, it is concluded from the data of this study that trout-cage aquaculture duplicated the total phosphorus already present (independent of continuation of the projects, the phosphorus introduced was trapped in the closed systems the reservoirs represent) in only 1 to 2 years of production - which means a significant acceleration of the eutrophication process already in place. There are positive exceptions where trout-cage production is possible without negative effects. Careful site selection is the most important step in successful and sustainable trout production. No impact of aquaculture was recorded at four reservoirs (15 % of the investigated reservoirs) which shared the characteristics of good water exchange (>3 times per year) and a minimum surface area of 5 ha. Additionally, criteria that reduced the risk of algal taint included a minimum water depth of 6 to 7 m in a reservoir at its lowest water point (to avoid intermediate mixing during the stagnation period) as well as cold hypolimnetic conditions (<17 °C) to minimize cyanophyte cyst remobilization. Further improvement of food conversion ratio (feeding management) and feed quality are the next (after site selection) two most important components that determine if a reservoir can be utilised for cage production without any long-term changes. There is potential in advances in feed quality, feed management and waste collection systems. These measures (e.g. the cage size could be decreased to efficate feeding management) can increase the number of sustainable sites and achieve multiplication of water use without water quality deterioration.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die stoor van water in reservoirs vorm ‘n integrale deel van die landboulandskap in die Westelike Kaap gedeelte van Suid-Afrika. ‘n Aantal groter reservoirs voorsien primêr water primer vir drinkdoeleindes en vir aanwending deur industrieë, terwyl kleiner reservoirs op private plase gebruik word vir besproeiing gedurende die droë somerperiode. Die beskerming van die waterkwaliteit en die uitbreiding van watergebruik se doeltreffendheid, word bestempel as ‘n prioriteit vir die Wes-Kaap. In die huidige studie is die geskiktheid van forel hokkultuur as ‘n bykomende watergebruik, maar sonder waterverbruik, ondersoek. Die huidige studie fokus op die identifisering en waar moontlik die kwantifisering van die impak van akwakultuur op besproeiingsreservoirs; die identifisering van potensiële reservoirs vir akwakultuur; en die beskrywing van toestande waarin akwakultuur geen of ‘n baie lae negatiewe uitwerking op die waterkwaliteit (bv. < 15 % verandering vanaf oorspronklike waterkwaliteitstoestande vir fosforkonsentrasies) sal hê. Om die impak van 5 t forel hokproduksie eenhede in <15 ha reservoirs te bestudeer, is die algemene ekologie van die besproeiingsreservoirs bepaal. Watermonsters, geneem op verskillende dieptes (0, 2, 6 en naby die bodem), is getoets vir fisiese- en chemiese kwaliteit sowel as vir die nutriëntkonsentrasies. Die biomassa en spesiesamestelling van fitoplankton sowel as zooplankton is gemonitor. Sestien verwysingsreservoirs is vergelyk met 26 produksiereservoirs (met wisselende vlakke van produksiegeskiedenis). Die karakeristieke eienskappe van die opvangsgebied is ook gemonitor. Tesame met die algemene fitoplankton bevindinge, is blougroen alge ook geëvalueer vir hul bydrae tot algae besmettingsprobleme wat voorgekom het by ‘n aantal produksie persele. Sedimente is getoets vir die totale fosforinhoud en fosforvrystellingskapasiteit. Perseelseleksie is geidentifiseer as een van die mees belangrikste faktore vir suksesvolle hokproduksie. Indikatore en minimum toetstande wat vereis word om die mees algemene produksieprobleme te verhoed, is geformuleer. Om die langtermyn produksie sukses te bepaal, wat trophiese vlakke se verandering in die reservoirs verhoed, is ‘n massa balans benadering (nutriënt balans) gebruik. Die fosfor balans het langtermyn tendense aangetoon en in die geval van die produksie reservoirs, is die akwakultuurimpak gekwantifiseer. Die gedetaileerde massa balans benadering is vergelyk met ‘n “gereed om te gebruik” drakapasiteitsmodel wat die maksimum vis wat die reservoir kan onderhou, geskat het. Die antropogeniese toevoer van fosfor na die reservoirs veroorsaak ‘n afname in die waterkwaliteit van die reservoirs wat bestudeer is. Die verskynsel van ‘n afname in waterkwaliteit is ook vir verskeie laagliggende riviere geraporteer. Sowat 20 % van die besproeiingsreservoirs wat bestudeer is, is tans in ‘n toestand wat die onmiddelike gesondheid van vis en watervoëls kan bedreig. Skadelike algebbloei is nie waargeneem nie. Akwakultuurproduksie het negatiewe effekte getoon in ‘n aantal reservoirs. Die nadelige uitwerking van akwakultuur waar digthede te hoog was, is: toename in fitoplankton biomassa en spesiesverskuiwinge. Die toename in fitoplankton teenwoordigheid het die pH maxima beïnvloed tot waardes >9 teen 12 uur middag. Die hoë pH fluktuasies is grootliks beïnvloed deur die natuurlike lae alkaliniteit en gevolglike kalsium bufferkapasitiet van die Wes-Kaap se waterbronne. Die deoksiginasie van die hipolimnion gedurende stagnasie (somer) het vinniger plaasgevind in oorbelaaide reservoirs, met gevolglik ‘n versuring van die hipolymnion, sowel as die akkumelering van ammoniak en totale fosfor. In hierdie konteks word reservoirs met en sonder landbouproduksie, met ‘n gelyke verhouding van onversteurde reservoirs tot reservoirs wat deur landboubedrywighede beinvloed word, met mekaar vergelyk. By vier persele (15 %) is ‘n lae impak vasgestel (<15 % toename in bodem TF en ammoniak), terwyl agt persele (31 %) ‘n medium impak getoon het (59 % gemiddelde toename in bodem TF en ammoniak) en ‘n hoë impak is opgemerk by 54 % van die persele (31 % gemiddelde toename in bodem TF en ammoniak). In reservoirs sonder akwakultuur, was die omvang van fosforinvloeiing baie hoog en is moontlik veroorsaak deur die invloei van afloopwater uit omliggende landbougebiede. Alhoewel in klein reservoirs (<5 ha) was hierdie waardes oorskadu deur die invloeiing van fosfor deur akwakultuur praktyke.In die geval van klein reservoirs, waar die drakrag duidelik oorskry is, was die gevolge, soos veroorsaak deur akwakultuur ernstig, en die assimilasie van afval deur die sisteem nie moontlik nie. In die uiterste gevalle het akwakultuurafval 60 % - 90 % van alle inkomende fosfor gelewer - twee tot nege maal die fosfor wat deur riviere en afloopwater ingevloei het. Wat die sediment aanbetref, kon slegs indirekte gevolgtrekkings gevorm word. Akwakultuurproduksie het hipolimnetiese anoksia laat toeneem en die laasgenoemde verskynsel, het die potensiaal aangedui vir die toename in die vrystelling van fosfor vanaf die sediment. Dit dui daarop dat akwakultuur nie alleen die fosforkonsentrasie in die oppervlaktwater laat toeneem nie, maar sou ook die interne belading laat kon toeneem. Die sedimentasie tempo het toegeneem met die teenwoordigkeid hokkultuur en het ‘n hipotetiese area van ongeveer 0.05 tot 1.00 ha, afhangende van reservoir hidrologie, beïnvloed. Die samestelling van die sediment het toegeneem in teme van die organiese komponente wat die sedimentasie prosesse kon beïnvloed. Dit kan gepostuleer word dat die toename in sedimentasie van akwakultuurafvalprodukte tesame met verlengde anoksiese toestande, ‘n invloed op die makrosoöbentiese organismes het. Hidrologiese en nutriënt massa uitruiling van die reservoirs het aangetoon dat geen jaarlikse toename in fosfor verkry kan word met lae nutrient toelae (kwaliteit van invloeiende water) of met goeie waterverplasing nie, en soms met die ekstraksie van hipoliminetiese water gedurende die stagnasie periode (somer). Die Beveridge model het soortgelyke resultate getoon tot die massabalans benadering en kan daarom dien as ‘n meer aanvaarbare model om gepaste beladingstempo vas te stel. Kleiner mensgemaakte reservoirs in die Wes-Kaap is onderhewig aan ‘n eutrofikasie proses wat die spoed van natuurlike eutrofikasie (trofies verwys na ‘n hoogs eutrofiese of hipertrofiese toestand ongeveer 10 tot 20 jaar na reservoir konstruksie) oorskry. Literatuur (nie ondersoek in die huidige studie) dui aan dat hierdie versnelde eutrofikasie proses meegebring word deur landbouaktiwiteite in die opvangsarea van die reservoirs. Resultate van die huidige studie het getoon dat forelproduksie in hokstelsels, die konsentrasie van total fosfor wat reeds beskikbaar was, verdubbel het. Die toename in fosforkonsentrasie het binne 1 tot 2 jaar na die aanvang van forelproduksie in die betrokke reservoirs, plaasgevind. Daar is egter uitsonderings waar forelproduksie in hokstelsels moontlik was, sonder die gepaardgaande afname in die waterkwaliteit. Die belangrikste stap vir suksesvolle en volhoubare forelproduksie is deeglike perseelseleksie. Daar is geen impak van akwakultuur waargeneem by vier persele (15 %) wat die eienskappe van goeie waterverplasing (>3 keer per jaar) en ‘n minimum oppervlakarea van 5 ha gehad het nie. Bykomend, sluit kriteria wat die risiko van algbesmetting laat afneem, ‘n minimum waterdiepte van 6 tot 7 m in ‘n reservoir by die laagste punt in (om te verhoed dat intermediêre vermenging plaasvind gedurende die stagnasieperiode) sowel as koue hipolimnetiese toestande (<17 °C) om sianobakterieë sist remobilisasie te minimaliseer. Verdere verbetering van die VOH (voeromsettingsverhouding onder voedingsbestuur) en voerkwaliteit is na perseeleleksie, die volgende komponente wat kan aandui of ‘n perseel gebruik kan word vir hokkultuur sonder enige impak. Vordering met voerkwaliteit en voedingsbestuur kan die aantal volhoubare persele laat toeneem en daardeur meer effektiewe watergebruik teweeg bring, sonder die verwante waterkwaliteit verswakking.

This thesis is an investigation of the impact of commercial game farming on former farm workers in the Bushman's River area of the Eastern Cape. In its examination of the broader economic and political changes that have facilitated a move from agriculture to game farming, it analyses how these changes affect farm workers. The main concern of the thesis is the ways in which farm workers (at the local level) respond to changes at the national and global level (legal and political changes, the advent of tourism, and the injection of foreign capital and businessmen into the area). Lack of knowledge about their rights under the current political dispensation, as well as the perceived need for mediation between themselves and foreign landowners, points to a general sense of powerlessness. Feelings of alienation from local government structures aimed at fulfilling this function indicate a significant gap between the statute at the national level and the local reality. Local reality is informed by a strong conservatism which is generated by African Independent Church structures and local Xhosa perceptions of manhood and respectability. This conservative discourse leads to a frame of reference which is largely informed by pre-1994 interactions with farmers and government. This results in a situation in which farm workers, largely unaware of their rights in the new dispensation, operate as they did in the past; waiting for landowners to decide their fate for them. What ensues is a lack of meaningful interaction with government and landowners, perpetuating their subjugation and cynicism as to whether government structures are in fact working in their interests. The thesis comes to three main conclusions. The first is that game farming has been negatively received by farm workers due to the associated threats of unemployment and eviction. The second is that despite high levels of subjugation, even the very poor are agents to some degree. The creation of a masculine identity which is internally articulated, as opposed to outwardly expressed, and the grounding of reputation in the family suggest that farm workers have developed mechanisms to deal with their disempowered position. Lastly, farm workers are in possession of social capital which has made it possible for them to deal with their low status in the societal hierarchy. This includes the Church, family and fellow community members. These coping strategies have however proved a disadvantage in the current era because they prevent direct communication with landowners, government and NGOs.

Considering the backward and forward linkages, the agro-industrial sector contributes about 12 percent of South Africa‘s GDP, and employs approximately 8.5 million people. In the Eastern Cape Province, the sector contributes about 1.9 percent of the Provincial GDP, and over 3 million people derive their livelihoods from subsistence smallholder farming. Despite its importance, agricultural productivity has stagnated for several years across the Eastern Cape rural communities. There have been several attempts by the government to improve the agricultural productivity on smallholder farms since the end of apartheid, especially through the establishment of small-scale irrigation schemes, subsidization of farm inputs, and provision of credit facilities and enacting a number of land reform policies. In spite of the government support, most rural communities like Qamata and Tyefu are still faced with high levels of poverty affecting 76 percent and 91 percent of the population, respectively. This research evaluated the current smallholders‘ production efficiency, and the link between smallholder farmers‘ human dimensions (entrepreneurial spirit and positive psychological capital, goals and social capital, and other efficiency related variables) with production efficiency and household commercialisation index/level. The study used participatory approaches for site selection, sample selection and data collection. The analysis was based on both information from informal interviews and formal primary data collection. The Data Envelopment Analysis and Stochastic Production Frontier techniques were used to determine the relative efficiencies of individual farmers and to identify the major factors that influence the efficiency of production. Overall, 158 farmers were interviewed both at Qamata and Tyefu irrigation schemes. Descriptive statistics of this study indicated that most of the farmers were men with an average age of 61 years, and mean household size of 4 persons with the household head having at least obtained some primary school education. Farming is the major source of livelihood for smallholders with an average income of R4527.49 per crop season. Smallholders use improved seeds, fertilizers and tractor for ploughing with less use of pesticides and herbicides. Although smallholder irrigators generate more gross margins from maize and cabbage enterprises, generally both categories of farmers exhibited a low average household commercialization index for maize and cabbage at 0.41 and 0.22, respectively. Both Data Envelopment Analysis and Stochastic Production Frontier results indicate that farmers are about 98 percent technically efficient in maize and cabbage enterprises, respectively. However, farmers were allocatively inefficient as they were under-utilizing seed and pesticides while over-utilizing inorganic fertilizers. Factors that are positively associated with technical efficiency in maize production included household size, farming experience, off-farm income, use of agro-chemical; gross margins and commercialisation level of maize output. Determinants of technical efficiency in cabbage enterprise included farming experience, amount of land owned, use of agro-chemicals, group membership and gross margins accrued to cabbage sales. Farmers‘ human dimensions that could be more positively and significantly associated with production, efficiency and household commercialisation level included risk taking (hope), innovativeness (confidence) and optimism for entrepreneurial/positive psychological capital. Farmers‘ goals included self-esteem and independence, and only external social capital which were identified to be more positively and significantly associated with farmers‘ production efficiency and commercialization level. The transition from homestead subsistence to commercial oriented small-scale irrigation farming is inevitable since smallholder irrigators earn more incomes from maize and cabbage and are relatively food secure. However, the key policy options that must be considered to address inefficiencies and improved commercialization level to aid the transition include: agricultural policies geared toward attracting youth in farming, improved quality of extension services, speeding up the land reform process, and formation of cooperatives and participatory policy formulation that takes full cognizance of the farmers‘ human dimensions. Since farmers‘ human dimensions as defined in the literature and this study are not things that are amenable to direct policy intervention, they can only be modified indirectly through policy actions that affect their determinants. This means that a number of the demographic and socio-economic characteristics such as age, sex and education level of household head, farming experience, size of land owned, crop incomes, source of water for irrigation and location of the irrigation scheme that govern the way people perceive reality and respond to them must be the focus of concerted policy actions over the medium to long term.

Large scale shifts playing out on global climate levels are manifesting locally in the South Africa’s terrestrial and marine ecosystems, where it is difficult to predict how different habitats may respond to these changes in natural systems, particularly at local levels. For example, the highly complex nature of climate variability in the southern Cape and on the Agulhas Bank, coupled with the lack of long-term environmental monitoring data, has resulted in knowledge gaps on how climate impacts these local social-ecological systems. This thesis focuses on bringing together knowledge systems from farmers, handline fishers and local scientific weather sources to examine climate variability in terrestrial and marine social-ecological systems of the southern Cape, in order to bring local perspectives into conversation with scientific data outputs. Through examining different knowledge systems in parallel and overlaying different perspectives and observations, this thesis contributes towards a better understanding of complex systems change, linked through the common thread of climate variability under a resilience lens, at the local scale of the southern Cape and Agulhas Bank. This thesis also contextualises responses to change under the theme of climate variability from farmers’ and fishers’ perspectives, and shows how different theoretical discourses can work in a complementary fashion to address complexity. The terrestrial component of this thesis examined local agricultural perspectives by surveying southern Cape farmers, and built in terrestrial scientific data through looking at local climate in relation to farming perspectives. Observations on terrestrial rainfall and temperatures were collected through interviews with 50 farmers, along with shared rainfall records from 13 farming families and ten official weather stations in the area. Fisher perspectives in relation to climate variability were then integrated with marine scientific data to examine the marine component of the Agulhas Bank. Fisher observations of climate variability were examined by drawing on existing research conducted through the South Coast Interdisciplinary Research Project. Marine wind data were obtained through model outputs from NCEP-DOE Reanalysis and a recent scatterometer-based product. Overlaying these different bodies of knowledge reduced the uncertainties associated with any single set of observations and confirmed two environmental regime shifts in the region, in the mid-1990s and end-2000s. Local climate knowledge of farmers and fishers also overlapped and corroborated these environmental regime shifts. Changes in prevailing wind direction, rather than wind speed, were more prominent over time. While no clear trends of change over time were found in rainfall and temperature time series, decadal variability was present and after the mid-2000s, the onset of seasonal autumn rainfall was found to have shifted to a month later. Knowledge disconnects were broadly related to scale mismatches between fisher observations and marine data tendencies; complexities around freshwater availability; and shifting baselines of natural resources concerning present versus past variability observed by farmers and fishers. Responses to climate variability were complex and other stressors associated with economic and political challenges were usually seen as a greater threat to local livelihoods. However, climate stressors can push social-ecological systems into vulnerable states if not well integrated into adaptation strategies, which can have serious implications for future food and job security in the southern Cape. Local-based case studies such as this one increase understanding of local social-ecological systems under global change in an effort to contribute to future adaptation strategies in the southern Cape region.

South Africa and other developing countries are grappling with high levels of poverty as a result of slow to negligible rural development. Irrigation development is one essential component that can be used to address the challenges faced by smallholder farmers in rural areas. In the President‟s “State of the Nation Address” in 2011, the President of South Africa outlined measures to reduce hunger and poverty in communal areas through enhanced government‟s expenditures in rural infrastructure developments, especially for such amenities as irrigation and roads, with a view to promoting food security. The broad objective of this study is to assess livelihood strategies and opportunities with regard to farming in Qamata area of Intsika Yethu Local Municipality. The stratified random sampling method was applied in order to choose a sample of 70 household that were interviewed by means of semi-structured questionnaires. Out of these, 53 belonged to the irrigation project and 17 farmers were non-irrigation farmers. The results show that women play an active role in agriculture. The Multiple Regression model was used to assess the relative importance of different livelihood strategies adopted by both irrigation and non-irrigation farmers in improving household food security and welfare in Qamata. More specifically, the study assessed the impact of different livelihood strategies on production of butternut, goats, maize and poultry (Chicken) in Qamata. The results show increased agricultural production, crop diversification and higher incomes from irrigation farming as compared to dry land farming. Irrigation farming has enabled many households to diversify their sources of income and therefore include activities and enterprises that contribute to enhanced household welfare. The study showed that household size is crucial in crop production, followed by gender of the household head. The government and research institutes need to come up with programmes to train people on ways to produce crop and livestock products more efficiently.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2015.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In South Africa, land reform and the development of upcoming farmers are part of the country’s transformation objectives. The development of upcoming farmers into commercial farmers therefore requires the growth of sustainable agri-businesses. Unfortunately, limited success has been achieved in terms of land reform and the country is far from its set targets. This study examined the factors that gave current successful, upcoming commercial farmers the advantage to grow their businesses up to a certain level. Data was collected through interviews with farmers, mentors, transformation managers and governing bodies such as Agri-West Cape. Interviews on the farms gave the researcher the opportunity to observe underlying factors that can influence their businesses. The objective of the study was to determine the critical success factors that relate to the success of upcoming commercial farmers in the Western Cape. The results identified a number of success factors, some of which were unexpected and in contrast with some of the literature sources. All the cases covered in this study – i.e. successful, upcoming commercial farmers in the Western Cape – used different business models and emphasised the importance of proper management. They also used their detailed business plans as a handbook for successful farming, and acknowledged the important role of mentors. Only a mentor-farmer relationship based on trust and respect worked in the end. The mentors took on coaching roles that were not limited to farming activities but included an equally important people development component. A sustainable market was identified as one of the critical success factors for successful upcoming commercial farmers. One of the biggest hurdles for upcoming farmers was financial management. Hence, they required dedicated financial management to be sustainable. One of the main outcomes of the study was the importance of the personal profile of the farmers and their understanding of the opportunity. Focusing on short-term financial gains resulted in failure. All the farmers in the case studies displayed a deep understanding of the long-term goal of their businesses and their role in that. Transformation, land reform and building an equal society in South Africa are burning points for the nation. The success of upcoming farmers helps to build confidence that the hard work is paying off.

Official statistics suggest that as many as 40 percent to 60 percent of people in South Africa are living in poverty, and the 15 percent poorest are in a desperate struggle for survival. Since 1994, Government has been making an effort to help smallholder agriculture through numerous programmes, including those that address land ownership and provide credit and grants for farms and households, but very little change has taken place. Understanding the sources of livelihood and opportunities to improve the contribution of farming within available food chains is therefore an important practical need. The study investigated sources of livelihood and mapped the livelihoods profile of the farming households in parts of the Eastern Cape. The study was conducted in the Alice and Peddie communities in the Amathole district municipality. A set of structured questionnaires were used to interview the sample of 80 farming households selected through a random process within two irrigation schemes and communities that were selected purposively in line with the focus of the larger project on which this study is based. The resulting data were analyzed by means of descriptive statistics and multiple linear regression. The descriptive results indicated that members of most rural households were old, married, uneducated and unemployed. Farming was primary livelihood strategy employed in these areas. Rural households were also dependent on remittances, social grants and pension funds because the farming strategy could not meet all their household needs. The major crops that were grown for income and food security to sustain their livelihoods included maize, potatoes, onions and butternut. Factors that had significant influences on outcomes were extension services, grants, pension and remittances, land productivity, type of irrigation system, market accessibility, output price difference and value adding. The available opportunities were land productivity, irrigation facilities, government or NGO programmes and working as a group. For improved livelihood of rural communities in Alice and Peddie, government needs to strengthen agricultural activities and equip farmers with market information, improve their access to irrigation schemes, provide training on value adding and also improve access to extension services.

South Africa and the rest of developing countries are faced with poverty and poor rural development. Rural participation in agricultural activities is one of the components that can be used to address the poverty challenge facing the people residing in rural areas. The broad objective of this research is to determine factors affecting participation rate in farming in the rural areas of Amathole District Municipality of Eastern Cape. In this study stratified random sampling method was applied in order to choose a sample out of 30 households that were interviewed 13 people belonged to Participants and 17 people belonged to non-Participants. The results from this study show that women participate a lot in farming activities. The multiple regression model was used to test the participation rates of the people in Amathole region specifically Phumlani area. A number of variables were considered in this study to assess the impact of different variables on participation in farming activities. The results showed that about 57% of the respondents are not participating in farming while 43% of the respondents participate. The farming participants that were interviewed all claim that there is a lack in farming support in the area. When there is no support of any kind, rural people would not be motivated to start development projects on their own. Consequently, this lack of farming support in the Phumlani area may have an influence on the number of farming participants. Therefore, the lack of support in the area may serve as a motivation for non-participants not to be influenced to farm. Rural farming needs to be promoted amongst the youth so as to protect and sustain agricultural growth in rural areas. The study has discovered that the youth of Phumlani is not actively involved in farming activities. Government can provide community members with farming resources so as to promote farming in the area. It would be wiser for the government to provide physical farming resources and implements rather than cash grants.

The objective of this study was to determine sheep production practices, constraints, flock dynamics, body condition and weight variation in two ecologically different resource-poor communal farming systems of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Mean sheep flock sizes per household were not significantly different between the two ecologically different areas (villages); Gaga (19.0±3.10) and Sompondo (18.3±3.10). Shortage of feed, disease and parasite were reported the most important constraints across the two villages. In both villages, sheep housing was poorly constructed using acacia brushwoods. Fewer farmers owned rams: the rams to ewes ratio for the two villages were 1:20, 1:19 for Gaga and Sompondo, respectively. The low ram: ewe ratios reported suggest that inbreeding might have been reducing productivity of their flocks. There was also uncontrolled breeding due to undefined and mating seasons. Gall sickness, heart water and footrot caused most of the sheep mortalities. Dohne Merinos were the common genotypes in the two villages. Total entrances for each flock were higher (p < 0.05) in hot-dry season and hot-wet season than in other seasons. Most of the entrances were lambs and were born in hot-dry season (September) and cool-dry season (June) for larger flocks (10.90 ± 3.02) and for small flocks (3.65 ± 3.02). High lamb mortalities were experienced in the post-rainy (April) and hot-wet (December) season. There was a significant interaction between season and flock size. Most of the sales occurred in the hot-wet season. Ecological area had significant effect on sheep production potential (p < 0.05) in both flock classes. The average sheep production efficiency (SPE) value for Gaga and Sompondo were 0.50 ± 0.116 and 0.50 ± 0.096 respectively. The SPE for large flock was higher (p < 0.05) by season and flock size. Large flocks had a higher (p < 0.05) SPE values and the SPE ranged from 1.11 ± 0.193 in April, a post-rainy season month to 1.55 ± 0.193 in December, a hot-wet season month. Lamb mortalities constituted the greater part of outflows. High lamb mortalities occurred in hot-wet (December), hot-dry (September) and post-rainy (April) seasons. There was a significant interaction between season and age of sheep on body weight of sheep. Highest (p < 0.05) body weights were recorded in the post-rainy and autumn season in both lambs and ewes. It is therefore very important to come up with affordable interventions which take into play ecological differences of the areas for improved nutritional status of sheep in communal areas which will lead to improved sheep productivity and the poor-resourced farmer human nutritional and livelihood.

Allan Waters, a communal area near Queenstown in the former Ciskei of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, have about 80 households who are involved in agriculture. These households were surveyed with two questionnaires. The first was at household level, focusing on the current socioeconomic situations and farming systems. Data were collected from sixty-three households in the village. The socio-economics questionnaire was divided into sections: demographic information, land and agricultural information, income and expenditure. In order to improve the livelihood of the households and to secure food production and food security, a situation analysis of the rural farmers was carried out using typology as a research tool. Typologies were built in order to analyze the diversity of production units (farms) or households (agricultural households). To define household typologies, factors such as land, source of income, modes of farming and composition of the family were used to identify six typology categories and to divide these into two main groups. The two main groups comprised of (a) livestock farming and (b) non-livestock farming or very little farming activities. The six types are as follows: Type 1: Poverty-stricken households Type 2: Newly arrived households Type 3: Households’ depending on old age pensions Type 4: Households’ main income from old age pensions and supported by substantial farming Type 5: Households’ revenue generated from business, wages and farming Type 6: Full time farming Five types had access to grazing and arable land for agricultural purposes, but type two had not yet been granted the rights to graze or the use of arable fields for agricultural purposes by the village. The source of income for the households in type one was made up of welfare grants and remittances. Types three and four, mainly depended on pensions when compared to the other four types. The households in type five mainly received incomes from farming and business. In type six, the main income received was from farming. The most common modes of farming for the types were: garden-poultry- dry land- crop- cattle-sheep-goats. Using the data from the first questionnaire, the three active agricultural types were targeted with a production survey (28 households). The production survey revolved around animal production, but a number of questions had to do with general information concerning agriculture. From the survey, the households reported that the main aim for keeping livestock and chickens was self- consumption and sale of animals, except in the case of sheep, which were kept for wool production. In the case of the wool farmers, the committee controlled activities such as mating of animals, grazing management, shearing, dipping of animals and wool sorting. The other tasks were left to the farmer himself. Wool data obtained for 2001 indicated that the average fleece weight was 3.88 kg greasy wool per sheep, with an A- to C- length. The fibre diametre of the wool in general fell in a medium class (21.1 micron). From the survey a number of projects were identified to assist the rural farmers in improving the livelihood of the households and in securing food production and food security.

The study focused on the role of the State and the environment in indigenous livestock farming in Debe Marela in Middledrift. Although communal farmers in the area used ethnoveterinary medicines to treat and prevent animal diseases, they also widely used conventional medicines, as these often provided a remedy to animal diseases. The livestock farmers believed in indigenous knowledge which empowered them in using herbs to a certain extent, but the latter was preferred. The Department of Agriculture has featured as a support institution and although livestock farmers in the area have participated in and benefitted from state programmes, they believe that they needed more interventions such as visits from veterinary surgeons, Extension Officers and Animal Health Technicians. The study therefore attempts to address the gaps highlighted in the work of other researchers.

The study examined the impact of small scale irrigation technology in crop production under Ncora areas of Cofimvaba. To achieve the objective of the study, data were collected from 212 farmers engaged in various crop enterprises under the Ncora. The farmers were randomly selected. Descriptive Statistics, DEA model, linear regression model and gross margin analysis were used to analyse the results obtained from the survey. The descriptive results showed that Ncora farmers are small-scale farmers cultivating small hectare of land and using simple farm tools, mainly using furrow irrigation. Furthermore, they produce more than one crop enterprises. The gross margin Analysis shows that Ncora cultivation is profitable. The most profitable crop was found to be maize than potatoes. Farm production function revealed that land, labour and purchased inputs had a positive relationship with the output of the enterprises. SPSS was used to run data for linear regression model (OLS). It was suggested that extension services and private organizations assist farmers especially the emerging ones via provision of training, processing and storage facilities. Furthermore, continuous monitoring of soil and water quality as well as ground water table was recommended, in order to ensure sustainability of Ncora irrigation in the area.

Amaranthus is among the nutritious indigenous plant species that are gathered from the wild in the Eastern Cape to prepare a traditional meal known as ‘imifino’ or ‘isigwampa’ to supplement the necessary proteins, vitamins and minerals which are poor in maizebased meals. Amaranthus species are adapted to wild conditions unsuitable for exotic vegetables and could be cultivated but information on its fertility requirements, as sole or intercrop, is the key for its domestication and production as a leafy vegetable, particularly where manure is used. Two dry-land and one glasshouse experiments were conducted to study the effects of sheep kraal manure application rate, intercropping with maize and soil type on growth, fresh and dry matter yields, nutrient uptake and grain yield of a local Amaranthus accession that grows wild in the Eastern Cape. Sheep kraal manure rates ranging from 0 to 10 t ha-1 and an NPK {2:3:4(30) + 0.5% Zn} fertilizer as a positive control, applied at rates recommended for spinach, were tested. In the Gqumahashe experiment, where Amaranthus was grown as a sole crop, low manure rates (≤ 2.5 t ha-1) resulted in plant heights and fresh matter yields which were comparable to those in the unfertilized control, whereas higher rates (5 and 10 t ha-1) and recommended NPK fertilizer had higher levels both at 30 and 60 days after transplanting (DAT) at p < 0.05. At 30 DAT, manure application rates of ≥ 2.5 t ha-1 and the NPK fertilizer treatment, produced greater shoot dry-matter yields (29.35, 30.75 and 37.68 g plant-1) than the unfertilized control (17.11 g plant-1) at p < 0.05. Uptake of N and P in the leaves increased with increase in manure application rate with N uptake reaching a maximum (308 mg plant-1) at a manure rate of 2.5 t ha-1 which corresponded with the maximum dry matter yield. There was no effect of manure rate or fertilizer on residual soil N and Ca, whereas P, K, Mg and Zn increased. In a pot experiment with soils from Ntselamanzi and Gqumahashe Villages, manure rates ≥ 2.5 t ha-1 resulted in plant heights and fresh matter yield that compared well with the NPK fertilizer treatment in the Gqumahashe soil whereas only the 10 t ha-1 manure treatment was comparable to the NPK fertilizer treatment in the Ntselamanzi soil. Only treatments with ≥ 5 t ha-1 manure had stem girth (1.00 and 1.07 cm) that compared well to NPK fertilizer (1.03 cm) in the Ntselamanzi soil whereas in the Gqumahashe soil, all manure levels compared well to NPK fertilizer (1.02 cm). However, no significant difference was observed in plant height and stem girth and fresh matter due to soil type. In both soils, the 1.3-10 t ha-1 manure treatments had dry leaf weight comparable to plants fertilized with NPK fertilizer (3.72 g plant-1 for the Ntselamanzi soil and 3.65 g plant-1 for the Gqumahashe soil) and were bigger than the unfertilized control (2.2 g plant-1 for the Ntselamanzi soil and 1.38 g plant-1 for the Gqumahashe soil) at p < 0.05. Uptake of N, P and K increased as result of manure application but nonetheless, it was less when compared to plants fertilized with NPK fertilizer in both soils. In a field intercropping experiment carried out at Ntselamanzi, growth and yield of sole and intercropped Amaranthus plants grown with manure improved when compared to the unfertilized control and compared well to NPK fertilizer. At 30 days after transplanting (DAT), both sole and intercropped plants grown with ≥ 2.5 t ha-1 manure had fresh and dry matter yield comparable to plants fertilized with NPK fertilizer. At 60 DAT, intercropped plants grown with all manure levels had bigger fresh matter yield when compared to unfertilized control (836.0 g plant-1) whereas for sole cropped plants only those grown with ≥ 2.5 t ha-1 compared to NPK fertilizer (1467.7 g plant-1) at p < 0.05. Uptake of N, P, K, Ca and Mg increased with increase in manure application in both sole and intercropped Amaranthus. Whereas Amaranthus did not suffer from the competition in the intercrop, maize biomass and grain yield were severely reduced with the effects being evident after 60 DAT. Based on results of this study, it is therefore suggested that, if Amaranthus is to be intercropped with maize under dry land conditions of the Central Region of the Eastern Cape, sheep manure should at least be applied at rate of ≥ 2.5 t ha-1 and Amaranthus be harvested at 30 DAT.

Characterization studies on the genetic diversity among cultivated cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) varieties are valuable tools to optimize the use of available genetic resources by farmers, local communities, researchers and breeders. Eight cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) genotypes ( Vegetable cowpea, Ivory grey, Okhalweni, Fahari, Fahari dark, 97K-1069-8, IT93K-73h, and 129-3) were subjected to molecular, morphological and agronomical characterization. DNA amplification fingerprinting markers were used to evaluate the genetic diversity among the eight genotypes. Nine random arbitrary primers were used to screen the eight genotypes to assess their ability to reveal polymorphisms in cowpea, and seven of them were selected for use in characterizing the total sample. A total of 43 bands were generated which are all polymorphic. On the average, the primers generated a total of 6.1 polymorphic bands. The resulting data-matrix included 43 analysed bands with a total of 344 characters. Neighbour joining analysis was used to generate the dendrogram, clustering the genotypes into two groups at an agglomerate coefficient of 0.30 irrespective of their geographical origins. The results also showed the presence of significant differences in morphological and quality traits among the genotypes. Fahari yielded the highest concentration of crude protein (46.51 mg/mg dry leaf) while Vegetable cowpea yielded the lowest (24.41 mg/mg dry leaf). The influence of manure was also found to be effective by increasing the crude protein content of the genotypes as shown by Fahari dark with an average of 53.53 mg/mg dry leaf as opposed to 39.85 mg/mg dry leaf without manure application. Although some small clusters grouped accessions of the same growth habits, a general lack of agreement between clustering and morphological features was observed. It can therefore be concluded that the significant differences between the molecular genetic analysis using DAF-PCR markers, morphologic characters and yield traits can be important tools to identify and discriminates the different cowpea genotypes.

The potential for aquaculture development to make up for an annual 400,000mt shortfall in domestic fish supply was investigated. This involved an overview of the sector to determine its trends and operations and identifying strengths and constraints, a financial viability assessment of the sector, based on mode and levels of operation of existing farms, an assessment of the market and trade for cultured fish with a focus on Oreochromis niloticus, and finally, a GIS approach to update and reassess the potential for aquaculture development in Ghana. Data were obtained from both primary and secondary sources, the former, via fish farmer, dealers and consumer questionnaire surveys. Results of the study showed that interests in fish farming continue to grow with an overall annual average growth rate of 16% since 2000. The existing farms, 1300 in number were however very small with a mean farm size of 0.36ha and a median 0.06ha of which commercial farms accounted for less than 3%. Based on sizes, mode of operation and levels of input and output, five subsistence farm types were identified. Mean production from these pond-based farms ranged from 1436kg/ha/yr- to 4,423kg/ha/yr while that of a medium sized intensive commercial pond farm was 45,999kg/ha/yr. Commercial farming accounted for about 75% of 2006 aquaculture production. The main strength identified was the growing interest in both commercial and non-commercial fish farming and the main constraints were lack of quality seed, low levels of technical support and of knowledge in fish farming practices among non-commercial farmers. Net profits of commercial farms ranged from GH¢ 3,341 (US$3480)/ha/yr to GH¢ 51,444 (US$ 53,587)/ha/yr with payback from 1 to 4yrs, IRR at 35% to 105% and NPV from GH¢ 5,898 to GH¢ 236,412. By contrast, only two of the five non-commercial farm types made positive net returns ranging, from GH¢158 to GH¢1100/ha/yr, with minimum payback period of 14yrs, NPVs of less than 1 and the best IRR being just 4%, when initial capital requirements are full costed. Uncosted family labour inputs and negligible land opportunity costs improved viabilities for two farm types, where net returns/ha/yr increased by more than 50%, minimum payback dropped to 2 years, NPV from GH¢ 4839 to GH¢ 9330 and minimum IRR of 45%. Main constraints identified as affecting the profitability of subsistence farming were the relatively low prices of fish and the low levels of output which could be improved through better farming practices. From the market survey, a huge market potential for tilapia was identified with a current supply deficit of 41,000mt. The most preferred sizes by consumers and with potentially good market price for traders were those weighing at least 200g. For dealers, trading in cultured fish was found to be more profitable than trading wild capture tilapia because of lower wholesaler prices, gross profit margins were GH¢ 0.49/kg and GH¢ 0.25/kg respectively. Preference for tilapia was influenced by taste, availability, and its perceived health benefit. A key constraint to the sector was poor post-harvest handling and preservation of the fish resulting in shorter shelf life. From the GIS study, 2% (3,692 km2) of available land area was identified as very suitable for subsistence and about 0.2% (313.8km2) for commercial farming. A further 97.4% and 84.0% were identified as suitable for subsistence and commercial farming respectively. Areas with potential for cage culture were also identified, which were largely in the southern and mid-sections of the country. The overall conclusions are that based on natural resource requirements, market potential and financial viability, Ghana has the potential to totally make up the shortfall in domestic fish supply through aquaculture production. The current 400,000mt shortfall in domestic fish production can be achieved by 2020 by increasing overall aquaculture production by 60% per annum.

Thesis (MScEng (Civil Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In the study, six irrigation schemes based in the Eastern Cape have been considered and evaluated, according to two levels of supply (LOS) of irrigation water. The two levels of supply are that of a commercial irrigator and that of a smallholder irrigator. The irrigation infrastructure for each of the six schemes was designed, and the associated costs determined, for each level of supply. The primary objective of the study is to determine the impact of infrastructure costs and irrigation areas on the target user, either the commercial or the smallholder irrigator. This is related directly to the assumption that lower water volumes are used by the smallholder irrigator. The study addresses the impact of different designs on the amount of water used, land utilised and resultant costs of the infrastructure. The initial capital costs and the on-going operational and maintenance costs (O&M) for each level of supply for each of the schemes have been calculated. The evaluation of the two LOS has shown that the capital cost for the commercial LOS is approximately 18 % higher than for the smallholder LOS and the O&M costs 6 % to 36 % higher. The schemes that were investigated can be grouped into five general scheme types. The first type is gravity schemes, which need rehabilitation, while the bulk supply is in place with no augmentation or rehabilitation required. The second is pumped scheme which is in need of rehabilitation, while the bulk supply is in place with no augmentation or rehabilitation required. The third type includes run-of-river schemes where water is abstracted and pumped directly to the lands. The fourth type includes run-of-river schemes where water is abstracted and pumped to storage. The fifth type is the gravity scheme where the bulk supply needs to be installed as part of the scheme. These types are then grouped and can be used to give guidance on the anticipated costs dependant on the scheme type and the required level of service. A further objective of the research is to determine the impact on the smallholder irrigators who find themselves on a commercial LOS system. This can be either on a scheme that has already been designed, or on a new system. The evaluation of the commercial under-utilised LOS and the smallholder LOS has shown that the commercial capital cost is 18 % higher and the O&M costs 5 % to 29 % higher. The study further aligns the estimated costs with the farmer typology providing a broader understanding of the design to be adopted for different levels of supply. This provides the linkage between farmer types, the design to be implemented and the anticipated costs thereof.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: As deel van hierdie narvorsing word ses verskillende besproeiingsskemas in die Oos-Kaap ten opsigte van twee voorsieningsvlakke ondersoek. Die twee voorsieningsvlakke ter sprake is vir ‘n kommersiële en kleinboerdery opset. Die besproeiingsinfrastruktuur is vir elk van die ses besproeiingsskemas ontwerp en ‘n kosteberaming vir elk van voorsieningsvlakke gedoen. Die hoofdoelwit van hierdie verslag is om te bepaal wat die impak van kostes en besproeiingsareas op beide kommersiële- en kleinboerderye is. Dit is direk gebaseer op die aanname dat kleinboerderye minder water gebruik. Die verslag ondersoek die impak van verskillende ontwerpe op waterverbruik, besproeiingsoppervlak benodig en die gevolglike infrastruktuurkostes. Die aanvanklike kapitaalkostes asook bedryfs- en onderhoudsuitgawes (B&O) vir elk van die voorsieningsvlakke, is vir elk van die besproeiingskemas bereken. Die resultaat van die ondersoek van die twee voorsieningsvlakke het aangetoon dat die kapitaalkoste van kommersiële besproeiingskemas 18 % hoër as die van kleinboerderye is, en bedryfs- en onderhoudsuitgawes 6 tot 36 % hoër. Die skemas wat ondersoek is, kan in vyf algemene skema tipes verdeel word. Die eerste is die gravitasieskemas wat rehabilitasie benodig terwyl die hooftoevoer in plek is met geen uitbreidings- of rehabilitasiebehoeftes. Die tweede is pompskemas wat rehabilitasie benodig terwyl die hooftoevoer in plek is met geen uitbreidings- of rehabilitasiebehoeftes. Die derde is rivierskemas waar besproeiingswater direk uit die rivier na die landerye gepomp word. Die vierde is rivierskemas waar besproeiingswater direk uit die rivier na a reservoir gepomp word. Die vyfde skema tipe is die gravitasieskemas waar die hooftoevoer ook gebou moet word as deel van die skema. Die skema tipes kan gebruik word om leiding te verskaf ten opsigte van verwagte skema kostes afhangende van die skema tipe en vereiste voorsieningsvlak. ‘n Verdere doelwit van die studie is om die impak op kleinboere te bepaal wat op ‘n kommeriële voorsieningsvlak boer. So ‘n stelsel kan ‘n gevestigde of nuwe stelsel wees. Die resultaat van die ondersoek van die onderbenutte kommersiële voorsieningsvlak en die kleinboerdery voorsieningsvlak het gewys dat die kapitaalkoste van kommersiële besproeiingskemas 18 % hoër as die van kleinboerderye is, en bedryfs- en onderhoudsuitgawes 5 tot 29 % hoër. Die verslag vereenselwig die verwagte kostes met die tipe boerdery en verskaf ‘n beter begrip van die tipe ontwerp wat elk van die voorsieningsvlakke benodig. Dit verskaf dus die verband tussen die tipe boerdery, die ontwerp benodig en die verwagte projekkostes.

Thesis (PhD (Agric))--University of Stellenbosch, 2003.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: During a survey in the greater Cape Flats Heterodera schachtii was found to be widespread on cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, beetroot and cabbage. The numbers present were above two eggs and juveniles per gram of soil, generally regarded as the economic threshhold level of infestation and requiring control. The damage potential of H schachtii on vegetables, as well as the ability of certain weeds to serve as a source of infection on subsequent crop plantings was studied under greenhouse conditions and resulted in a reduction of yield and root weight of crops. Population densities of H schachtii increased significantly under favourable hosts like cabbage where densities of 198 eggs and juveniles per gram of soil were reached. The most commonly occurring weeds maintained nematode development and increased their population densities. They can thus serve as alternative hosts in the absence of susceptible hosts and should be routinely controlled. The life cycle and biology of H schachtii was also studied. Penetration of plant tissue and subsequent development on vegetables, weeds and trap crops were observed. Penetration was successful on all crops tested reaching 37% and 52% at inoculum levels of 22 and 11 juveniles per gram of soil, respectively. Subsequent development of H schachtii on weeds and vegetables was similar, but in the case of cauliflower and black nightshade as hosts, their life cycle was shorter in comparison to other crops. The possible existence of varying susceptibility of crops to different populations of H schachtii was examined by comparing the rates of penetration in crops and reproduction of geographically isolated populations of H schachtii in the greater Cape Flats. When root penetration, virulence and juvenile emergence were examined, populations from Lynedoch and Philippi were distinct from the other populations. Subsequently, representative individuals of these populations were subjected to PCR-RFLP, but with these techniques real differences between the various populations could not be adequately detected. The environmental parameters such as soil texture, temperature and pH on H schachtii were investigated as to their influence on the root weight and yield of crops. Reductions in the yield of beetroot and cabbage were observed with soil temperatures ranging between 15 to 30°C. Migration and penetration of H schachtii juveniles declined with an increase in clay and silt content of the soil. Above a 34% silt and clay content of soil, no migration and penetration took place. Root penetration levels of 30% and higher were reached with pH varying between 4.5 and 7.4. This resulted in a significant reduction in yield of crops. Crop rotation is an essential component of non-chemical control. In the case of H schachtii, it required one host crop in four non-host rotational cycles to maintain the population of the nematode in the soilless than three eggs and juveniles per gram of soil. The inclusion of a trap crop reduced the population densities to below two eggs and juveniles per gram of soil. It therefore also forms an integral part of a control strategy. Solarization proved successful as a physical control method. Best results were obtained in summer with clear polyethylene which led to a 97% reduction of infective juveniles. This method can be applied during the late summer in the greater Cape Flats, just before the onset of winter. This may safeguard future spring plantings. The need for effective control strategies in order to reduce the numbers of H schachtii is of the utmost importance to ensure vegetable production in the future. Small-scale farmers should therefore be educated in this respect.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Heterodera schachtii het wydverspreid in 'n opname in die groter Kaapse Vlakte voorgekom op beet, blomkool, Brusselse spruite en kopkool. Die nematode getalle by alle lokaliteite was bo die algemeen aanvaarbare ekonomiese drempelwaarde van twee eiers en larwes per gram grond wat beheer regverdig. Die skadepotensiaal van H schachtii op groente, sowel as die vermoë van sekere onkruide om as infeksie bronne te dien vir opvolgende gewasse, is in glashuise ondersoek en het tot 'n verlaging in opbrengs en wortelmassa by gashere gelei. Die populasie digthede van H schachtii het met die aanplant van geskikte gashere tot vlakke van 198 eiers en larvae per gram grond gestyg. Die mees algemeen voorkomende gasheeronkruide het nematode ontwikkeling in stand gehou en selfs tot 'n populasie verhoging gelei. Hierdie onkruide is 'n beperkende faktor vir die verbouing van groente aangesien die onkruide as alternatiewe gasheer kan dien in die afwesigheid van gashere en onkruidbeheer moet dus op 'n gereelde basis toegepas word. Die lewenssiklus en biologie van H schachtii is ondersoek deurdat die penetrasie van gasheer wortels en die daaropvolgende ontwikkeling op groente, onkruide en vanggewasse vergelyk is. Penetrasie, vyf dae na inokulasie, is met alle gashere verkry met 37% en 52% penetrasie met inokulum vlakke van 22 en 11 larwes per gram grond onderskeidelik. Daaropvolgende ontwikkeling van H schachtii was soortgelyk op groente en onkruide, maar blomkool en nastergal het as gashere 'n verkorte lewenssiklus tot gevolg gehad. Die moontlikheid van verskille in die virulensie van H schachtii is ondersoek deur die penetrasie van gewasse en reproduksie vlakke van nematodes van nege verskillende geografies geskeide populasies in the groter Kaapse Vlakte te vergelyk. Die Lynedoch en Philippi populasies het onderskeibare resultate gelewer ten opsigte van die populasies uit die ander lokaliteite, maar geen verskille kon met PKR-RFLP aangetoon word nie. Die invloed van omgewings parameters, grondtekstuur, temperatuur en pH, is op H schachtii ondersoek ten opsigte van opbrengste en wortelmassa van gewasse. Grondtemperature tussen 15°C - 30°C het tot die grootste daling in opbrengs gelei op kopkool en beet. Migrasie en penetrasie het afgeneem met 'n toename in klei en slik inhoud tot en met 'n klei en slik inhoud van 34%, waarna geen penetrasie en migrasie voorgekom het nie. Wortelpenetrasie van 30% en hoër het voorgekom by pH vlakke van tussen 4.5 - 7.4 met die gepaardgaande verlaging in opbrengs van gewasse. Afwisseling van gewasse is 'n essensiële metode van nie-chemiese beheer van nematode getalle in die grond. Die mees optimale rotasie ten opsigte van H schachtii beheer is met die aanplanting van een gasheer gewas in vier gewas aanplantings verkry. Die insluiting van 'n vanggewas in die gewas rotasie siklus het die nematode populasievlakke tot onder twee per gram grond laat daal. Solarisasie is suksesvol uitgevoer met deurskynende poli-etileen in die groter Kaapse Vlakte gedurende die somer met gevolglik 'n 97% vermindering van die getalle infektiewe nematodes. Effektiewe beheermaatreëls ten opsigte van H schachtii moet in die groter Kaapse Vlakte ingestel word om groente-produksie in hierdie gebied te verseker. Kleinboere moet in hierdie tegnieke opgelei word.

This thesis uses the substainable rural livelihoods framework to investigate the agricultural livelihoods of the Cata community of the Eastern Cape. The Cata community is a deeply rural community located on the southern slopes of the Amatole Mountains. Traditional crop production used to be the major source of income for the households in this community. Of late there has been a lesser reliance on production of food by many households. Many are no longer ploughing their fields or their homestead gardens. People from this community are now spending most of their income on purchasing basic food items that they use to produce themselves, such as vegetables. The researcher then decided to study the contemporary livelihood of this rural community so as to identify the reasons why people in Cata are no longer ploughing their fields and gardens. This study found that, rural people in the community are faced with severe obstacles to agricultural production and this has led them to abandon agriculture as a major means of household support. These obstacles include high cost of production inputs, lack of fencing and lack of mechanization tractors and implements. In order to revitalize crop production the people want to be assisted with production inputs, tractor subsides, consistent water supply and fencing of the fields. Finally, the study makes recommendations for the revitalization of crop production in the Cata.

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2014.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Global economic conditions are forcing donor and development agencies to reduce aid to developing countries and communities. This reduction is resulting in less developmental programmes for disadvantaged communities. To ensure that developmental programmes are implemented successfully and cost effectively, implementing agents will have to ensure that they improve their developmental communication. It is also becoming important that those who are to benefit from developmental programmes convey or identify exactly what their needs are. There should be very little speculation from development agencies about what the needs of the disadvantaged are. It is becoming necessary to review current developmental tools, methods and systems, and also to explore what other measures can be applied to ensure that speculation or time and money wasting exercises are eliminated. This study attempts to look at two things that will influence effective development communication. The first is to examine if community radio is still as an efficient developmental communication tool as perhaps two decades ago. Secondly, it looks at the possibility to tailor-make information for those who need develop, especially in the context of evolving technology.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD<br>Cape Town includes two vegetable farming areas within the city limits, the Joostenbergvlakte/Kraaifontein area and the Philippi area. Both areas supply produce to local markets and further afield. Sporadically, high levels of cadmium, copper, lead and zinc have been found to occur in some of the soils, irrigation water resources and crops. To find the sources of specifically Cd, Pb and Zn to these agricultural systems, extensive analysis of several heavy metals in inputs such as fertilizers, agrochemicals and supplementary water resources to these farming areas was undertaken. Heavy metal concentrations in soils, irrigation water resources and crops were also determined. Two mitigation techniques that could be used to remediate Cd, Pb and Zn contamination were investigated. The first mitigation method included immobilization of heavy metals as phosphate complexes by using a triple super phosphate fertilizer, while the second method involved mobilisation and thus leaching of heavy metals away from plant roots using EDTA. These mitigation methods were tested in a pot experiment using cabbage as the experimental crop and soil from these areas as growth medium. A survey of common farming practices in these two areas and farmers willingness to use remediation methods was conducted.<br>South Africa

Previous studies conducted in the study area recommended an irrigation scheme as a much desired intervention in order to reduce poverty levels, reduce unemployment, provide a livelihood for the households and trigger development. The Land Bank of South Africa has shown keen interest to provide funds to set up an irrigation scheme in Guquka. Absence of peoples’ involvement and farmer participation has been identified as one of the causes of poor performance of smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa. The poor performance of smallholder irrigation projects in South Africa provided a good basis for exploring factors that could possibly affect farmer participation and the success of the proposed irrigation scheme. This knowledge would be useful to providers of extension services, capital providers, policy makers and the recipients of the proposed irrigation scheme. The main objective of this study was to investigate the factors affecting the willingness of farming households to participate in the proposed irrigation scheme. This investigation helped to analyse demographic; socio economic situation; farming practices; economic activities; water sources, uses and management in the study area. The major tool of enquiry in this study was the questionnaire which was used to collect data from the households. Household and farm characteristics were collected using structured questionnaires with the help of locally recruited and trained enumerators. The data used for the empirical analysis was obtained from a survey of 50 farming households in Guquka, in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The following variables were selected to determine the scope of their influence on farmer willingness to participate in the proposed scheme: age; membership in local group; investment in agriculture, educational level of the farmers, knowledge, household size, labour and gender. A logit model was used to determine the extent to which these selected characteristics influence the willingness of farmers to participate in the proposed irrigation scheme. The results showed that willingness to participate in the scheme was significantly influenced by the afore mentioned variables as well as knowledge about the planned irrigation scheme which is mainly provided by extension agents; and total household income. Age was found to decrease the willingness of farmers to participate in irrigation. A positive association existed between participation and the following variables; membership in local group, investment in agriculture, educational level of the farmers and knowledge. On the other hand, household size, labour and gender were not significant variables affecting willingness to participate in the proposed irrigation scheme. Based on the results from the logit regression model, it can be concluded that membership in a local group, investment in agriculture, education, knowledge and total household income are responsible for increasing the probability of participation. The negative relationship on age and participation indicates that the older the person is, the lesser the chances of participation. It is recommended that stakeholders should improve access to education and farmer training programmes. Support systems to disseminate information, training and knowledge should be enhanced. Improving institutional support and access to financial services should be prioritised by the stakeholders in the study area. Further studies on building institutional capacity and a cost benefit analysis of irrigation options in the study area are recommended.

We live in the era in which the internet is now available on the majority of mobile phones at a very cheaper rate. This advancement in technology has created a boom in the use of mobile phone social networking as a primary communication tool - not only for individuals but also commonly used by professionals in most fields. The trends and growing usage of social networking via mobile phone indicate a potentially effective new platform for increasing production especially in agricultural sectors. In this age of information technology, farming communities can be empowered with the latest information and knowledge through mobile phone social networking to enhance agricultural development. The study investigates the use of mobile phone social networking as an extension tool in small-scale (emerging) farmers in selected farming communities in the Cacadu District Municipality of the Eastern Cape of South Africa. Specifically, the study investigates the use of available mobile phone social networks; what they are used for; and the importance and benefits of social networking both generally and to the farming communities. The study further identifies problems inhibiting the use of mobile phone social networking. Other channels through which the small-scale (emerging) farmers acquire agricultural information, aside from via mobile phone, and the type of agricultural information these farmers acquire, are also investigated. This study focuses on the use - and not the testing or adoption of - mobile phone social networking in small-scale (emerging) agriculture. In the exercise to investigate the use of social networking apps via mobile phone, data was collected from 40 small-scale (emerging) farmers using a purposive sampling method. This study used a survey design, exploratory and descriptive research methodologies. Data was captured by administering a questionnaire through personal face-to-face interviews. Descriptive statistics such as simple frequency tables, percentages and bar graphs were used. From the Chi-square testing, it was found that agricultural knowledge levels, internet access and size of production farm land influence the use of social networking by the small-scale (emerging) farmers. However, the result of this study showed that gender, age, other income and educational level of the small-scale (emerging) farmers are not statistically significant determinants of social networking use. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was found to be 0.95. To establish the strength of associations of the variables, Cramer’s V ranging between 0.04 and 0.9 (signifying relationships from negligible to very strong association) was used. The findings showed that different social networks are used by the farming communities, such as WhatsApp, Facebook, and Blackberry messenger, MXit, Twitter and YouTube. The various uses of these social networks by the farmers are discussed. The benefits and problems inhibiting their use are also outlined. Other sources of acquiring agricultural information by the farmers aside from social networking via mobile phone are examined. The result of the study shows that [agricultural extension officers, other farmers, farmers’ discussion groups, friends and family,] are major sources of agricultural information to the small-scale (emerging) farmers while other sources are television, radio, print media and result demonstrations. The study suggests that to enhance mobile phone social networking to ensure that timely and effective agricultural information is readily accessible to the small-scale (emerging) farmers. These include agricultural extension officers making optimal use of social networking via mobile phone, due to the strong interaction and trust between them and the farmers. This interaction can be instrumental in the effective use of this technology as a resourceful medium for accessing agricultural information to enhance productivity. Proper awareness and understanding of the potential and benefits of mobile social networking by the farmers will motivate the small-scale (emerging) farmers to use the technology for effective agricultural purposes. Also, ensuring the availability of agricultural information to small-scale (emerging) farmers by setting up on-line pages or websites to discuss matters of interest and educate and update farmers on agricultural issues should be encouraged. This may attract the younger generation and the youth to participate fully in agricultural activities - thereby enhancing agricultural development.

Although several studies have investigated commercial farmers’ risk preferences, there is still lack of information on the risk attitudes and risk preferences of smallholder farmers in South Africa. Risks associated with the adoption of new agricultural technology need to be explored in order to address the transition from homestead food gardening to smallholder irrigated farming. This study seeks to understand risk perception of smallholder irrigation farmers by linking constraints to commercialisation, adoption of new agricultural technologies and risk preferences of smallholder farmers in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The overall objective of this research is to determine risk preference patterns and attitudes that influence the transition from homestead food gardening to irrigated farming of smallholder farming systems in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. Specifically the study was to pursue the following objectives: (i) describe the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of smallholder farmers; (ii) describe existing farming systems among smallholder farmers in the study area; (iii) analyse the adoption of new agricultural technology by smallholder irrigation farmers; (iv) assess the risk perception of smallholder irrigation farmers and elicit farmers risk preferences, and (v) empirically analyse farmers sources of risk and risk management strategies. The outcome of this will inform policy formulation that have implications for technology adoption, increase smallholders capacity to bear risk and enable government and other role players have a clear understanding of smallholder farmers decisions. A total of 101 respondents were surveyed, consisting of 38 smallholder farmers and 63 homestead food gardeners in the Eastern Cape. Questionnaires were used to record household activities, socio-economic and institutional data as well as household demographics through personal interviews. The ordered probit model was applied due to the ordered nature of the dependent variable. The analysis was used to empirically analyse the determinants of farmers ‘risk preference status. The ordered probit model successfully estimated the significant variables associated with the farmer‘s adoption decisions. These were the farmer‘s age, household size, land size, locational setting, risk attitude, number of livestock (goats and chicken) and asset ownership. Homestead food gardeners were less risk averse that the smallholder farmers. Farmers who reside in the sub-wards Binfield and Battlefield were more likely to take risk than those who reside in Melani. This suggests the presence of local synergies in adoption which raises the question about the extent to which ignoring these influences biases policy conclusions. The negative correlation between land size and adoption implies that smaller farms appear to have greater propensity for adoption of new agricultural technology. This finding is supported by several studies reviewed in the literature that allude to the fact that homestead food gardeners tend to be smaller than smallholder farmers. By means of the Principal Component Analysis (PCA), seven principal components (PCs) that explained 66.13 percent of the variation were extracted. According to the loadings, the factors 1 to 7 can best be described as ‘financial and incentives index’, ‘input-output index’, ‘crop production index’, ‘labour bottleneck index’, ‘lack of production information index’, ‘lack of market opportunity index’, and ‘input availability index’ respectively. In general, price, production and financial risks were perceived as the most important sources of risk. Socio economic factors having a significant effect on the various sources of risk are age, gender, education, location, information access and risk taking ability. The most important traditional risk management strategies used by the surveyed smallholder farmers in Eastern Cape are crop diversification, precautionary savings and participating in social network. The findings are consistent with economic theory which postulates that in the absence of insurance markets, poor farm households tend to be risk averse and are reluctant to participate in farm investment decisions that are uncertain or involve higher risk.

This study looked at the opportunities and challenges faced in promoting smallholder farming as an element in rural economic development. The main objective is to highlight the key factors affecting smallholder production; and how those factors affect smallholder farmers in rural areas of Buffalo City Municipality, and hence identify the ones likely to predict success for future use in intervention programs. The content and scope of this study is limited to the socio-economic constraints (economic activities, household assets e.g. natural assets, physical assets, financial assets etc.) faced by rural households and therefore prescribe the necessary interventions to enhance rural livelihoods. Data was collected through review of secondary sources, direct observation through field visits and interviews with households. Questionnaires were used as the main tool of inquiry to gather data from households in selected villages within Buffalo City Municipality. The collected survey data was coded and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 19.0. The study used Descriptive, Gini Coefficient and Binary Logistics model to analyze the collected survey data. For the descriptive model, the main pointers that were employed for this study were frequencies and mean values. The Gini Coefficient model was used to measure the contribution of different sources of income to overall inequality. The binary logistic regression model was used to uncover the correlates of the household income for different rural groups (famers and non-farmers). The results reveal that farm income has a strong association to overall household income per capita. Unearned income sources also have a substantial contribution to household income. Remittances and child grants were significant to non-farming household income per capita. Given the diminishing farm size of smallholder-led agriculture; these results suggest that a diversified household income portfolio is vital in addressing poverty in rural areas. Based on the results this study concluded that agricultural activities cannot solely enhance food security.

Magister Artium - MA<br>Climate has been changing significantly around the globe; hence climate variability is of great interest to researchers. The changes in climate have caused variances in rainfall and temperature, both elements of paramount importance in farming, whether commercial or communal farming. As these fluctuations in temperature and rainfall occur, they cause direct impacts on different livelihoods, fauna and flora. The aim of this thesis is to investigate the human management responses of farmers in two different contexts of communal farming (Makolokwe) and commercial farming (Touws River valley), with a focus investigation on the adaptation and coping strategies of the farmers, as well as spatial analysis of the vegetation and rainfall variability. Farmers were asked to discuss climate and adaptation based on the rainfall data available as well as far as they could remember the occurrence of changes. Rainfall data was available between 1988 and 2017 for Touws River, while the data utilised for Makolokwe was available between 1928 and 2016. The link between the local knowledge of the farmers and scientific knowledge is an important aspect of this research. The Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was used to analyse the vegetation changes on a temporal and spatial scale in the context of Makolokwe and Touws River valley respectively. The differing variations in climate variability and change experienced by the two farming communities are placed alongside an exploration of the adaptation and coping measures which are put in place by farmers as a response to the changes evident in climate, as it allows for better and thorough understanding of the occurring changes in the two communities. The study found that perceptions about climate variability vary in the two communities although there are some common factors. Farmers’ perceptions about climate variability are drawn from their own observations at a local level as well as knowledge from the media regarding terms such as El Niño and drought. Farmers in both communities indicated that they experienced insufficient rain in the winter months which had an impact on the grazing areas and the management of the livestock. These months also threatened livelihoods, especially for farmers who depend on their livestock for their livelihood, in particular communal farmers. Perceptions of factors such as decreasing grazing and vegetation in their environments have led to the adoption of adaptation and coping strategies on the part of farmers. Commercial farmers have more choices in this regard than communal farmers, such as converting to game farming. Common coping strategies include: (1) farmers have had to subsidise and use alternative food sources for the livestock, (2) livestock numbers have been reduced in order to adapt to climate variability, with an impact on livelihoods (3) farmers have had to rely on their hope and faith that things will get better. Planning for climate variability is challenging for land managers. Knowledge and access to resources is therefore essential in ensuring that farmers are kept on track with the changing environment.

This study explores issues arising from the adoption of the term 'clean and green' for marketing New Zealand dairy products. Three dimensions of environmental quality were investigated: that of sustainable dairying and best practice for the benefit of farmers and the industry; resource management legislation and being a 'good neighbour'; and export marketing opportunities and issues. The study was undertaken during a time of major structural upheaval in the dairy industry, including yearly company amalgamations in the study area, rapid conversion of farmland to dairying, as well as factory expansion to process the increasing supply of product. The focus of the study was on the individual farmer, how perceptions and preferences are formed, and how in turn, these influence farm practice. World views drawn from Cultural Theory were adopted as the basis for analysis. Farmers were classified according to particular world views and the symbolic and reflexive use of concepts such as 'clean and green' was analysed. A model of overlapping ecological, agricultural and social systems was used to develop a wider understanding of preference formation. Through a mixed methodology, focusing on a case study approach, farmer and stakeholder world views were compared on key themes, including the 'clean green' pastoral myth, 'cues for care' and environmental issues. Media discourse as well as consumer views were used to expand understanding of the context. The study found that both farmers (within their groups) and stakeholders held different objectives and opinions on environmental issues and options for change, based on their various world views and preferences. There was general agreement both among farmers and stakeholders on the New Zealand 'clean green' image and 'cues for care', or signs that indicate good farm management. The reason for this was demonstrated to be the way in which these two aspects are communicated; through symbolic images that each individual perceived in terms of their respective world view. A symbolic form of action, an environmental management system, was trialled with farmers. Analysis indicated that national aspirations created by the 'clean green' pastoral myth required farmers to respond to environmental expectations, but that an image that symbolized environment as care and quality, rather than as place was needed to provide a less ambiguous goal. The findings of the trial were integrated with theory to interpret context and develop policy, strategy and action proposals for a system for environmental quality for the industry. The study has implications for non-regulatory mechanisms relevant to sustainable dairy farming, communication within the rural community, and branding.

Most smallholder farmers in South Africa are characterized by poor resources such as land, labour and capital while they play an important role in poverty alleviation especially in poor rural areas. Smallholder farmers are increasingly recognized because of their contribution to household food security. The world markets are increasingly being integrated due to globalization and liberalization. As a result, smallholder farmers are facing increasing market competition, not only in international markets but in local markets as well. However, smallholder farmers often face a number of barriers to accessing these markets arising in part from the tightening of food safety and quality standards requiring compliance with phytosanitary and sanitary standards and growing power of supply chain integration. Furthermore, the viability of these smallholder producers is constrained by institutional obstacles which include lack of access to information, high marketing and transaction costs and low quality and lack of critical volume in the absence of bulking up arrangements, etc. These barriers have contributed to the exclusion of smallholder/small-scale farmers from formal markets. In order to address these obstacles and speed up the pace of agrarian reform many support schemes (farmer support programmes) are now being designed to specifically address market access and value chain issues through unique co-innovation arrangements to improve the farmer’s access to profitable international chains. A number of farmer support programmes (FSP) have been implemented in South Africa to reduce the risk of a lack of capacity and a lack of economic and/or financial experience in smallholder farms. Intervention measures have been instituted to these smallholder farmers to assist them to move out of poverty through agricultural production. The aim of this study was to understand the roles played by farmer support programmes in addressing income and welfare levels and sustainability of smallholder farmers in South Africa. Eighty nine (89) farmers were interviewed for this study and almost half (49%) of them received support from various organizations while 51% of the sampled farmers did not receive any support. The study was designed to compare the two groups between the treated and control group to assess the impact of these programmes.Using a Tobit and Propensity Score Matching technique, potential diffusion effects were eliminated between farmers supported by Farmer Support Programmes and farmers that did not belong to support services. The latter was selected from comparable communities with no agricultural support services. Findings from the Tobit regression and propensity score matching are consistent across the two methods, suggesting that being a member of any agricultural support programme has a significant positive impact on income and welfare of smallholder farmers.Farmer Support Programmes and collective marketing activities such as the collection and sale of members’ products appear to have a significant and positive impact on smallholder welfare of those farmers engaged in them. In the second analysis the study tested the types of arrangements that farmers would adopt to market their produce. From the results it was established that those farmers who were supported by institutional arrangements or FSP had better access to markets than those farmers who operated as individuals. Marginal effects are used to show the degree to which farmers chose a particular marketing channel or institutional arrangement that these farmers take when trying to access better paying markets. Then the final analysis is on factors that determine the extent to which collective action contribute to farmers’ income and market access. A number of variables (age, distance to the market, region the farmers are located) were evaluated using the multinomial regression model. Empirical results suggest that among South African cooperatives, those established in KwaZulu-Natal and partly in the Eastern Cape and upon the voluntary initiative of farmers are more sustainable and have access to better paying markets both locally and internationally than the other areas. The results also show that NGO-supported cooperatives have a longer life span than Government controlled cooperatives.

Agriculture is the foundation of every country’s economy and is the cornerstone for rural and economic development, both in South Africa and internationally. Given the right technical support, emerging commercial farmers have the ability to produce fresh, quality produce, which complies with food safety standards and requirements. The challenge to meet the demand for food has led to an increase of the use of chemicals during all stages of production. Consumers’ health is at risk consuming this food and feed products. Food safety legislation is mainly influenced by consumers worldwide, thus impacting all farmers daily with new laws and legislation. Compliance with food safety laws would provide emerging commercial farmers access to local and international markets. Food safety compliance has an impact on the lifespan of emerging commercial farmers and sustainable farming, locally and in global agriculture. Food safety includes phytosanitary requirements; safety of food for human consumption; acceptable maximum and minimum residue levels; recall procedures of contaminated food; global market food safety requirements; origin of food safety policies and the financial effect of food safety non-compliance on farmers. Agriculture, rural and economic development are in direct correlation with food safety compliance during all stages of production of fresh fruit and vegetables. The importance of this research is to demonstrate the effect food safety criteria has on emerging commercial farmers and sustainable farming. Emerging commercial farmers should not only focus on production of commodities, but more attention should be given to food safety legislation and the compliance thereof in order to promote market access. The role of current and future extension advisory services is crucial to the existence of emerging commercial farmers, both in South Africa and internationally. Extension advisory services should place more focus on compliance with food safety compliance criteria in order to provide emerging commercial farmers and smallholder farmers’ access to markets. Consumer trends with regards to food safety should be a priority when extension services are rendered, with the efficient communication thereof. Extension advisory officials need to ensure emerging commercial farmers understand the content and context of food safety legislation and the effect on their farming systems. The main objective of the study was reached by means of observing that emerging commercial farmers’ need to register their farms at Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) for traceability of any food safety related issues. The high cost of food safety compliance, implementation challenges of food safety systems in farming operations and lack of knowledge prevents emerging commercial farmers from trade in local and export markets. The study was conducted in four provinces within South Africa namely: Western Cape, Eastern Cape, Gauteng and Northern Cape. In total, 80 respondents took part in the study.<br>Dissertation (MSc (Agric))--University of Pretoria, 2019.<br>Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development<br>MSc (Agric)<br>Unrestricted

The broad objective of the study was to investigate the limiting factors that prevent a breakthrough of emerging farmers to commercial agricultural farming industry. The research objectives were to describe the demographic characteristics such as age, education, farming skills and experience; determine the required support services needed; and inform the limiting factors that prevent breakthrough of emerging farmers to enter commercial agricultural industry. The study was conducted in King William’s Town area through structured questionnaires administered by the researcher. A sample of 50 emerging farmers was drawn in the area. The majority of households in the area depend on subsistence farming for household survival. Results indicated that emerging farmers are faced with poor physical infrastructure such as implements to better their production as well as low education levels which results as an inability to interpret market information to be used in production planning. It is also clear that the farmers face a lack of market infrastructure, poor roads, lack of market information, lack of transportation to markets and high transportation costs. The majority of the farmers were old and the youth was not engaged in agriculture. The findings showed that there is an insufficient role from government with regards to emerging farmer support and providing the required infrastructure to access markets or improving rural infrastructure. As a result the majority of the farmers are trapped in a cycle of poverty. The following policy recommendations are suggested: Financial services such as credit must be made available to emerging farmers at reasonable interest rates such as low interest rate subsidies to emerging farmers up until commercialisation. The requirements for emerging farmers to access loans, funding or credit should be restructured or adjusted to the ability of the farmer to repay the credit rather than the availability of title deeds or assets as collateral. Extension officers should regularly visit the localities were emerging farmers are farming have a better understanding of their farming areas, farming methods and improve their communication with the farmers. Lastly the land reform initiatives should be re-organised or developed if necessary to ensure efficient re-allocation of land. The policies should be developed to focus on both the individual farm plots and the collective rights.

The study was conducted in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa with the objective of characterising milk production and consumption among the communal households. A pretested semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data through a single visit survey between June 2014 and May 2015. The study was undertaken in five randomly selected communal districts using a multi – stage area probability sampling method. Household sample size was calculated using a statistical methodology through a fixed formula based on a rural population size of 4410000, at a confidence level of 95 percent. A total of 500 households were selected with a sample size of 20 households in 5 communities within five different communal districts within the province. Half of the total sample size was used to represent the number of non-milk producing households (250) to get a true reflection on consumption profiles for nonproducers. Across the province the average communal family size was between 5-10 members with a monthly income of ZAR1340 per household. On average, pasture land size of the sampled households was 1 ha, with a range of 0.25-1.7 ha. The numbers of animals per species found in the studied province was highest for sheep (310) followed by cattle (227) and goat (87). Average livestock holding per household in the study area was 9.85 TLU (Tropical Livestock Unit). According to the respondents the predominant milking livestock numbers were between 1-3 animals milking per household. In the studied area traditional hand milking of livestock was the major milking practices at 12 percent in goats, 15 percent in sheep and 45 percent in cattle milk production. Consumption was the predominant reason for milk production recorded at 27 percent across the province. Milk production was 43 percent most preferred in cattle followed by 32 percent in goat and least at 29 percent in sheep across the province. In general, from the study it was noted that the majority (38 percent) of the respondents across the province indicated 0-5mins as the time it took to milk most milk producing livestock. The majority of the milking practices was done (37 percent) predominantly once a day, followed by 2 percent twice daily across the province. The daily milk production was on average (0.45±1.07) 2-5 litre in cattle, (4.86±0.814) 0-1litre in goats and (2.62±0.42) 0-1 litre sheep per producing house hold with in the province The monthly raw milk consumption in the province was (2.20± 1.42) 2-5 litres of cattle milk, (4.78±0.79) 2-5 litres of goat milk and (4.98±0.69) 2-5 litres of sheep milk per consuming household.

Thesis (MScAgric (Agricultural Economics))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The rising demand of fish due to population growth coupled by stagnation of fish supply from natural capture has led the world to turn to aquaculture to fill in the gap between fish supply and demand. Aquaculture has emerged as the only sustainable way of supplying the rising population with fish. However the rapid expansion of aquaculture has been met with growing concerns over its environmental effects especially waste produced from aquaculture. The net cage system that is currently being used by small scale trout farmers in the Western Cape is an open water based system where release of waste into the water bodies is inevitable and this put into question the long term sustainability of trout farming using net cages in irrigation dams in the Western Cape. This study sought to compare identified production techniques that can be used by aquaculture farmers to reduce accumulation of organic waste in irrigation dams. The proposed ‘clean’ production techniques include use of net cages fitted with Lift-up system, semi intensive floating tank system (SIFTS) and intergrated aquaculture systems. The study revealed that the intergrated aquaculture system is the most effective way of recovering waste that shows great potential of moving aquaculture towards long term sustainability as it fullfills sustainability dimensions such as ‘zero emission’, nutrient recycling and integrated production. Mechanical methods of recovering waste such as Lift-up system and SIFTS are also effective in recovering particulate waste but however dissolved nutrients are lost into the environment. The study went on further to investigate if economic, environmental and social benefits of recovering waste from irrigation dams outweigh the costs of recovering waste using different production techniques. Models of small scale aquaculture farms using the three identified production techniques were developed and compared with a modelled small scale net cage farm where there was no waste recovery. A comparative financial analysis of the modelled small scale trout farms using alternative production techniques carried out showed that trout production using any of the three alternative ‘clean’ production techniques is financially viable with the SIFTS production technique giving the farmer the highest returns, followed by the intergrated system, then the net cage with a Lift-up system and lastly the net cage system without waste recovery. The second part of the study used the contingent valuation method to estimate the environmental and social benefits of removing waste from dams. Households revealed that they were willing to pay (WTP) R40 on average annually to improve water quality from a state where eutrophication had occurred to a state suitable for irrigation and aquaculture. To improve water quality from a state suitable for irrigation to a state suitable for swimming, households were willing to pay R16.67 annually. If water was to be improved from a state suitable for irrigation to a level suitable for domestic purposes, average willingness to pay (WTP) was R26.17 annually. WTP indicate that besides financial benefits associated with using ‘clean’ production techniques there are environmental and social benefits that will arise to the farm community using water from the irrigation dams.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die stygende vraag na vis as gevolg van bevolkingsgroei, tesame met die stagnering van die aanbod van vis vanaf natuurlike vangste het daartoe aanleiding gegee dat die oë van die wêreld op akwakultuur gerig is om die gaping in die voorsiening van vis te vul. Akwakultuur het ontwikkel as die enigste volhoubare manier om aan die groeiende vraag na vis te voldoen. Die vinnige uitbreiding van akwakultuur het egter toenemende besorgdheid in die nadelige omgewingsimpak, veral ten opsigte van akwakultuurafval, tot gevolg gehad. Die nethokstelsel wat tans deur kleinskaalse forelboere in die Wes-Kaap in oop watergebaseerde sisteme gebruik word en die vrystelling van afval in die wateromgewings wat onafwendbaar is, plaas ’n vraagteken oor die langtermyn volhoubaarheid van die nethokstelsel forelboerdery in besproeiingsdamme in die Wes- Kaap. Die studie het ten doel gehad om geïdentifiseerde produksiestelsels wat deur akwakultuurboere gebruik kan word om die akkummulasie van organiese afval in besproeiingsdamme te verminder, te vergelyk. Die voorgestelde “skoon” produksietegnieke sluit in nethokke wat aan ’n opligstelsel gekoppel word, ‘n semi-intensiewe drywende tenk- stelsel (“SIFTS system” in Engels) en ‘n geïntegreerde akwakultuurstelsel. Met hierdie studie is bevind dat die geïntegreerde stelsel die mees effektiewe manier is om afval te herwin en toon potensiaal om akwakultuur op ’n vohoubare pad te plaas aangesien dit aan die volhoubaarheidsdimensies van geen emissie, voedingstofherwinning en geïntegreerde produksie voldoen. Meganiese metodes van afvalherwinning soos die nethokopligstelsel en die SIFTS-stelsel is effektief in die herwinning van vastestofdeeltjies, maar opgeloste voedingstowwe word steeds in die omgewing vrygestel. Die studie het voorts ten doel gehad om te bepaal of die ekonomiese, omgewings- en sosiale voordele om afval uit besproeiingsdamme te herwin, groter is as die herwinningskoste van die verskillende produksietegnieke. Modelle van kleinskaalse akwakultuurplase wat die drie geïdentifiseerde produksiestelsels gebruik, is ontwikkel en aangewend om te vergelyk met ’n nethokstelsel waar geen afvalherwinning gedoen word nie. ’n Vergelykende finansiële ontleding van die gemodelleerde kleinskaalse forelboerderye met die verskillende produksietegnieke is gedoen en daar is bevind dat enige een van die drie “skoon” stelsels finansieel lewensvatbaar is, met die SIFTS-stelsel wat die hoogste vergoeding aan die boer bied, gevolg deur die geïntegreerde stelsel, dan die nethokke aan ’n opligstelsel en dan die nethokstelsel sonder afvalherwinning. Die tweede deel van die studie het van die voorwaardelike (“contingent”) waardasiemetode gebruik gemaak om die omgewings- en sosiale voordele om afval uit besproeiingsdamme te verwyder, te bepaal. Huishoudings het aangetoon dat hulle bereid sou wees om tot R40 per jaar te betaal om die waterkwaliteit te verbeter vanaf ’n toestand waar eutrifikasie plaasgevind het na ’n toestand waar die water vir besproeiing en akwakultuur geskik sou wees. Om die waterkwaliteit vanaf ’n toestand geskik vir besproeiing te verander na ’n toestand geskik om in te swem, sou huishoudings bereid wees om R16.67 per jaar te betaal. Indien water vanaf ’n toestand geskik vir besproeiing verander sou word na ’n toestand geskik vir huishoudelike gebruik, sou huishoudings gewillig wees om jaarliks R26.17 te betaal. Die “gewilligheid om te betaal” dui aan dat daar bo en behalwe die finansiële voordele om van “skoon” produksietegnieke gebruik te maak, ook omgewings- en sosiale voordele vir die plaasgemeenskap bestaan met die gebruik van die water uit die besproeiingsdamme.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD<br>A major and unresolved challenge facing South Africa’s post-apartheid government, is how best to overcome the historical injustices of land dispossession and the resultant poverty now found in the communal areas of the former 'homelands'. In line with the South African government’s hybrid of neo-liberal and social welfare approaches to development, one important strategy for addressing these challenges has so far been the promotion of inclusive business models such as joint ventures (JVs), especially in the context of land restitution claims, but also in communal areas. This study explores the impacts of the JV model on livelihoods and land rights and use, and engages with key debates regarding the dynamics of class formation in the former 'homelands' of South Africa. The study undertakes a comparative analysis of two Joint Venture (JV) dairy farms, involving the same agribusiness partner, Amadlelo Agri. The farms are located on irrigation schemes in the former Ciskei of South Africa’s Eastern Cape Province. The JVs involve residents from the rural settlements of Keiskammahoek and Shiloh, as both landowners and workers. The comparative case study presented here illustrates quite divergent outcomes when the same JV model is implemented in different rural settlements, most powerfully because of differences in the class structure of each settlement. Class analysis helps to explain the more intense intragroup conflicts that have emerged around the JV in Shiloh. Intragroup dynamics and conflicts, which have historical roots extending beyond the implementation of the JV intervention, are also critical to understanding divergent outcomes. A class-analytic approach assists in understanding the tensions that the JV model of capitalist farming generates in relation to household reproduction, in a class-differentiated manner. The sole focus in much of the literature on agricultural investments has been on relationships between agribusiness, and what are too often portrayed as homogenous 'communities’. However, this thesis illustrates that this approach is misleading when applied to analysis of the real politics on the ground. Struggles over jobs, dividends and land take place within highly differentiated communities. Investigating the inter- and intra-household distribution of JV benefits and risks is central to understanding the impacts of the JV on livelihoods and incomes, and also the emerging contentions and conflicts. To this end, I explore how class interacts with other aspects of social difference, particularly gender, kinship, ethnicity, race, generation and religious affiliation. A class-analytic approach is significant because it illuminates the emerging agrarian class structure that a JV-type intervention both reflects and in turn conditions, in dialectical fashion. It thus allows exploration of the implications of the JV model for wider processes of agrarian change in South Africa. Although there is evidence of livelihood benefits being derived by some households, as well as limited opportunities for accumulation, the JV model does not appear to stimulate the emergence of a class of productive black farmers. Significantly, the study could not identify any households as 'middle farmers', reliant on 'accumulation from below', which many authors consider to be a more progressive, dynamic and desirable pathway of agrarian reform. The JV model is at risk of equating ‘black emerging farmers’ with a group of customary landowners, who are in reality workers and 'passive recipients' of JV dividends and land rents.