Zeitschriftenartikel: „Carbon sinks or sources“

1

Quirk, Tom. „Sources and Sinks of Carbon Dioxide“. Energy & Environment 20, Nr. 1 (Januar 2009): 105–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1260/095830509787689123.

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2

Cole, C. Vernon, Klaus Flach, Jeffrey Lee, Dieter Sauerbeck und Bobby Stewart. „Agricultural sources and sinks of carbon“. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 70, Nr. 1-4 (Oktober 1993): 111–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01104991.

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3

Wang, Mi, Zhuowei Hu, Xuetong Wang, Xiaojuan Li, Yongcai Wang, Honghao Liu, Chaoqi Han, Junhao Cai und Wenji Zhao. „Spatio-Temporal Variation of Carbon Sources and Sinks in the Loess Plateau under Different Climatic Conditions and Land Use Types“. Forests 14, Nr. 8 (14.08.2023): 1640. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/f14081640.

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The carbon balance of terrestrial ecosystems is intertwined with climate and changes in land use. Over the past 30 years, the Loess Plateau (LP) has experienced temperature increases and an expansion of forest and grassland. The net ecosystem productivity (NEP) underlying these changes is worth investigating. Using three periods (i.e., 1990–2000, 2000–2010, and 2010–2019) of annual average NEP and climatic, topographic, and land use data, we analyzed changes in the spatial distribution of carbon sources and sinks of the LP. Using an optimal parameter-based geographical detector model to discuss the driving factors of carbon sources and sinks, we found that: (1) The area of carbon sinks has been increasing continuously, and that the distributions of both of these elements are zonal. The carbon sinks show a downward trend from south to north, which is mainly driven by climate and land use type. (2) Carbon sources are mainly concentrated in the middle temperate zone, and they are mainly linked to impervious land, unused land, and grassland. The carbon sinks are mainly concentrated in the south temperate zone and plateau climatic zone, and they are mainly linked to forest, grassland, and cultivated land. Additionally, the southern temperate zone has been the most green, due to its superior hydrothermal conditions that sustain carbon sinks. (3) It is not uncommon for some forests, grasslands, and cultivated land to transition between being carbon sources and carbon sinks, especially when affected by human intervention and inadequate management measures. (4) NEP was primarily influenced by CO2 concentration, temperature, and precipitation, and the interaction of these factors greatly influenced the dynamics of carbon sources and sinks, while terrain exerted insignificant impacts on the NEP. This study highlights the importance of the carbon balance in terrestrial ecosystems and can be used to guide the creation of vegetation-based carbon sequestration policies.

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Jiang, F., H. Wang, J. M. Chen, W. Ju und A. Ding. „Nested atmospheric inversion for the terrestrial carbon sources and sinks in China“. Biogeosciences Discussions 10, Nr. 1 (25.01.2013): 1177–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-10-1177-2013.

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Abstract. In this study, we establish a~nested atmospheric inversion system with a focus on China using the Bayes theory. The global surface is separated into 43 regions based on the 22 TransCom large regions, with 13 small regions in China. Monthly CO2 concentrations from 130 GlobalView sites and a Hong Kong site are used in this system. The core component of this system is atmospheric transport matrix, which is created using the TM5 model with a horizontal resolution of 3° × 2°. The net carbon fluxes over the 43 global land and ocean regions are inverted for the period from 2002 to 2009. The inverted global terrestrial carbon sinks mainly occur in Boreal Asia, South and Southeast Asia, eastern US and southern South America (SA). Most China areas appear to be carbon sinks, with strongest carbon sinks located in Northeast China. From 2002 to 2009, the global terrestrial carbon sink has an increasing trend, with the lowest carbon sink in 2002. The inter-annual variation (IAV) of the land sinks shows remarkable correlation with the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). However, no obvious trend is found for the terrestrial carbon sinks in China. The IAVs of carbon sinks in China show strong relationship with drought and temperature. The mean global and China terrestrial carbon sinks over the period 2002–2009 are −3.15 ± 1.48 and −0.21 ± 0.23 Pg C yr−1, respectively. The uncertainties in the posterior carbon flux of China are still very large, mostly due to the lack of CO2 measurement data in China.

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Fodrie, F. Joel, Antonio B. Rodriguez, Rachel K. Gittman, Jonathan H. Grabowski, Niels L. Lindquist, Charles H. Peterson, Michael F. Piehler und Justin T. Ridge. „Oyster reefs as carbon sources and sinks“. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 284, Nr. 1859 (26.07.2017): 20170891. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.0891.

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Carbon burial is increasingly valued as a service provided by threatened vegetated coastal habitats. Similarly, shellfish reefs contain significant pools of carbon and are globally endangered, yet considerable uncertainty remains regarding shellfish reefs' role as sources (+) or sinks (−) of atmospheric CO 2 . While CO 2 release is a by-product of carbonate shell production (then burial), shellfish also facilitate atmospheric-CO 2 drawdown via filtration and rapid biodeposition of carbon-fixing primary producers. We provide a framework to account for the dual burial of inorganic and organic carbon, and demonstrate that decade-old experimental reefs on intertidal sandflats were net sources of CO 2 (7.1 ± 1.2 MgC ha −1 yr −1 (µ ± s.e.)) resulting from predominantly carbonate deposition, whereas shallow subtidal reefs (−1.0 ± 0.4 MgC ha −1 yr −1 ) and saltmarsh-fringing reefs (−1.3 ± 0.4 MgC ha −1 yr −1 ) were dominated by organic-carbon-rich sediments and functioned as net carbon sinks (on par with vegetated coastal habitats). These landscape-level differences reflect gradients in shellfish growth, survivorship and shell bioerosion. Notably, down-core carbon concentrations in 100- to 4000-year-old reefs mirrored experimental-reef data, suggesting our results are relevant over centennial to millennial scales, although we note that these natural reefs appeared to function as slight carbon sources (0.5 ± 0.3 MgC ha −1 yr −1 ). Globally, the historical mining of the top metre of shellfish reefs may have reintroduced more than 400 000 000 Mg of organic carbon into estuaries. Importantly, reef formation and destruction do not have reciprocal, counterbalancing impacts on atmospheric CO 2 since excavated organic material may be remineralized while shell may experience continued preservation through reburial. Thus, protection of existing reefs could be considered as one component of climate mitigation programmes focused on the coastal zone.

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Volbers, Andrea, C. Heinze und Carboocean Consortium. „CARBOOCEAN – marine carbon sources and sinks assessment“. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 6, Nr. 4 (01.01.2009): 042034. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1307/6/4/042034.

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7

Lawn, Chris, und Jon Gluyas. „Novel energy sources and carbon sinks underground“. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part A: Journal of Power and Energy 232, Nr. 1 (Februar 2018): 3–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0957650918756961.

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8

Canadell, Pep, C. Lequre, M. Raupach, P. Ciais, T. Conway, C. Field, S. Houghton und G. Marland. „Global carbon sources and sinks: 2007 update“. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 6, Nr. 8 (01.02.2009): 082001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1307/6/8/082001.

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9

Jiang, F., H. W. Wang, J. M. Chen, L. X. Zhou, W. M. Ju, A. J. Ding, L. X. Liu und W. Peters. „Nested atmospheric inversion for the terrestrial carbon sources and sinks in China“. Biogeosciences 10, Nr. 8 (06.08.2013): 5311–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-5311-2013.

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Abstract. In this study, we establish a nested atmospheric inversion system with a focus on China using the Bayesian method. The global surface is separated into 43 regions based on the 22 TransCom large regions, with 13 small regions in China. Monthly CO2 concentrations from 130 GlobalView sites and 3 additional China sites are used in this system. The core component of this system is an atmospheric transport matrix, which is created using the TM5 model with a horizontal resolution of 3° × 2°. The net carbon fluxes over the 43 global land and ocean regions are inverted for the period from 2002 to 2008. The inverted global terrestrial carbon sinks mainly occur in boreal Asia, South and Southeast Asia, eastern America and southern South America. Most China areas appear to be carbon sinks, with strongest carbon sinks located in Northeast China. From 2002 to 2008, the global terrestrial carbon sink has an increasing trend, with the lowest carbon sink in 2002. The inter-annual variation (IAV) of the land sinks shows remarkable correlation with the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The terrestrial carbon sinks in China also show an increasing trend. However, the IAV in China is not the same as that of the globe. There is relatively stronger land sink in 2002, lowest sink in 2006, and strongest sink in 2007 in China. This IAV could be reasonably explained with the IAVs of temperature and precipitation in China. The mean global and China terrestrial carbon sinks over the period 2002–2008 are −3.20 ± 0.63 and −0.28 ± 0.18 PgC yr−1, respectively. Considering the carbon emissions in the form of reactive biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) and from the import of wood and food, we further estimate that China's land sink is about −0.31 PgC yr−1.

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Hu, Quanxu, Jinhe Zhang, Huaju Xue, Jingwei Wang und Aiqing Li. „Spatiotemporal Variations in Carbon Sources and Sinks in National Park Ecosystem and the Impact of Tourism“. Sustainability 16, Nr. 18 (10.09.2024): 7895. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su16187895.

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The capacity of carbon sinks varies among the different types of ecosystems, and whether national parks, as an important type of nature reserve, have a high carbon sink capacity (CSC) and whether eco-tourism in national parks affects their CSC are the main scientific issues discussed. Using MODIS Net Primary Production (NPP) product data, this study analysed the spatiotemporal variation in carbon sources and sinks (CSSs) in the ecosystem of Huangshan National Park from 2000 to 2020, as well as the impact of tourism on these carbon sources and sinks. The findings indicate that, while the ecosystems of national parks generally have a strong CSC, they may not always function as carbon sinks, and during the study period, Huangshan National Park served as a carbon source for four years. Temporally, the CSSs in the ecosystem of the national park exhibit a cyclical pattern of change with a four-year cycle and strong seasonality, with spring and autumn functioning as carbon sinks, and summer and winter as carbon sources. Spatially, the CSSs of the national park ecosystem exhibited a vertical band spectrum of spatial distribution, and the CSC showed a trend of gradual enhancement from low altitude to high altitude. Tourism is a major factor that has an impact on the CSC of national park ecosystems.

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11

Taylor, JA, und J. Lloyd. „Sources and Sinks of Atmospheric CO2“. Australian Journal of Botany 40, Nr. 5 (1992): 407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt9920407.

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The biosphere plays an important role in determining the sources, sinks, levels and rates of change of atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Significant uncertainties remain in estimates of the fluxes of CO2 from biomass burning and deforestation, and uptake and storage of CO2 by the biosphere arising from increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Calculation of probable rates of carbon sequestration for the major ecosystem complexes and global 3-D tracer transport model runs indicate the possibility that a significant net CO2 uptake (> 1 Pg C yr-1), a CO2 'fertilisation effect', may be occurring in tropical rainforests, effectively accounting for much of the 'missing sink'. This sink may currently balance much of the CO2 added to the atmosphere from deforestation and biomass burning. Interestingly, CO2 released from biomass burning may itself be playing an important role in enhanced carbon storage by tropical rainforests. This has important implications for predicting future CO2 concentrations. If tropical rainforest destruction continues then much of the CO2 stored as a result of the CO2 'fertilisation effect' will be rereleased to the atmosphere and much of the 'missing sink' will disappear. These effects have not been considered in the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) projections of future atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Predictions which take account of the combined effects of deforestation, the return of carbon previously stored through the CO2 'fertilisation effect' and the loss of a large proportion of the 'missing sink' as a result of deforestation, would result in much higher predicted concentrations and rates of increase of atmospheric CO2 and, as a consequence, accelerated rates of climate change.

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Liu, Xiaochen, Shuai Wang, Qianlai Zhuang, Xinxin Jin, Zhenxing Bian, Mingyi Zhou, Zhuo Meng et al. „A Review on Carbon Source and Sink in Arable Land Ecosystems“. Land 11, Nr. 4 (14.04.2022): 580. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land11040580.

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Arable land ecosystems are among the most important terrestrial systems. The issues of carbon sequestration and emission reductions in arable land ecosystems have received extensive attention. Countries around the world have actively issued policies to manage arable land ecosystems. At present, more than 100 countries have made carbon neutralization target commitments. Various arable land management measures and arable land planting strategies have important impacts on the carbon storage of arable land ecosystems. Research on arable land carbon is of great significance to global climate change. This study attempts to investigate the problems and deficiencies in the current research by summarizing a number of studies, including the main methods for the quantitative research of carbon sources and sinks as well as the influencing factors in these ecosystems. In this study, it is found that due to the differences of climate patterns, soil properties and management practices in arable land ecosystems, the factors affecting carbon sources and sinks are of great heterogeneity and complexity. Generally, variations in natural factors affect the carbon balance in different regions, while human management measures, such as irrigation, fertilization and the degree of agricultural mechanization, are the leading factors causing changes to carbon sources and sinks in these ecosystems. In addition, there are still great uncertainties in the evaluation of carbon sources and sinks in these ecosystems caused by different estimation models and methods. Therefore, emphasis should be placed on model parameter acquisition and method optimization in the future. This review provides a scientific basis for understanding carbon sources and sinks in arable land ecosystems, enhancing their carbon sink capacity and guiding low-carbon agriculture on arable land.

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Houghton, R. A., und S. J. Goetz. „New Satellites Help Quantify Carbon Sources and Sinks“. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 89, Nr. 43 (21.10.2008): 417–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo430001.

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14

Fatichi, Simone, Christoforos Pappas, Jakob Zscheischler und Sebastian Leuzinger. „Modelling carbon sources and sinks in terrestrial vegetation“. New Phytologist 221, Nr. 2 (19.10.2018): 652–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nph.15451.

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15

Cihlar, Josef, Scott Denning, Frank Ahem, Olivier Arino, Alan Belward, Francis Bretherton, Wolfgang Cramer et al. „Initiative to quantify terrestrial carbon sources and sinks“. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 83, Nr. 1 (2002): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002eo000002.

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16

Wu, Yanyou, und Yansheng Wu. „The Increase in the Karstification–Photosynthesis Coupled Carbon Sink and Its Implication for Carbon Neutrality“. Agronomy 12, Nr. 9 (09.09.2022): 2147. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12092147.

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Two of the most important CO2 sequestration processes on Earth are plant photosynthesis and rock chemical dissolution. Photosynthesis is undoubtedly the most important biochemical reaction and carbon sink processes on Earth. Karst geological action does not produce net carbon sinks. Photosynthesis and karstification in nature are coupled. Karstification–photosynthesis coupling can stabilize and increase the capacity of karstic and photosynthetic carbon sinks. Bidirectional isotope tracer culture technology can quantify the utilization of different inorganic carbon sources by plants. Bicarbonate utilization by plants is a driver of karstification–photosynthesis coupling, which depends on plant species and the environment. Carbonic anhydrase, as a pivot of karstification–photosynthesis coupling, can promote inorganic carbon assimilation in plants and the dissolution of carbonate rocks. Karst-adaptable plants can efficiently promote root-derived bicarbonate and atmospheric carbon dioxide use by plants, finally achieving the conjugate promotion of karstic carbon sinks and photosynthetic carbon sinks. Strengthening karstification–photosynthesis coupling and developing karst-adaptable plants will greatly improve the capacity of carbon sinks in karst ecosystems and better serve the “Carbon peak and Carbon neutralization” goals of China.

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Sierra, Carlos A., Susan E. Crow, Martin Heimann, Holger Metzler und Ernst-Detlef Schulze. „The climate benefit of carbon sequestration“. Biogeosciences 18, Nr. 3 (11.02.2021): 1029–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-1029-2021.

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Abstract. Ecosystems play a fundamental role in climate change mitigation by photosynthetically fixing carbon from the atmosphere and storing it for a period of time in organic matter. Although climate impacts of carbon emissions by sources can be quantified by global warming potentials, the appropriate formal metrics to assess climate benefits of carbon removals by sinks are unclear. We introduce here the climate benefit of sequestration (CBS), a metric that quantifies the radiative effect of fixing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and retaining it for a period of time in an ecosystem before releasing it back as the result of respiratory processes and disturbances. In order to quantify CBS, we present a formal definition of carbon sequestration (CS) as the integral of an amount of carbon removed from the atmosphere stored over the time horizon it remains within an ecosystem. Both metrics incorporate the separate effects of (i) inputs (amount of atmospheric carbon removal) and (ii) transit time (time of carbon retention) on carbon sinks, which can vary largely for different ecosystems or forms of management. These metrics can be useful for comparing the climate impacts of carbon removals by different sinks over specific time horizons, to assess the climate impacts of ecosystem management, and to obtain direct quantifications of climate impacts as the net effect of carbon emissions by sources versus removals by sinks.

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Zhang, Junxiang, Chengfang Zhang, Heng Dong, Liwen Zhang und Sicong He. „Spatial–Temporal Change Analysis and Multi-Scenario Simulation Prediction of Land-Use Carbon Emissions in the Wuhan Urban Agglomeration, China“. Sustainability 15, Nr. 14 (14.07.2023): 11021. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su151411021.

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In the context of global warming, the Wuhan Urban Agglomeration is actively responding to China’s carbon peak and carbon neutrality goals and striving to achieve a reduction in carbon sources and an increase in carbon sinks. Therefore, it is critical to investigate carbon emissions from land use. This study uses the carbon emission coefficient method to calculate carbon emissions from land use in the Wuhan Urban Agglomeration, analyzes its temporal and spatial changes and differences in urban structure, and couples with the Markov–PLUS model to simulate and predict the carbon emissions of four scenarios of land use in 2035. The research found the following: (1) during the Wuhan “1+8” City Circle stage, carbon sources and emissions increased steadily, with average annual growth rates of 1.92% and 1.99%, respectively. Carbon sinks remained stable and then decreased, with an average annual growth rate of −0.46%. (2) During the Wuhan Metropolitan Area stage—except for 2020 and 2021, which were affected by COVID-19—carbon sources, sinks, and emissions continued to grow in general, and the average annual growth rates increased to 4.46%, 1.58%, and 4.51%, respectively. (3) In terms of urban structure differences, Wuhan is a high-carbon optimization zone; Xianning, Huangshi, and Huanggang are ecological protection zones; other cities, such as Ezhou, Xiaogan, and Xiantao are comprehensive optimization zones; and there is no low-carbon development zone. (4) The multi-scenario simulation results show that carbon sources and emissions are the highest under the economic development scenario, with values of 100.2952 and 9858.83 million tons, respectively, followed by cropland protection, natural development, and low-carbon development scenarios. Under low-carbon development, carbon sinks were the highest, with values of 1.9709 million tons, followed by natural development, economic development, and cropland protection scenarios. The research results are conducive to the formulation of carbon peak and neutrality goals as well as low-carbon development plans for the Wuhan Urban Agglomeration.

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Wei, Wang, Zhao Xin-gang, Lu Wenjie und Hu Shuran. „The sustainable development of a low-carbon system using a system dynamics model: A case study of China“. Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy 15, Nr. 1 (Januar 2023): 015902. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0130437.

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With the process of economic transformation and structural adjustment, low-carbon development has become an intrinsic and realistic demand for China's national economic and social development. This paper builds a system dynamic (SD) model of China's low-carbon development based on the internal influencing mechanisms of carbon sources, carbon flows, and carbon sinks, and then explores the impact of carbon sources, carbon flows, and carbon sinks system on carbon emissions under different scenarios. The model in our study is effective and practical, and it can not only clearly demonstrate the interaction mechanism between various systems but also provide effective policy recommendations for policymakers. The results show that (1) with the steady growth of the economy, China's total energy consumption and carbon emissions have increased significantly. By 2025, the total energy consumption will reach 628 798 ten thousand tons, and the carbon emissions will reach 689 257 ten thousand tons; (2) as for energy and industrial structure, on the one hand, energy restructuring is more effective in reducing carbon emissions than is industrial restructuring; (3) carbon sinks also play an important role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

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Le Quéré, Corinne, Michael R. Raupach, Josep G. Canadell, Gregg Marland, Laurent Bopp, Philippe Ciais, Thomas J. Conway et al. „Trends in the sources and sinks of carbon dioxide“. Nature Geoscience 2, Nr. 12 (17.11.2009): 831–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo689.

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21

Jeansson, Emil, Are Olsen, Tor Eldevik, Ingunn Skjelvan, Abdirahman M. Omar, Siv K. Lauvset, Jan Even Ø. Nilsen, Richard G. J. Bellerby, Truls Johannessen und Eva Falck. „The Nordic Seas carbon budget: Sources, sinks, and uncertainties“. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 25, Nr. 4 (Dezember 2011): n/a. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010gb003961.

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Han, Xuesong, Huanggen Gao und Yuan Zheng. „Research on Optimization of Sichuan Province National Territory Spatial Planning Based on Carbon Neutrality“. E3S Web of Conferences 283 (2021): 02019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202128302019.

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The functional structure of territorial space is an important factor affecting the regional carbon cycle. The article explores the interaction mechanism between the functional structure of territorial space and carbon sources and carbon sinks, constructs a model for measuring and calculating territorial spatial carbon sources and carbon sinks, and investigates land changes in Sichuan Province, etc. Based on the data, the spatial carbon emission and absorption of Sichuan from 2010 to 2017 were calculated, and the carbon source carbon aggregate amount, structural composition and intensity change trend were analysed. The results show that changes in the spatial land use structure of Sichuan are closely related to carbon emissions, and the increase in construction land is the main reason for the substantial increase in carbon emissions. Finally, in combination with the vision and goals of "carbon neutrality", relevant optimization suggestions were put forward for the land and space planning of Sichuan Province.

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Tu, Haiyang, Guli Jiapaer, Tao Yu, Liancheng Zhang, Bojian Chen, Kaixiong Lin und Xu Li. „Effects of Land Cover Change on Vegetation Carbon Source/Sink in Arid Terrestrial Ecosystems of Northwest China, 2001–2018“. Remote Sensing 15, Nr. 9 (08.05.2023): 2471. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs15092471.

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The arid terrestrial ecosystem carbon cycle is one of the most important parts of the global carbon cycle, but it is vulnerable to external disturbances. As the most direct factor affecting the carbon cycle, how land cover change affects vegetation carbon sources/sinks in arid terrestrial ecosystems remains unclear. In this study, we chose the arid region of northwest China (ARNWC) as the study area and used net ecosystem productivity (NEP) as an indicator of vegetation carbon source/sink. Subsequently, we described the spatial distribution and temporal dynamics of vegetation carbon sources/sinks in the ARNWC from 2001–2018 by combining the Carnegie-Ames-Stanford Approach (CASA) and a soil microbial heterotrophic respiration (RH) model and assessed the effects of land cover change on them through modeling scenario design. We found that land cover change had an obvious positive impact on vegetation carbon sinks. Among them, the effect of land cover type conversion contributed to an increase in total NEP of approximately 1.77 Tg C (reaching 15.55% of the original value), and after simultaneously considering the effect of vegetation growth enhancement, it contributed to an increase in total NEP of approximately 14.75 Tg C (reaching 129.61% of the original value). For different land cover types, cropland consistently contributed the most to the increment of NEP, and the regeneration of young and middle-aged forests also led to a significant increase in forest carbon sinks. Thus, our findings provide a reference for assessing the effects of land cover change on vegetation carbon sinks, and they indicated that cropland expansion and anthropogenic management dominated the growth of vegetation carbon sequestration in the ARNWC, that afforestation also benefits the carbon sink capacity of terrestrial ecosystems, and that attention should be paid to restoring and protecting native vegetation in forestland and grassland regions in the future.

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Busse, Lilian B., und Günter Gunkel. „Riparian alder fens — source or sink for nutrients and dissolved organic carbon? — 2. Major sources and sinks“. Limnologica 32, Nr. 1 (Mai 2002): 44–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0075-9511(02)80016-0.

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25

Lin, Fengzeng, Yu Shao, Haibo Guo, Ruihong Yan, Chen Wang und Bolun Zhao. „Carbon Emissions and Intensity of Land Use: A Rural Setting Analysis in Ningde City, China“. Land 13, Nr. 6 (29.05.2024): 767. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land13060767.

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Carbon emissions and land use intensity serve as crucial indicators of land management. This paper proposes a methodological framework to elucidate the sustainability of carbon emissions in rural areas via a coordination model, scrutinizes the correlation with land use intensity, and investigates the significance of influential factors. The study focuses on village-level units within Ningde City, and finds the pronounced spatial heterogeneity characterizing the distribution of carbon emissions across different villages: (1) Villages exhibiting high levels of carbon emissions are predominantly concentrated in the southeast region, whereas those with low carbon emission levels are primarily clustered in the northwest region. The majority of the villages serve as net carbon emission sources. (2) Spatial disparities exist in the impact of land use intensity on economic benefits from carbon sources, ecological benefits from carbon sinks, and carbon emission sustainability. (3) Significant variations exist in the influence of factors affecting land use intensity, economic benefits of carbon sources, ecological benefits of carbon sinks, and the sustainability of carbon emissions in rural areas. These findings could guide governments in implementing distinct land use control policies and provide a framework for assessing carbon emission sustainability within land management strategies.

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Zhang, Qifei, Yaning Chen, Zhi Li, Congjian Sun, Yanyun Xiang und Zhihui Liu. „Spatio-Temporal Development of Vegetation Carbon Sinks and Sources in the Arid Region of Northwest China“. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, Nr. 4 (17.02.2023): 3608. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20043608.

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Drylands, which account for 41% of Earth’s land surface and are home to more than two billion people, play an important role in the global carbon balance. This study analyzes the spatio-temporal patterns of vegetation carbon sinks and sources in the arid region of northwest China (NWC), using the net ecosystem production (NEP) through the Carnegie–Ames–Stanford approach (CASA). It quantitatively evaluates regional ecological security over a 20-year period (2000–2020) via a remote sensing ecological index (RSEI) and other ecological indexes, such as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), fraction of vegetation cover (FVC), net primary productivity (NPP), and land use. The results show that the annual average carbon capacity of vegetation in NWC changed from carbon sources to carbon sinks, and the vegetation NEP increased at a rate of 1.98 gC m−2 yr−1 from 2000 to 2020. Spatially, the annual NEP in northern Xinjiang (NXJ), southern Xinjiang (SXJ) and Hexi Corridor (HX) increased at even faster rates of 2.11, 2.22, and 1.98 gC m−2 yr−1, respectively. Obvious geographically heterogeneous distributions and changes occurred in vegetation carbon sinks and carbon sources. Some 65.78% of the vegetation areas in NWC were carbon sources during 2000–2020, which were concentrated in the plains, and SXJ, the majority carbon sink areas are located in the mountains. The vegetation NEP in the plains exhibited a positive trend (1.21 gC m−2 yr−1) during 2000–2020, but this speed has slowed since 2010. The vegetation NEP in the mountain exhibited only intermittent changes (2.55 gC m−2 yr−1) during 2000–2020; it exhibited a negative trend during 2000–2010, but this trend has reversed strongly since 2010. The entire ecological security of NWC was enhanced during the study period. Specifically, the RSEI increased from 0.34 to 0.49, the NDVI increased by 0.03 (17.65%), the FVC expanded by 19.56%, and the NPP increased by 27.44%. Recent positive trends in NDVI, FVC and NPP have enhanced the capacity of vegetation carbon sinks, and improved the eco-environment of NWC. The scientific outcomes of this study are of great importance for maintaining ecological stability and sustainable economic development along China’s Silk Road Economic Belt.

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Pasarai, Usman, Utomo Pratama Iskandar, Sugihardjo Sugihardjo und Herru Lastiadi S. „A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO SOURCE-SINK MATCHING FOR CO2 EOR AND SEQUESTRATION“. Scientific Contributions Oil and Gas 36, Nr. 1 (15.02.2022): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.29017/scog.36.1.640.

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Carbon dioxide for enhanced oil recovery (CO2 EOR) can magnify oil production substantially while aconsistent amount of the CO2 injected remains sequestrated in the reservoir, which is benefi cial for reducingthe greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. The success of CO2 EOR sequestration depends on the proper sourcessinksintegration. This paper presents a systematic approach to pairing the CO2 captured from industrialactivities with oil reservoirs in South Sumatra basin for pilot project. Inventories of CO2 sources and oilreservoirs were done through survey and data questionnaires. The process of sources-sinks matching waspreceded by scoring and ranking of sources and sinks using criteria specifi cally developed for CO2 EORand sequestration. The top candidate of CO2 sources are matched to several best sinks that correspond toadded value, timing, injectivity, containment, and proximity. Two possible scenarios emerge for the initialpilot where the CO2 will be supplied from the gas gathering station (GGS) while the H3 and F21 oil fi eldsas the sinks. The pilot is intended to facilitate further commercial deployment of CO2 EOR sequestrationin the South Sumatera basin that was confi rmed has abundant EOR and storage sinks as well as industrialCO2 sources.

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Houghton, R. A. „Terrestrial sources and sinks of carbon inferred from terrestrial data“. Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology 48, Nr. 4 (Januar 1996): 420–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/tellusb.v48i4.15923.

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Chen, Jing M., Weimin Ju, Josef Cihlar, David Price, Jane Liu, Wenjun Chen, Jianjun Pan, Andy Black und Alan Barr. „Spatial distribution of carbon sources and sinks in Canada’s forests“. Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology 55, Nr. 2 (Januar 2003): 622–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/tellusb.v55i2.16711.

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HOUGHTON, R. A. „Terrestrial sources and sinks of carbon inferred from terrestrial data“. Tellus B 48, Nr. 4 (September 1996): 420–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0889.1996.t01-3-00002.x.

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CHEN, JING M., WEIMIN JU, JOSEF CIHLAR, DAVID PRICE, JANE LIU, WENJUN CHEN, JIANJUN PAN, ANDY BLACK und ALAN BARR. „Spatial distribution of carbon sources and sinks in Canada's forests“. Tellus B 55, Nr. 2 (April 2003): 622–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0889.2003.00036.x.

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Van Miegroet, Helga, und Robert Jandl. „Are Nitrogen-Fertilized Forest Soils Sinks or Sources of Carbon?“ Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 128, Nr. 1-3 (16.12.2006): 121–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10661-006-9410-7.

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Liski, J., T. Karjalainen, A. Pussinen, G. J. Nabuurs und P. Kauppi. „Trees as carbon sinks and sources in the European Union“. Environmental Science & Policy 3, Nr. 2-3 (April 2000): 91–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1462-9011(00)00020-4.

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Wang, S., J. M. Chen, W. M. Ju, X. Feng, M. Chen, P. Chen und G. Yu. „Carbon sinks and sources in China's forests during 1901–2001“. Journal of Environmental Management 85, Nr. 3 (November 2007): 524–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.09.019.

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Li, Xiang, Gang Lin, Dong Jiang, Jingying Fu und Yaxin Wang. „Spatiotemporal Evolution Characteristics and the Climatic Response of Carbon Sources and Sinks in the Chinese Grassland Ecosystem from 2010 to 2020“. Sustainability 14, Nr. 14 (11.07.2022): 8461. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su14148461.

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With the increase in global carbon dioxide emissions, China has put forward the goals of a carbon peak and carbon neutrality (double carbon) and formulated an action plan to consolidate and enhance the carbon sink capacity of the ecosystem. The Chinese grassland ecosystem (CGE) is widely distributed and is the key link for China to achieve the double carbon objectives. However, there is a relative lack of research on carbon sources and sinks in the CGE, so it is urgent to integrate and analyze the carbon sources and sinks in the grassland ecosystem on the national scale. Based on the refined grid data, the net ecosystem productivity (NEP) of the CGE was estimated by coupling the vegetation production model and soil respiration model. The results showed that the cumulative carbon sequestration of the CGE was 14.46 PgC from 2010 to 2020. In terms of spatial distribution, this shows that the differentiation characteristics are high in the northwest of China and low in the southeast of China, which strongly corresponds with the 400 mm isohyet and 0 °C isotherm of China. The results of the correlation analysis showed that the NEP of the CGE was positively correlated with precipitation and negatively correlated with temperature; that is, precipitation mainly promotes the accumulation of NEP, and temperature mainly inhibits it. The coupling effect of temperature and precipitation jointly affects the spatial change of carbon sources and sinks of the CGE. This study can provide a scientific basis for government departments to formulate targeted policies to deal with climate change, which is of great significance for China to improve ecosystem management, ensure ecological security and promote the realization of China’s double carbon goal.

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Dirmeyer, Paul A., Xiang Gao, Mei Zhao, Zhichang Guo, Taikan Oki und Naota Hanasaki. „GSWP-2: Multimodel Analysis and Implications for Our Perception of the Land Surface“. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 87, Nr. 10 (01.10.2006): 1381–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/bams-87-10-1381.

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Quantification of sources and sinks of carbon at global and regional scales requires not only a good description of the land sources and sinks of carbon, but also of the synoptic and mesoscale meteorology. An experiment was performed in Les Landes, southwest France, during May–June 2005, to determine the variability in concentration gradients and fluxes of CO2 The CarboEurope Regional Experiment Strategy (CERES; see also http://carboregional.mediasfrance.org/index) aimed to produce aggregated estimates of the carbon balance of a region that can be meaningfully compared to those obtained from the smallest downscaled information of atmospheric measurements and continental-scale inversions. We deployed several aircraft to sample the CO2 concentration and fluxes over the whole area, while fixed stations observed the fluxes and concentrations at high accuracy. Several (mesoscale) meteorological modeling tools were used to plan the experiment and flight patterns. Results show that at regional scale the relation between profiles and fluxes is not obvious, and is strongly influenced by airmass history and mesoscale flow patterns. In particular, we show from an analysis of data for a single day that taking either the concentration at several locations as representative of local fluxes or taking the flux measurements at those sites as representative of larger regions would lead to incorrect conclusions about the distribution of sources and sinks of carbon. Joint consideration of the synoptic and regional flow, fluxes, and land surface is required for a correct interpretation. This calls for an experimental and modeling strategy that takes into account the large spatial gradients in concentrations and the variability in sources and sinks that arise from different land use types. We briefly describe how such an analysis can be performed and evaluate the usefulness of the data for planning of future networks or longer campaigns with reduced experimental efforts.

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Zhang, Yang, Hekun Wang, Taomeizi Zhou, Zhiwei Li und Xiaoping Jia. „Extended Carbon Emission Pinch Analysis for the Low-Carbon Tobacco Industry“. Energies 15, Nr. 13 (23.06.2022): 4611. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15134611.

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The tobacco industry is an important contributor to realizing the carbon reduction goal. Less attention is paid to the carbon emissions of the tobacco industry. The tobacco production system is generally a carbon sink, where carbon sequestration by photosynthesis in tobacco planting and by soil are sufficient to offset the carbon emissions of the tobacco production system. This work proposed an integrated framework of life-cycle assessment (LCA) and Source-Sink Model to determine the optimal allocation of carbon sources to sinks with the objective of maximizing the profitable external benefits. From an economic perspective, internal carbon sources could be offset by the internal carbon sink of the tobacco production system. The additional internal carbon sinks can be transferred in the form of carbon trading, increasing external revenue. A case-study tobacco manufacturing plant in Sichuan, China, was chosen to demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed work. This study assesses the carbon footprint and economic benefits of a tobacco industry supply chain case (from tobacco cultivation to finished product) and analyzes the energy restructuring of different percentages of renewable energy to replace thermal power. The objective of the study is to maximise the offsetting of carbon emissions from the tobacco production system, while achieving optimal internal costs and profitable external benefits.

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Wang, Xin, Zhuo Yin, Jielai Chen und Jing Liu. „Phytoplankton Carbon Utilization Strategies and Effects on Carbon Fixation“. Water 15, Nr. 11 (05.06.2023): 2137. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w15112137.

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Phytoplankton have a crucial role in the conversion of greenhouse gas sources and sinks in natural water bodies, such as lakes, rivers, and oceans. In response to environmental changes, phytoplankton adapt by altering their carbon utilization strategies, which affect carbon fixation rates and carbon fluxes at the water–air interface. This paper classifies and summarizes the main carbon utilization strategies of phytoplankton in terms of carbon acquisition, carbon metabolism, and carbon emission. Their carbon acquisition strategy determines their carbon uptake rate, while their carbon metabolism strategy affects their carbon fixation potential. Moreover, their carbon emission strategy determines the final net carbon fixation. A systematic study of phytoplankton carbon utilization strategies is important for the development of phytoplankton-based wastewater treatment technologies, understanding of algal greenhouse gas fixation, and assessment of greenhouse gas sources and sinks in natural water bodies. This article provides a comprehensive understanding of the ecological role of phytoplankton in natural water bodies and offers valuable references for related research. Furthermore, our research sheds light on the carbon metabolism and emission processes of phytoplankton. By analyzing the carbon metabolism and emission of phytoplankton under different carbon utilization strategies, we can more accurately evaluate the impact of phytoplankton on the carbon cycle in natural water bodies, which can contribute to environmental protection and sustainable development.

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Ceburnis, D., M. Rinaldi, J. Keane-Brennan, J. Ovadnevaite, G. Martucci, L. Giulianelli und C. D. O'Dowd. „Marine submicron aerosol sources, sinks and chemical fluxes“. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 14, Nr. 17 (16.09.2014): 23847–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acpd-14-23847-2014.

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Abstract. The objectives of the study were to quantify seasonality in aerosol physico-chemical fluxes over NE Atlantic waters through the parallel deployment of micrometeorological eddy covariance flux system and an aerosol chemistry gradient sampling system. Fluxes of primary components (sea salt, water insoluble organic carbon and a combined sea spray) and secondary aerosol components (nitrate, ammonium, oxalate, amines, methanesulfonic acid and water soluble organic nitrogen) are presented in the context of seasonal marine aerosol sources and sinks. A strong power law relationship between fluxes and wind speed has been obtained not only for primary sea salt and sea spray, but also for secondary water soluble organic matter. The power law relationship between sea salt flux (FSSS) and 10 m height wind speed (U10) (FSSS=0.0011U103.15) compared very well with existing parameterisations using different approaches.

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Yang, Chun-Ming, Shiyao Li, Ding-xuan Huang und Wei Lo. „Performance Evaluation of Carbon-Neutral Cities Based on Fuzzy AHP and HFS-VIKOR“. Systems 12, Nr. 5 (13.05.2024): 173. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/systems12050173.

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Climate change threatens human survival and development. Cities, as the main gathering places for human production and life, serve as the focal points for the implementation of the policies related to energy efficiency, energy transition, and environmental protection. This study constructs an index system for the evaluation of carbon-neutral cities from the perspectives of carbon sources and carbon sinks. The system includes thirteen indicators under six dimensions. It combines objective and subjective data (i.e., statistical data and expert evaluations) by integrating two approaches: the fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (fuzzy AHP) and vise kriterijumska optimizacija i kompromisno resenje with hesitant fuzzy sets (HFS-VIKOR). We verify the efficacy of the proposed approach through a case study of thirteen low-carbon pilot cities in China. The results indicate that among these cities, Shenzhen performs the best, followed by Guangzhou and Hangzhou, while Kunming, Baoding, and Tianjin show poor performance in terms of carbon neutrality. Kunming and Baoding exhibit shortcomings mainly in carbon sources, while Tianjin faces deficiencies in both carbon sources and carbon sinks. Sensitivity analysis and comparative analysis show the availability and effectiveness of the proposed method. The proposed radar chart further highlights the improvement directions for each city to achieve carbon neutrality.

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Durant, A. J., C. Le Quéré, C. Hope und A. D. Friend. „Economic value of improved quantification in global sources and sinks of carbon dioxide“. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 369, Nr. 1943 (28.05.2011): 1967–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2011.0002.

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On average, about 45 per cent of global annual anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions remain in the atmosphere, while the remainder are taken up by carbon reservoirs on land and in the oceans—the CO 2 ‘sinks’. As sink size and dynamics are highly variable in space and time, cross-verification of reported anthropogenic CO 2 emissions with atmospheric CO 2 measurements is challenging. Highly variable CO 2 sinks also limit the capability to detect anomolous changes in natural carbon reservoirs. This paper argues that significant uncertainty reduction in annual estimates of the global carbon balance could be achieved rapidly through coordinated up-scaling of existing methods, and that this uncertainty reduction would provide incentive for accurate reporting of CO 2 emissions at the country level. We estimate that if 5 per cent of global CO 2 emissions go unreported and undetected, the associated marginal economic impacts could reach approximately US$20 billion each year by 2050. The net present day value of these impacts aggregated until 2200, and discounted back to the present would have a mean value exceeding US$10 trillion. The costs of potential impacts of unreported emissions far outweigh the costs of enhancement of measurement infrastructure to reduce uncertainty in the global carbon balance.

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Martínez-Mena, María, María Almagro, Noelia García-Franco, Joris de Vente, Eloisa García und Carolina Boix-Fayos. „Fluvial sedimentary deposits as carbon sinks: organic carbon pools and stabilization mechanisms across a Mediterranean catchment“. Biogeosciences 16, Nr. 5 (15.03.2019): 1035–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-1035-2019.

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Abstract. The role of fluvial sedimentary areas as organic carbon sinks remains largely unquantified. Little is known about mechanisms of organic carbon (OC) stabilization in alluvial sediments in semiarid and subhumid catchments where those mechanisms are quite complex because sediments are often redistributed and exposed to a range of environmental conditions in intermittent and perennial fluvial courses within the same catchment. The main goal of this study was to evaluate the contribution of transport and depositional areas as sources or sinks of CO2 at the catchment scale. We used physical and chemical organic matter fractionation techniques and basal respiration rates in samples representative of the three phases of the erosion process within the catchment: (i) detachment, representing the main sediment sources from forests and agricultural upland soils, as well as fluvial lateral banks; (ii) transport, representing suspended load and bedload in the main channel; and (iii) depositional areas along the channel, downstream in alluvial wedges, and in the reservoir at the outlet of the catchment, representative of medium- and long-term residence deposits, respectively. Our results show that most of the sediments transported and deposited downstream come from agricultural upland soils and fluvial lateral bank sources, where the physicochemical protection of OC is much lower than that of the forest soils, which are less sensitive to erosion. The protection of OC in forest soils and alluvial wedges (medium-term depositional areas) was mainly driven by physical protection (OC within aggregates), while chemical protection of OC (OC adhesion to soil mineral particles) was observed in the fluvial lateral banks. However, in the remaining sediment sources, in sediments during transport, and after deposition in the reservoir (long-term deposit), both mechanisms are equally relevant. Mineralization of the most labile OC (the intra-aggregate particulate organic matter (Mpom) was predominant during transport. Aggregate formation and OC accumulation, mainly associated with macroaggregates and occluded microaggregates within macroaggregates, were predominant in the upper layer of depositional areas. However, OC was highly protected and stabilized at the deeper layers, mainly in the long-term deposits (reservoir), being even more protected than the OC from the most eroding sources (agricultural soils and fluvial lateral banks). Altogether our results show that both medium- and long-term depositional areas can play an important role in erosive areas within catchments, compensating for OC losses from the eroded sources and functioning as C sinks.

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West, T. O., V. Bandaru, C. C. Brandt, A. E. Schuh und S. M. Ogle. „Regional uptake and release of crop carbon in the United States“. Biogeosciences Discussions 8, Nr. 1 (21.01.2011): 631–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-8-631-2011.

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Abstract. Carbon fixed by agricultural crops in the US creates regional CO2 sinks where it is harvested and regional CO2 sources where it is released back into the atmosphere. The quantity and location of these fluxes differ depending on the annual supply and demand of crop commodities. Data on the harvest of crop biomass, storage, import and export, and on the use of biomass for food, feed, fiber, and fuel were compiled to estimate an annual crop carbon budget for 2000 to 2008. With respect to US Farm Resource Regions, net sources of CO2 associated with the consumption of crop commodities occurred in the Eastern Uplands, Southern Seaboard, and Fruitful Rim regions. Net sinks associated with the production of crop commodities occurred in the Heartland, Northern Crescent, Northern Great Plains, and Mississippi Portal regions. The national crop carbon budget was balanced to within 93 to 99% yr−1 of total carbon uptake during the period of this analysis.

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Handogo, Renanto. „Carbon Capture and Storage System Using Pinch Design Method“. MATEC Web of Conferences 156 (2018): 03005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815603005.

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Carbon capture and storage (CCS) have been investigated for a long time. It was intended to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere due to fossil fuel combustion in power generation and industrial processes. CO2 is captured and stored in various geological formations. The problem here is to match between source and sink such that alternative storage and unutilized storage capacities are minimum. Pinch Design Method as has been proposed by was used in this work. The concept is overwhelming that it can be used other than in the heat exchanger networks, such as in the water system design, mass exchanger networks and many other processes. Initially this concept was applied to carbon capture and storage but with no exact pairing between sources and sinks as proposed in this work using grid diagram as commonly shown in other processes. This work can point out the exact pairing between sources and sinks, and within the given time frame. A four different cases are investigated where the time difference between the starting time of CO2 generated in the source and the beginning of sink availability. A value of 0, 5, 10 and 15 years are chosen to evaluate the amount of CO2 that has to be stored and the amount of unutilized storage capacity. The case study has been prepared with 5 sources and 3 sinks. The result shows that the larger time difference the larger alternative storage and unutilized storage capacities. Therefore, having a shorter time difference will be more acceptable in the design CCS system.

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Dawson, Julian J. C., Michael F. Billett, Diane Hope, Sheila M. Palmer und Claire M. Deacon. „Sources and sinks of aquatic carbon in a peatland stream continuum“. Biogeochemistry 70, Nr. 1 (August 2004): 71–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/b:biog.0000049337.66150.f1.

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de Haas, Henk, Tjeerd C. E. van Weering und Henko de Stigter. „Organic carbon in shelf seas: sinks or sources, processes and products“. Continental Shelf Research 22, Nr. 5 (März 2002): 691–717. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0278-4343(01)00093-0.

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Liu, ShuangNa, Tao Zhou, LinYan Wei und Yang Shu. „The spatial distribution of forest carbon sinks and sources in China“. Chinese Science Bulletin 57, Nr. 14 (08.03.2012): 1699–707. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11434-012-4998-1.

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King, Anthony W., Daniel J. Hayes, Deborah N. Huntzinger, Tristram O. West und Wilfred M. Post. „North American carbon dioxide sources and sinks: magnitude, attribution, and uncertainty“. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 10, Nr. 10 (Dezember 2012): 512–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/120066.

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Houghton, R. A., und J. L. Hackler. „Sources and sinks of carbon from land-use change in China“. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 17, Nr. 2 (09.04.2003): n/a. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002gb001970.

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Lugo, Ariel E., und Sandra Brown. „Management of tropical soils as sinks or sources of atmospheric carbon“. Plant and Soil 149, Nr. 1 (Februar 1993): 27–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00010760.

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