Auswahl der wissenschaftlichen Literatur zum Thema „BST2/Tetherin“

BST2/Tetherin is a restriction factor with broad antiviral activity against enveloped viruses, including coronaviruses. Specifically, BST2 traps nascent particles to membrane compartments, preventing their release and spread. In turn, viruses have evolved multiple mechanisms to counteract BST2. Here, we examined the interactions between BST2 and SARS-CoV-2. Our study shows that BST2 reduces SARS-CoV-2 virion release. However, the virus uses the Spike (S) protein to downregulate BST2. This requires a physical interaction between S and BST2, which routes BST2 for lysosomal degradation in a Clathtin- and ubiquitination-dependent manner. By surveying different SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (Alpha-Omicron), we found that Omicron is more efficient at counteracting BST2, and that mutations in S account for its enhanced anti-BST2 activity. Mapping analyses revealed that several surfaces in the extracellular region of BST2 are required for an interaction with the Spike, and that the Omicron variant has changed its patterns of association with BST2 to improve its counteraction. Therefore, our study suggests that, besides enhancing receptor binding and evasion of neutralizing antibodies, mutations accumulated in the Spike afford more efficient counteraction of BST2, which highlights that BST2 antagonism is important for SARS-CoV-2 infectivity and spread.

Tetherin (BST2/CD317/HM1.24) has emerged as a key host-cell ·defence molecule that acts by inhibiting the release and spread of diverse enveloped virions from infected cells. We analysed the biological features of canine tetherin and found it to be an unstable hydrophilic type I transmembrane protein with one transmembrane domain, no signal peptide, and multiple glycosylation and phosphorylation sites. Furthermore, the tissue expression profile of canine tetherin revealed that it was particularly abundant in immune organs. The canine tetherin gene contains an interferon response element sequence that can be regulated and expressed by canine IFN-α. A CCK-8 assay showed that canine tetherin was effective in helping mitigate cellular damage caused by canine influenza virus (CIV) infection. Additionally, we found that the overexpression of canine tetherin inhibited replication of the CIV and that interference with the canine tetherin gene enhanced CIV replication in cells. The impact of canine tetherin on CIV replication was mild. However, these results elucidate the role of the innate immune factor, canine tetherin, during CIV infection for the first time.

ABSTRACT K3/MIR1 and K5/MIR2 of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) are viral members of the membrane-associated RING-CH (MARCH) ubiquitin ligase family and contribute to viral immune evasion by directing the conjugation of ubiquitin to immunostimulatory transmembrane proteins. In a quantitative proteomic screen for novel host cell proteins downregulated by viral immunomodulators, we previously observed that K5, as well as the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) immunomodulator VPU, reduced steady-state levels of bone marrow stromal cell antigen 2 (BST2; also called CD317 or tetherin), suggesting that BST2 might be a novel substrate of K5 and VPU. Recent work revealed that in the absence of VPU, HIV-1 virions are tethered to the plasma membrane in BST2-expressing HeLa cells. By targeting BST2, K5 might thus similarly overcome an innate antiviral host defense mechanism. Here we establish that despite its type II transmembrane topology and carboxy-terminal glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor, BST2 represents a bona fide target of K5 that is downregulated during primary infection by and reactivation of KSHV. Upon exit of the protein from the endoplasmic reticulum, lysines in the short amino-terminal domain of BST2 are ubiquitinated by K5, resulting in rapid degradation of BST2. Ubiquitination of BST2 is required for degradation, since BST2 lacking cytosolic lysines was K5 resistant and ubiquitin depletion by proteasome inhibitors restored BST2 surface expression. Thus, BST2 represents the first type II transmembrane protein targeted by K5 and the first example of a protein that is both ubiquitinated and GPI linked. We further demonstrate that KSHV release is decreased in the absence of K5 in a BST2-dependent manner, suggesting that K5 contributes to the evasion of intracellular antiviral defense programs.

The measles virus (MeV), a member of the genus Morbillivirus, is an established pathogen of humans. A key feature of morbilliviruses is their ability to spread by virus–cell and cell–cell fusion. The latter process, which leads to syncytia formation in vitro and in vivo, is driven by the viral fusion (F) and haemagglutinin (H) glycoproteins. In this study, we demonstrate that MeV glycoproteins are sensitive to inhibition by bone marrow stromal antigen 2 (BST2/Tetherin/CD317) proteins. BST2 overexpression causes a large reduction in MeV syncytia expansion. Using quantitative cell–cell fusion assays, immunolabeling, and biochemistry we further demonstrate that ectopically expressed BST2 directly inhibits MeV cell–cell fusion. This restriction is mediated by the targeting of the MeV H glycoprotein, but not other MeV proteins. Using truncation mutants, we further establish that the C-terminal glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor of BST2 is required for the restriction of MeV replication in vitro and cell–cell fusion. By extending our study to the ruminant morbillivirus peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) and its natural host, sheep, we also confirm this is a broad and cross-species specific phenotype.

Abstract The reactivity of platelets, which play a key role in the pathogenesis of atherothrombosis, is tightly regulated. The integral membrane protein tetherin/bone marrow stromal antigen-2 (BST-2) regulates membrane organization, altering both lipid and protein distribution within the plasma membrane. Because membrane microdomains have an established role in platelet receptor biology, we sought to characterize the physiological relevance of tetherin/BST-2 in those cells. To characterize the potential importance of tetherin/BST-2 to platelet function, we used tetherin/BST-2−/− murine platelets. In the mice, we found enhanced function and signaling downstream of a subset of membrane microdomain–expressing receptors, including the P2Y12, TP thromboxane, thrombin, and GPVI receptors. Preliminary studies in humans have revealed that treatment with interferon-α (IFN-α), which upregulates platelet tetherin/BST-2 expression, also reduces adenosine diphosphate–stimulated platelet receptor function and reactivity. A more comprehensive understanding of how tetherin/BST-2 negatively regulates receptor function was provided in cell line experiments, where we focused on the therapeutically relevant P2Y12 receptor (P2Y12R). Tetherin/BST-2 expression reduced both P2Y12R activation and trafficking, which was accompanied by reduced receptor lateral mobility specifically within membrane microdomains. In fluorescence lifetime imaging-Förster resonance energy transfer (FLIM-FRET)–based experiments, agonist stimulation reduced basal association between P2Y12R and tetherin/BST-2. Notably, the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor of tetherin/BST-2 was required for both receptor interaction and observed functional effects. In summary, we established, for the first time, a fundamental role of the ubiquitously expressed protein tetherin/BST-2 in negatively regulating membrane microdomain–expressed platelet receptor function.

ABSTRACT Tetherin (BST2/CD317) potently restricts the particle release of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) mutants defective in the accessory gene vpu. Vpu antagonizes tetherin activity and induces its cell surface downregulation and degradation in a manner dependent on the transmembrane (TM) domains of both proteins. We have carried out extensive mutagenesis of the HIV-1 NL4.3 Vpu TM domain to identify three amino acid positions, A14, W22, and, to a lesser extent, A18, that are required for tetherin antagonism. Despite the mutants localizing indistinguishably from the wild-type (wt) protein and maintaining the ability to multimerize, mutation of these positions rendered Vpu incapable of coimmunoprecipitating tetherin or mediating its cell surface downregulation. Interestingly, these amino acid positions are predicted to form one face of the Vpu transmembrane alpha helix and therefore potentially contribute to an interacting surface with the transmembrane domain of tetherin either directly or by modulating the conformation of Vpu oligomers. While the equivalent of W22 is invariant in HIV-1/SIVcpz Vpu proteins, the positions of A14 and A18 are highly conserved among Vpu alleles from HIV-1 groups M and N, but not those from group O or SIVcpz that lack human tetherin (huTetherin)-antagonizing activity, suggesting that they may have contributed to the adaption of HIV-1 to human tetherin.

Le Midbody (MB) post-cytokinétique est une structure créée suite à la séparation physique des cellules filles après la dernière étape de la division cellulaire, la cytokinèse. Le MB interagit ensuite avec la surface cellulaire afin de jouer des rôles variés dans le développement, la polarisation ou la prolifération cellulaire. J’ai d’abord caractérisé une nouvelle méthode de purification de MB post-cytokinétiques. Cette étude a révélé que BST2, une protéine connue pour ancrer les virus enveloppés à la surface cellulaire, est enrichie au MB. Je me suis donc concentré sur BST2 et son rôle au MB, notamment dans l’interaction avec la membrane plasmique de la cellule réceptrice. J’ai d’abord confirmé par microscopie l’enrichissement de BST2 au MB. De manière similaire aux virus, l’absence de BST2 augmente le détachement des MB de la surface cellulaire. Ils sont ainsi relâchés dans le milieu extracellulaire, augmentant leur transfert aux cellules avoisinantes. Mécaniquement, le domaine de dimérisation et l’ancre GPI de BST2 sont requis pour la localisation et la fonction au MB. En utilisant des MB purifiés, j’ai montré que BST2 à la membrane du MB -mais pas à la membrane plasmique- est important pour la rétention de ceux-ci à la surface cellulaire. En conclusion, ces résultats montrent une nouvelle fonction cellulaire de BST2. En effet, 1/ BST2 localise au MB et 2/BST2 permet de mieux retenir le MB à la surface cellulaire. Je propose donc que BST2 ancre les MB et participe à promouvoir leur étroite interaction avec la surface cellulaire, de manière analogue à son activité de restriction virale dans les cellules infectées
The Midbody Remnant (MBR) is a structure that arises once cytokinetic abscission, the last step in cell division, is completed. Then, the MBR interacts with the cell surface and can play various roles in development, polarisation or cell proliferation. I first characterized a new MBR purification method. This study revealed that BST2, a protein known to anchor enveloped viruses to the cell surface, is enriched at the MBR. I thus focused on BST2 and its role at the MBR, especially in the interaction with the recipient cell plasma membrane. I fist confirmed by microscopy the enrichment of BST2 t the MBR. Similarly to viruses, the absence of BST2 increases the detachment of MBRs from the cell surface. They are thus released in the extracellular medium, increasing their transfer to neighbouring cells. Mechanistically, in parallel with virion restriction, BST2 dimerization and GPI anchor are both required for proper localization and functions of BST2 at the MBR. Using purified MBRs, we showed that BST2 at the midbody membrane -but not at the plasma membrane of the cell- is important for MBR retention to the cell surface. Altogether, these results show that BST2 localizes at the midbody remnant to promote its retention at the cell surface of non-infected cells. I propose that, in a way analogous to enveloped virions, BST2 tethers midbody remnants and participates in promoting their proper interaction with recipient cells

Environ 8% du génome humain est constitué de rétrovirus endogènes (HERV). La famille de bétarétrovirus HERV-K(HML2), l'une des plus actives chez l'homme, est entrée il y a 45 millions d'années dans le génome des primates et s'est amplifiée efficacement depuis, et ce malgré l'existence de nombreuses protéines cellulaires, appelées facteurs de restriction, qui s'opposent à la réplication du virus dans la cellule hôte. La Tetherin/BST2, l'un d'entre eux, est une protéine membranaire capable de bloquer le relargage des virions dans le milieu extracellulaire et est active sur la plupart des virus enveloppés testés jusqu'à présent, en particulier HERV-K(HML2). Nous avons tout d'abord mis en évidence que l'enveloppe (Env) de la famille HML2 est un antagoniste de la Tetherin, propriété qui a pu contribuer au succès de l'amplification de la famille HERV¬K(HML2) dans les génomes. Plusieurs domaines de l'enveloppe coopèrent pour s'opposer à l'action du facteur de restriction : la SU (domaine d'interaction), ainsi que la partie transmembranaire, alors que la queue cytoplasmique n'est pas indispensable. Le mécanisme de cette inhibition n'a pas été encore complètement élucidé, mais l'on sait, comme pour la glycoprotéine d'Ebola, que l'Env HERV-K(HML2) n'induit ni relocalisation, ni dégradation de la Tetherin. Etant donné le grand polymorphisme insertionnel de la famille HERV-K(1-IML2), il est très probable que cette activité anti-Tetherin endogène soit variable entre les individus, ce qui pourrait avoir des conséquences dans les pathologies où les éléments HERV-K(HML2) sont spécifiquement induits. Parmi ces pathologies, les cancers de la peau, du sein et de la lignée germinale présentent une association particulièrement forte avec l'expression de l'Env HERV-K(HML2), que nous avons voulu mieux comprendre dans la suite de ces travaux de thèse. Nous avons dans un premier temps montré que l'expression de l'Env dans des cellules humaines non transformées de l'épithélium de sein (MCF10A), induit la transition vers un phénotype mésenchymateux (EMT, transition épithélio-mésenchymateuse), caractéristique de l'apparition de métastases dans les cancers. Cette transition est associée à une augmentation de la mobilité des cellules (mise en évidence dans des tests Transwell), à un changement de morphologie des cellules et à une modification du profil d'expression de quelques marqueurs moléculaires caractéristiques (E-cadherin, N-cadherin, vimentin, fibronectin). Grâce à une étude transcriptomique en cellules 293T, nous avons mis en évidence que l'expression de l'Env HERV-K induit fortement plusieurs facteurs de transcription : ETV4, ETVS, ainsi que EGR1, qui ont été identifiés comme des marqueurs du processus de tumorigénèse dans différents modèles. Nous avons également montré que l'Env HERV-K active la voie des MAP kinases via ERK 1/2 —dérégulée dans un grand nombre de cancers- en amont de la kinase Raf. Ces phénomènes d'induction de la transduction de signal requièrent la présence de la queue cytoplasmique de l'enveloppe. De façon remarquable, seule l'enveloppe du bétarétrovirus de mouton JSRV, oncogénique in vivo, est capable d'activer les mêmes voies de signalisation, ce qui renforce l'hypothèse d'une implication de l'Env HERV-K(HML2) dans la tumorigenèse
Human endogenous retroviruses (HERV) represent about 8% of our genomic content. HERV-K(HML2) betaretroviral family is one of the most active in humans. Although it entered 45 million years ago in the primate genomes, its members have amplified quite recently despite the existence of restriction factors, which are host proteins blocking viral replication in cells. Tetherin/BST2 is one of them and acts by keeping the viral particles attached to the cell surface. It targets most enveloped viruses tested so far including HERV-K(HML2). We show that the envelope protein (Env) of HML2 family is an antagonist of Tetherin retriction, property that probably helped the endogenous retrovirus to efficiently amplify in the genomes. We mapped several domains required for antagonism : the surface subunit of Env (SU), which interacts with Tetherin, and the transmembrane. We also show that the cytoplasmic tail is dispensable for counteraction. Similar to Ebola glycoprotein, HERV-K(HML2) Env does not mediate Tetherin degradation or cell surface removal; therefore, it uses a yet-undescribed mechanism to inactivate the restriction factor. Due to their recent amplification, HERV-K(HML2) elements are extremely polymorphic in the human population, and it is likely that individuals will not all possess the same anti-Tetherin potential. This could have functional consequences in pathologies where HERV-K(HML2) is specifically induced. Among them, melanomas, breast cancers and germ line tumors display a strong association with HML2 Env expression, that we wanted to better analyse. We first show that Env expression in a model of epithelial human breast cancer cells induces the so-called EMT (epithelial mesenchymal transition), critical for cancer progression and the process of metastasis. This includes enhanced migratory capacities (shown by transwell assays), changes in cell morphology and characteristic modifications in a set of molecular markers (e.g. E-cadherin, N-cadherin, vimentin, fibronectin). Microarray experiments performed in 293T cells revealed that HERV-K(HML2) Env is a strong inducer of several transcription factors, namely ETV4, ETVS and EGRI, which have been associated with cellular transformation. Importantly, we also show that HERV-K(HML2) Env activates the MAP kinase pathway via ERK 1/2, key player in numerous cancers. This induction occurs upstream of the kinase Raf and involves the cytoplasmic tail of HERV-K(HML2) Env. In addition, this phenomenon is very specific, being absent with every other Env tested, except for JSRV Env which is already known to have transforming properties in vivo

La protéine cellulaire BST2/Tetherin est un médiateur de l’immunité innée qui exerce son activité antivirale contre la dissémination de nombreux virus enveloppés. Ce facteur de restriction retient physiquement les virus néoformés à la surface cellulaire de la cellule infectée, empêchant ainsi le relâchement des virions du VIH-1. La protéine Vpu du VIH-1 est l’un des acteurs viraux capable de contrer cette restriction : elle diminue le niveau d’expression de BST2/Tetherin présent au site de bourgeonnement viral et restaure ainsi une production virale efficace. A ce jour, les mécanismes exacts par lesquels Vpu contre cette barrière cellulaire ne sont pas bien caractérisés. Des études récentes ont montré que HRS et Rab7A, deux protéines contrôlant la voie endo/lysosomale tardive sont impliquées dans le mécanisme déployé par Vpu pour contrer la restriction imposée par BST2. De manière intéressante, ces protéines sont également requises pour l’achèvement des étapes finales de l’autophagie. L’autophagie (macroautophagie) est un mécanisme cellulaire hautement conservé, qui permet la dégradation de composants cytoplasmiques via la formation d’une vésicule à double membrane, appelé autophagosome. L’autophagie est contrôlée par une trentaine de protéines ATG (AuTophaGy-related genes) qui sont recrutés au site de formation du phagophore qui conduira, suite à son élongation, à la formation de l’autophagosome. Il a récemment été décrit que certaine protéines ATG sont également impliquées dans d’autres fonctions cellulaires indépendante de l’autophagie, comme la résistance contre certains pathogènes. C’est le cas notamment de la phagocytose médiée par LC3 (LC3-associated phagocytosis, LAP), un mécanisme indépendant du complexe de pré-initiation de l’autophagie au cours duquel certaines protéines ATG modifient la membrane du phagosome et accélèrent la dégradation des éléments phagocytés. L’objectif de ma thèse était donc de définir si l’autophagie ou certaines protéines de l’autophagie sont impliquées dans le mécanisme moléculaire déployée par Vpu pour contrer la restriction imposée par BST2/Tetherin sur la production virale. Au cours de ma thèse, nous avons démontré l’implication de la protéine LC3C dans le mécanisme par lequel Vpu contrecarre la restriction imposée par BST2 sur la libération des particules virales du VIH-1 dans le milieu extracellulaire. Plus précisément, nos résultats montrent que les protéines ATG5 et Bécline 1, et non tous les composants de l’autophagie, agissent avec la protéine LC3C pour faciliter l’action de la protéine virale Vpu sur la restriction imposée par BST2. L’expression de la protéine LC3C favorise l’élimination par Vpu des molécules de BST2 présentes au site du bourgeonnement, permettant ainsi une libération plus efficace de particules virales VIH-1. Nos expériences d’immunofluorescence montrent que les protéines BST2 et Vpu sont présentes dans des compartiments marqués par LC3, protéine décorant les phagophores, autophagosomes et phagosomes impliqués dans la LAP. Enfin, nos données biochimiques révèlent une interaction spécifique et directe entre la protéine Vpu et la protéine LC3C via un motif LIR non-canonique. L’intégrité de ce motif présent dans le domaine cytoplasmique de Vpu est nécessaire pour la levée par Vpu de la restriction imposée par BST2. En conclusion, mes travaux de thèse montrent que la protéine Vpu du VIH-1 via son interaction avec la protéine d’autophagie LC3C utilise un mécanisme de LAP pour contrer la restriction induite par BST2 sur la production de virus VIH-1
BST2/Tetherin is a key mediator of the innate immune system that restricts the dissemination of enveloped viruses. This restriction factor impedes the release of de novo formed HIV particles by physically retaining them at the surface of infected cells. The HIV-1 protein Vpu promotes the release of virus by counteracting this restriction. Vpu removes BST2 present at the budding site and downregulates BST2. The mechanisms by which Vpu counteracts BST2 are still not well understood. Recently, we showed that HRS and Rab7A, two regulators of the endocytic and autophagic pathway participates to the mechanism by which Vpu counteracts BST2-mediated restriction on HIV-1 release. Interestingly, these two proteins are also required in the autophagy pathway. Autophagy (macroautophagy) is a highly conserved degradative mechanism that leads to degradation of cytosolic components through the formation of double-membrane vacuoles called autophagosomes that sequester cytosolic material. This process is tightly regulated by the ATG proteins that are hierarchically recruited at the phagophore assembly site to form the autophagosome. Some ATG proteins are additionally involved in non autophagic cell functions involved in maintenance of cell homeostasis and resistance of pathogens. Notably, they participate in microbe clearance through LC3-associated phagocytosis, a process independent of autophagic preinitiation complex in which some ATG proteins directly modify the phagosomal membrane to enhance degradation of phagocytosed elements. The aim of my thesis was to explore if the autophagy pathway or some ATG proteins could be involved in the molecular mechanism by which Vpu counteracts BST2/Tetherin on HIV-1 release. Here, we reveal that the protein LC3C is required in the Vpu-induced antagonism of BST2 restriction. Our results show that only ATG5 and Beclin-1, and not all the components of the autophagy pathway, act with LC3C to favor the counteraction of Vpu on BST2 restriction, and thus enhance HIV-1 release. We report that BST2 and Vpu are present in LC3-positive compartments. We found that Vpu selectively interacts with the ATG8 ortholog, LC3C, through a non-canonical LIR motif by immunoprecipitation and GST pulldown assays. This motif is required for Vpu to antagonize BST2 restriction. LC3C expression favors the removal of BST2 from HIV-1 budding site, and thus HIV-1 release in BST2 expressing cells. Altogether, our data support the view that Vpu uses a non-canonical autophagy pathway reminiscent of LC3-associated phagocytosis to counteract BST2 restriction