Auswahl der wissenschaftlichen Literatur zum Thema „Break-up process“

The pd break-up amplitude in the Faddeev scheme is calculated by employing a three-dimensional method without partial wave decomposition (PWD). In the first step and in view of higher energies only the leading term is evaluated and this for the process d(p,n)pp. A comparison with the results based on PWD reveals discrepancies in the cross section around 200 MeV. This indicates the onset of a limitation of the partial wave scheme. Also around 200 MeV relativistic effects are clearly visible and the use of relativistic kinematics shifts the cross section peak to where the experimental peak is located. The theoretical peak height, however, is wrong and calls first of all for the inclusion of rescattering terms, which are shown to be important in a nonrelativistic full Faddeev calculation in PWD.

The research of this thesis focuses on the study of sprays produced by twin fluid air-blast atomisers and the main objective is to study the liquid jet break-up mechanism and relate it to the downstream spray characteristics. Two different air-blast atomiser geometries are used; coaxial, where the liquid co-flows with the gas stream, and the liquid jet in a gaseous cross-flow. The thesis describes advanced and novel measurements to reveal the temporal and spatial development of the liquid flow and its interaction with the surrounding gas stream. Initially, the break-up process is studied by measuring the characteristics of the continuous liquid jet. Techniques such as electrical conductivity, high-speed shadowgraphy and optical connectivity were used to characterise the atomisation process. The latter is a novel laser-based technique used to illuminate internally the continuous liquid column by introducing a laser beam within the liquid nozzle, while a fluorescent dye in the liquid ensures that the whole volume of the liquid is visualised. The laser light propagates downstream while reflecting on the gas-liquid interface to be interrupted at the break-up position, where the light is scattered and diffuses widely. In the case of a jet in a cross-flow gas stream the fluorescent intensity images were recorded from two different angles to reveal the various features involved in the liquid jet structure. The study of the spatial and temporal characteristics of the instabilities and the developed surface waves on the liquid column can provide information on jet morphology and a better understanding of the physics that elicit the break-up phenomenon. For that purpose, Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) is applied to reveal the various flow scales and elucidate the mechanism of transfer of momentum from the gas to the liquid flow. The most energetic modes are used to describe the jet interface dynamics that may well define the formation of the downstream droplet sizes. Interferometric Laser Imaging for Droplet Sizing (ILIDS) was also used for planar measurements of droplet sizes and velocities. ILIDS images the scattered light from droplets in an out-of-focus mode at different streamwise distances from the nozzle exit to obtain interference fringe patterns associated with each droplet. The spacing of each fringe pattern is proportional to the corresponding droplet diameter. Instantaneous droplet clustering is measured along with the primary atomisation process and the liquid jet break-up characteristics are correlated with the downstream droplet sizes. Several time delays are used between optical connectivity and ILIDS measurements to capture the various classes of droplet sizes that travel with different velocities from the break-up region to the downstream spray location. The small droplets travel faster and move with a velocity similar to the gas flow, in contrast to the larger droplets, which are conveyed to the size measuring region with a lower velocity and, therefore, higher time delays. A conditional correlation method was developed to reduce statistical uncertainties. Negative correlations were found between the break-up length of the liquid jet and downstream number of droplets, indicating that they are inversely proportional. The relation between the break-up length and droplet Arithmetic and Sauter Mean Diameters seems to be more complex since a sinusoidal relation was extracted. The estimated correlation coefficients varied with time delay and a repeatable trend was observed which exposed the coherent behaviour of the break-up process and its frequency, revealing that it is not a random phenomenon, but rather a multifaceted mechanism governed by physical laws.

A pilot scale study of the dynamics of the break-up of curved liquid jets is presented. This work is motivated by an industrial process called prilling which is used in the manufacture of pellets. In this process a sieve-like cylindrical can spins rapidly on its central vertical axis. Molten liquid is pumped into the top of the can and flows from the holes in the form of curved liquid jets. Experiments are described which were carried out on a pilot scale rig. Some differences between the break-up modes observed in this study and previous work using a small laboratory scale rig are discussed. Previous theories describing break-up mechanisms of curved liquid jets were extended to include viscosity and gravity. Break-up lengths and drop sizes were obtained theoretically and compared with experimental results. Experiments were carried out using insonification, a process where sound waves are fired at the jet to control satellite drop formation. Three different frequencies of wave were used, 10, 100 and 200 Hz at four different rotation rates. It was observed that insonification was successful at eliminating satellite drops at low rotation rates and when frequencies of 100 or 200 Hz were used. Insonification was included in the theory. The theory predicted that insonification eliminated satellite drops for a large range of frequencies in the experimental regimes for sufficiently large acoustic volume. The theory also predicted that satellite drops were eliminated in parameter regimes outside the experimental regimes. The trajectory of the jet was allowed to become unsteady, in a rotating frame of reference. Simulations were carried out in inviscid and viscous regimes.

El proceso de atomización desde una vena o lámina líquida hasta multitud de gotas dispersas en un medio gaseoso ha sido un fenómeno de interés desde hace varias décadas, especialmente en el campo de los motores de combustión interna alternativos. Multitud de estudios experimentales han sido publicados al respecto, pues una buena mezcla de aire-combustible asegura una evaporación y combustión mucho más eficientes, aumentando la potencia del motor y reduciendo la cantidad de contaminantes emitidos. Con el auge de las técnicas computacionales, muchos modelos han sido desarrollados para estudiar este proceso de atomización y mezcla. Uno de los últimos modelos que han aparecido es el llamado ELSA (Eulerian-Lagrangian Spray Atomization), que utiliza un modelo Euleriano para la parte densa del chorro y cambia a un modelo Lagrangiano cuando la concentración de líquido es suficientemente pequeña, aprovechando de esta manera las ventajas de ambos. En el presente trabajo se ha desarrollado un modelo puramente Euleriano para estudiar la influencia de la geometría interna de la tobera de inyección en el proceso de atomización y mezcla. Se ha estudiado únicamente el proceso de inyección diésel. Este modelo permite resolver en un único dominio el flujo interno y el externo, evitando así las comunes simplificaciones y limitaciones de la interpolación entre ambos dominios resueltos por separado. Los resultados actuales son prometedores, el modelo predice con un error aceptable la penetración del chorro, el flujo másico y de cantidad de movimiento, los perfiles de velocidad y concentración, así como otros parámetros característicos del chorro.
Martí Gómez-Aldaraví, P. (2014). DEVELOPMENT OF A COMPUTATIONAL MODEL FOR A SIMULTANEOUS SIMULATION OF INTERNAL FLOW AND SPRAY BREAK-UP OF THE DIESEL INJECTION PROCESS [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/43719
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Former studies show that the break-up from prostitution can be seen as a process with several stages which the person has to go through and that there are several factors which can affect the break-up. The aim of this study is to create an understanding for and illustrate how a break-up from prostitution can look like. We have interviewed three ex-prostitutes about their own break-up and three social workers who work with helping individuals to exit prostitution. We have analyzed the material through the theory of exit process by Helen Fuch Ebaugh (1988) and through former studies. All the ex-prostitutes and the social workers in our study described the break-up from prostitution as a process. All our respondents agreed on that there are several different factors affecting a break-up from prostitution, whereof close relationships and the own motivation to make a change are the most significant ones. Formal support from professionals is also considered having an impact on the exit process as well as during the period after the break-up. In summary, the break-up process from prostitution is very complex, can be emotionally exhausting and may vary to a great extent between individuals.

In this study, the topic of men’s violence against women has been highlighted. Men’s violence against women is a societal problem that occurs in various social groups, ages and cultures. The study conducts semi-structured interviews with six social workers to examine their experiences working with abused women with foreign backgrounds. The collected data were analyzed through thematic analysis method based on: the normalization process, empowerment and break-up process. The study showed that some of the main factors that made it difficult for women were children, emotional ties, financial and housing dependencies. This study also confirmed previous studies which showed that women with a foreign background are particularly vulnerable and thus find it more difficult to break up a relationship due to societal norms, language difficulties, social networks and because of their ignorance of society. This study also shows that the interviewed social workers found that motivation and support given to violated women in various processes made the break-up process easier for these women. However, the social workers encountered some difficulties working with women with a foreign background, such as communication difficulties.

Syftet med studien var att identifiera de faktorer i kvinnors utsatthet för våld av män i nära relationer som påverkar deras val och möjlighet att stanna i alternativt lämna en våldsam parrelation samt vilken inverkan och påverkan det sociala nätverket har på kvinnors beslut att stanna i alternativt lämna relationen. Genom kvalitativ innehållsanalys av fyra självbiografier skrivna av tidigare våldsutsatta kvinnor sammanställdes resultat, som tematiserades och analyserades med hjälp av teorierna och begreppen normaliseringsprocess, traumatisk bindning och uppbrottsprocess tillsammans med tidigare forskning. Resultatet visade att anledningar till att en våldsutsatt kvinna stannar i en våldsam parrelation är starka känslomässiga band, normalisering av våldet, beroende, psykisk nedbrytning, internalisering, rädsla samt hopp om förändring. Vad som gör att en våldsutsatt kvinna lämnar en våldsam parrelation är insikten om att det skulle vara ohållbart att stanna av olika anledningar samt rädsla för sitt eget eller annans liv. Uppbrottsprocessen kan förklaras likt en process i flera steg. Omgivningens stöd visade sig också ha stor betydelse i kvinnans val och möjlighet att kunna lämna relationen, dock är beslutet att lämna relationen tvunget att komma från kvinnan själv. Slutsatsen var därmed att kvinnor som utsätts för våld av män i nära relationer är en mycket utsatt grupp i samhället, relationen till männen är ofta komplex. För att bryta kvinnors isolering, som följd av våldsutsattheten, krävs insatser från omgivningen samt förändring på samhällelig nivå.
The purpose of the study was to identify the factors in women's exposure to violence by men in intimate relationships that affect their choice and ability to stay in or leave a violent relationship and what impact the social network has on women's decision to stay in or leave the relationship. Through qualitative content analysis of four autobiographies written by previously abused women, results were compiled, thematized and analysed using theories and concepts such as normalization process, traumatic bonding, and break-up process together with previous research. The results showed that reasons why an abused woman stays in a violent relationship are strong emotional bonds, normalization of violence, addiction, being mentally break down, internalization, fear and hope for change. What causes an abused woman to leave a violent relationship has turned out to be the realization that it would be unsustainable to stay for various reasons as well as fear for her own or someone else's life. The breaking process can be explained as a process in several steps. The social network had a great importance in the woman's choice and opportunity to be able to leave the relationship, however, the decision to leave had to come from the woman herself. The conclusion was thus that women who are exposed by men in intimate partner violence are a very vulnerable group in society, the relationship is often complex. Breaking women's isolation, as a result of domestic violence, requires efforts from the social network and change at the societal level.

This paper presents the feasibility study of setting up the new potting tray production line based on the two alternatives: partly outsource a process in the production line or wholly make all processes in-house. Both the qualitative and quantitative approaches have been exploited to analyze and compare between the make or buy decision. Also the nature of business, particularly SMEs, in Thailand has been presented, in which it has certain characteristics that influence the business doing and decision, especially to the supply chain management. The literature relating to the forecasting techniques, outsourcing decision framework, inventory management, and investment analysis have been reviewed and applied with the empirical findings. As this production line has not yet been in place, monthly sales volumes are forecasted within the five years time frame. Based on the forecasted sales volume, simulations are implemented to distribute the probability and project a certain demand required for each month. The projected demand is used as a baseline to determine required safety stock of materials, inventory cost, time between production runs and resources utilization for each option. Finally, in the quantitative analysis, the five years forecasted sales volume is used as a framework and several decision making-techniques such as break-even analysis, cash flow and decision trees are employed to come up with the results in financial aspects.

Die kosmische Nukleosynthese 35 protonenreicher stabiler Nuklide zwischen Selen und Blei kann nicht durch Neutroneneinfangprozesse erklärt werden. Es wird angenommen, dass diese Kerne in explosiven Szenarien, wie Supernova-Explosionen durch Protoneneinfang oder Photodesintegrationsprozesse, erzeugt werden, jedoch sind die solaren Häufigkeiten dieser sogenannten p-Kerne noch nicht verstanden. Der p-Kern mit der größten Isotopenhäufigkeit, 92Mo, wird in Nukleosynthese-Netzwerkrechnungen deutlich unterproduziert. Eine mögliche Ursache könnten unpräzise Reaktionswirkungsquerschnitte sein, da die meisten Wirkungsquerschnitte nur aus Modellrechnungen bekannt sind. Daher war es naheliegend, die Photodesintegrationswirkungsquerschnitte von 92Mo mit der Methode der Photoaktivierung an der Strahlungsquelle ELBE im Forschungszentrum Dresden-Rossendorf zu überprüfen. Durch die hohe Intensität der Bremsstrahlung von bis zu 10^9 MeV^-1cm^-2s^-1 im Energiebereich bis zu 20 MeV konnten im Rahmen dieser Arbeit erstmals nicht nur die (γ,n)-, sondern auch die (γ,p)-Reaktionen an 92Mo bei astrophysikalisch relevanten Energien untersucht werden. Durch die Messungen an zwei Bestrahlungsplätzen konnten systematische Unsicherheiten reduziert werden. Insbesondere wurde eine präzise Bestimmung der Photonenfluenz vorgenommen: Am Kernphysikmessplatz erfolgte die Bestimmung mittels Kernresonanzfluoreszenz an 11B. Im Elektronenstrahlfänger wurde die Photodesintegrationsreaktion 197Au(γ,n) zur Normierung der Photonenfluenz verwendet, nachdem sie zuvor am Kernphysikmessplatz überprüft wurde. Die Reaktion 92Mo(γ,n)91mMo, mit einer Halbwertszeit des Endkerns von 65 s, war dank einer Rohrpost zugänglich, mit der die Proben in weniger als 10 s von der Bestrahlungsstation zum Zerfallsmessplatz transportiert werden können. Die Messungen dieser Arbeit bestätigen im wesentlichen die Hauser-Feshbach-Modellrechnungen bezüglich der Photodesintegrationsreaktionen (γ,n) und (γ,p). Die Unterproduktion der Mo- und Ru-Isotope ist daher nicht erklärbar durch ungenaue Wirkungsquerschnitte. Zur Nukleosynthese dieser Kerne müssen andere astrophysikalische Prozesse, z.B. neutrinoinduzierte Reaktionen beitragen. Die gemessenen Photoaktivierungsausbeuten haben eine hohe Empfindlichkeit auf die Photonenstärkefunktion. ÄAnderungen der Dipolriesenresonanzparameter wirken sich stärker auf berechnete Ausbeuten aus, als ÄAnderungen der Kernniveaudichte oder der Parameter des optischen Modells. Durch gleichzeitige Messung der Photodesintegration am Kern 100Mo konnten Unsicherheiten in der Normierung von Photoneutronenexperimentdaten aus der Positronenannihilation im Flug geklärt werden.

Das Thema der Arbeit ist experimentelle Bestimmung der Ausbeute durch Photoaktivierung von Mo-92 mittels Bremsstrahlung des supraleitenden Elektronenlinearbeschleuniger ELBE im Forschungszentrum Dresden-Rossendorf. Mo-92 ist der p-Kern mit der größten Isotopenhäufigkeit und wird in astrophysikalischen Netzwerkrechnungen deutlich unterproduziert. Untersucht wurde dabei insbesondere der (gamma,p)- und (gamma,n)-Kanal, wobei für letzteren wegen der Halbwertszeit des Endkerns (Isomer) von 65 s eine Rohrpost verwendet wurde. Die Aktivierung erfolgte an zwei verschiedenen Bestrahlungsplätzen. Am Kernphysikmessplatz konnte die Photonenfluenz absolut mittels Kernresonanzfluoreszenz an B-11 bestimmt werden. Im Elektronenstrahlfänger wurde die Photodesintegrationsreaktion Au-197(gamma,n) zur Normierung verwendet. Die Endpunktsenergie wurde über den Deuteronenaufbruch durch Messung der Protonenspektren mit Si-Detektoren bestimmt. Die Ergebnisse wurden mit der integralen Ausbeute mit Hauser-Feshbach-Modellrechnungen verglichen. Parasitär konnte auch die Ausbeute der Aktivierung des in natürlichem Mo enthaltenen Isotops Mo-100 untersucht und mit früheren Photoneutronenexperimenten verglichen werden.

Exchange rate volatility is said to exemplify the economic health of a country. Exchange rate break points (known as structural breaks) have a momentous impact on the macroeconomy of a country. Nonetheless, this country study makes use of both unsupervised and supervised machine learning algorithms to classify structural changes as regime shifts in real exchange rates in South Africa. Weekly data for the period January 2003–June 2020 are used. To these data we apply both non-linear principal component analysis and Markov-switching generalized autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity. The former approach is used to reduce the dimensionality of the data using an orthogonal linear transformation by preserving the statistical variance of the data, with the proviso that a new trait is non-linearly independent, and it identifies the number of regime switches that are to be used in the Markov-switching model. The latter is used to partition the variance in each regime by allowing an estimation of multiple break transitions. The transition breakpoints estimates derived from this machine learning approach produce results that are comparable to other methods on similar system sizes. Application of these methods shows that the machine learning approach can also be employed to identify structural changes as a regime-switching process. During times of financial crisis, the growing concern over exchange rate volatility, including its adverse effects on employment and growth, broadens the debates on exchange rate policies. Our results should help the South African monetary policy committee to anticipate when exchange rates will pick up and be prepared for the effects of periods of high exchange rates.

The aerobic oxidation of organic material by microbes is the focus of this chapter. Microbes account for about 50% of primary production in the biosphere, but they probably account for more than 50% of organic material oxidization and respiration (oxygen use). The traditional role of microbes is to degrade organic material and to release plant nutrients such as phosphate and ammonium as well as carbon dioxide. Microbes are responsible for more than half of soil respiration, while size fractionation experiments show that bacteria are also responsible for about half of respiration in aquatic habitats. In soils, both fungi and bacteria are important, with relative abundances and activity varying with soil type. In contrast, fungi are not common in the oceans and lakes, where they are out-competed by bacteria with their small cell size. Dead organic material, detritus, used by microbes, comes from dead plants and waste products from herbivores. It and associated microbes can be eaten by many eukaryotic organisms, forming a detritus food web. These large organisms also break up detritus into small pieces, creating more surface area on which microbes can act. Microbes in turn need to use extracellular enzymes to hydrolyze large molecular weight compounds, which releases small compounds that can be transported into cells. Fungi and bacteria use a different mechanism, “oxidative decomposition,” to degrade lignin. Organic compounds that are otherwise easily degraded (“labile”) may resist decomposition if absorbed to surfaces or surrounded by refractory organic material. Addition of labile compounds can stimulate or “prime” the degradation of other organic material. Microbes also produce organic compounds, some eventually resisting degradation for thousands of years, and contributing substantially to soil organic material in terrestrial environments and dissolved organic material in aquatic ones. The relationship between community diversity and a biochemical process depends on the metabolic redundancy among members of the microbial community. This redundancy may provide “ecological insurance” and ensure the continuation of key biogeochemical processes when environmental conditions change.

The strongest Indian summer monsoon (ISM) on the planet features prolonged clustered spells of wet and dry conditions often lasting for two to three weeks, known as active and break monsoons. The active and break monsoons are attributed to a quasi-periodic intraseasonal oscillation (ISO), which is an extremely important form of the ISM variability bridging weather and climate variation. The ISO over India is part of the ISO in global tropics. The latter is one of the most important meteorological phenomena discovered during the 20th century (Madden & Julian, 1971, 1972). The extreme dry and wet events are regulated by the boreal summer ISO (BSISO). The BSISO over Indian monsoon region consists of northward propagating 30–60 day and westward propagating 10–20 day modes. The “clustering” of synoptic activity was separately modulated by both the 30–60 day and 10–20 day BSISO modes in approximately equal amounts. The clustering is particularly strong when the enhancement effect from both modes acts in concert. The northward propagation of BSISO is primarily originated from the easterly vertical shear (increasing easterly winds with height) of the monsoon flows, which by interacting with the BSISO convective system can generate boundary layer convergence to the north of the convective system that promotes its northward movement. The BSISO-ocean interaction through wind-evaporation feedback and cloud-radiation feedback can also contribute to the northward propagation of BSISO from the equator. The 10–20 day oscillation is primarily produced by convectively coupled Rossby waves modified by the monsoon mean flows. Using coupled general circulation models (GCMs) for ISO prediction is an important advance in subseasonal forecasts. The major modes of ISO over Indian monsoon region are potentially predictable up to 40–45 days as estimated by multiple GCM ensemble hindcast experiments. The current dynamical models’ prediction skills for the large initial amplitude cases are approximately 20–25 days, but the prediction of developing BSISO disturbance is much more difficult than the prediction of the mature BSISO disturbances. This article provides a synthesis of our current knowledge on the observed spatial and temporal structure of the ISO over India and the important physical processes through which the BSISO regulates the ISM active-break cycles and severe weather events. Our present capability and shortcomings in simulating and predicting the monsoon ISO and outstanding issues are also discussed.

In this final chapter, we conclude by recapitulating our argument and evidence. One goal of this work has been to improve our understanding of the patterns underlying the evolution of world politics over the past one thousand years. How did we get to where we are now? Where and when did the “modern” world begin? How did we shift from a primarily agrarian economy to a primarily industrial one? How did these changes shape world politics? A related goal was to examine more closely the factors that led to the most serious attempts by states to break free of agrarian constraints. We developed an interactive model of the factors that we thought were most likely to be significant. Finally, a third goal was to examine the linkages between the systemic leadership that emerged from these historical processes and the global warming crisis of the twenty-first century. Climate change means that the traditional energy platforms for system leadership—coal, petroleum, and natural gas—have become counterproductive. The ultimate irony is that we thought that the harnessing of carbon fuels made us invulnerable to climate fluctuations, while the exact opposite turns out to be true. The more carbon fuels are consumed, the greater the damage done to the atmosphere. In many respects, the competition for systemic leadership generated this problem. Yet it is unclear whether systemic leadership will be up to the task of resolving it.

Reputations can make or break citizens, communities, or companies. Reputations matter for individual careers, for one’s chances of finding a partner, for a profession’s credibility, or for the value of a firm’s stock options – to name but a few. The key mechanism for the creation, maintenance, and destruction of reputations in everyday life is gossip – evaluative talk about absent third parties. Reputation and gossip are inseparably intertwined, but up until now have been mostly studied in isolation. The present Handbook closes this gap, drawing on cutting edge insights from a multitude of disciplines, ranging from psychology, sociology, cultural anthropology and economics to philosophy, neurobiology and computer science. Being the first integrated and comprehensive collection of studies on both phenomena, each of the 25 chapters explores the current state of the art on the antecedents, processes and outcomes of the gossip-reputation link in contexts as diverse as online markets, non-industrial societies, modern firms, social networks, or schools. The volume is organized into seven parts, each of them devoted to the exploration of a different facet of gossip and reputation. Highly international in scope, the volume brings together some of the most eminent experts on gossip and reputation. Their contributions do not only help us to better understand the complex interplay between two of society’s most delicate social mechanisms. By pointing to new problems and a newly emerging cross-disciplinary solutions, the book also sketches the contours of a long term research agenda.

This book provides an account of how and why routine interactions break down and how such situational breakdowns lead to protest violence and other types of surprising social outcomes. It takes a close-up look at the dynamic processes of how situations unfold and compares their role to that of motivations, strategies, and other contextual factors. The book discusses factors that can draw us into violent situations and describes how and why we make uncommon individual and collective decisions. Covering different types of surprise outcomes from protest marches and uprisings turning violent to robbers failing to rob a store at gunpoint, it shows how unfolding situations can override our motivations and strategies and how emotions and culture, as well as rational thinking, still play a part in these events. The first chapters study protest violence in Germany and the United States from 1960 until 2010, taking a detailed look at what happens between the start of a protest and the eruption of violence or its peaceful conclusion. They compare the impact of such dynamics to the role of police strategies and culture, protesters’ claims and violent motivations, the black bloc and agents provocateurs. The analysis shows how violence is triggered, what determines its intensity, and which measures can avoid its outbreak. The book explores whether we find similar situational patterns leading to surprising outcomes in other types of small- and large-scale events: uprisings turning violent, such as Ferguson in 2014 and Baltimore in 2015, and failed armed store robberies.

Nationalism: Past as Prologue began as a single volume being compiled by Ad Akande, a scholar from South Africa, who proposed it to me as co-author about two years ago. The original idea was to examine how the damaging roots of nationalism have been corroding political systems around the world, and creating dangerous obstacles for necessary international cooperation. Since I (Bruce E. Johansen) has written profusely about climate change (global warming, a.k.a. infrared forcing), I suggested a concerted effort in that direction. This is a worldwide existential threat that affects every living thing on Earth. It often compounds upon itself, so delays in reducing emissions of fossil fuels are shortening the amount of time remaining to eliminate the use of fossil fuels to preserve a livable planet. Nationalism often impedes solutions to this problem (among many others), as nations place their singular needs above the common good. Our initial proposal got around, and abstracts on many subjects arrived. Within a few weeks, we had enough good material for a 100,000-word book. The book then fattened to two moderate volumes and then to four two very hefty tomes. We tried several different titles as good submissions swelled. We also discovered that our best contributors were experts in their fields, which ranged the world. We settled on three stand-alone books:” 1/ nationalism and racial justice. Our first volume grew as the growth of Black Lives Matter following the brutal killing of George Floyd ignited protests over police brutality and other issues during 2020, following the police assassination of Floyd in Minneapolis. It is estimated that more people took part in protests of police brutality during the summer of 2020 than any other series of marches in United States history. This includes upheavals during the 1960s over racial issues and against the war in Southeast Asia (notably Vietnam). We choose a volume on racism because it is one of nationalism’s main motive forces. This volume provides a worldwide array of work on nationalism’s growth in various countries, usually by authors residing in them, or in the United States with ethnic ties to the nation being examined, often recent immigrants to the United States from them. Our roster of contributors comprises a small United Nations of insightful, well-written research and commentary from Indonesia, New Zealand, Australia, China, India, South Africa, France, Portugal, Estonia, Hungary, Russia, Poland, Kazakhstan, Georgia, and the United States. Volume 2 (this one) describes and analyzes nationalism, by country, around the world, except for the United States; and 3/material directly related to President Donald Trump, and the United States. The first volume is under consideration at the Texas A & M University Press. The other two are under contract to Nova Science Publishers (which includes social sciences). These three volumes may be used individually or as a set. Environmental material is taken up in appropriate places in each of the three books. * * * * * What became the United States of America has been strongly nationalist since the English of present-day Massachusetts and Jamestown first hit North America’s eastern shores. The country propelled itself across North America with the self-serving ideology of “manifest destiny” for four centuries before Donald Trump came along. Anyone who believes that a Trumpian affection for deportation of “illegals” is a new thing ought to take a look at immigration and deportation statistics in Adam Goodman’s The Deportation Machine: America’s Long History of Deporting Immigrants (Princeton University Press, 2020). Between 1920 and 2018, the United States deported 56.3 million people, compared with 51.7 million who were granted legal immigration status during the same dates. Nearly nine of ten deportees were Mexican (Nolan, 2020, 83). This kind of nationalism, has become an assassin of democracy as well as an impediment to solving global problems. Paul Krugman wrote in the New York Times (2019:A-25): that “In their 2018 book, How Democracies Die, the political scientists Steven Levitsky and Daniel Ziblatt documented how this process has played out in many countries, from Vladimir Putin’s Russia, to Recep Erdogan’s Turkey, to Viktor Orban’s Hungary. Add to these India’s Narendra Modi, China’s Xi Jinping, and the United States’ Donald Trump, among others. Bit by bit, the guardrails of democracy have been torn down, as institutions meant to serve the public became tools of ruling parties and self-serving ideologies, weaponized to punish and intimidate opposition parties’ opponents. On paper, these countries are still democracies; in practice, they have become one-party regimes….And it’s happening here [the United States] as we speak. If you are not worried about the future of American democracy, you aren’t paying attention” (Krugmam, 2019, A-25). We are reminded continuously that the late Carl Sagan, one of our most insightful scientific public intellectuals, had an interesting theory about highly developed civilizations. Given the number of stars and planets that must exist in the vast reaches of the universe, he said, there must be other highly developed and organized forms of life. Distance may keep us from making physical contact, but Sagan said that another reason we may never be on speaking terms with another intelligent race is (judging from our own example) could be their penchant for destroying themselves in relatively short order after reaching technological complexity. This book’s chapters, introduction, and conclusion examine the worldwide rise of partisan nationalism and the damage it has wrought on the worldwide pursuit of solutions for issues requiring worldwide scope, such scientific co-operation public health and others, mixing analysis of both. We use both historical description and analysis. This analysis concludes with a description of why we must avoid the isolating nature of nationalism that isolates people and encourages separation if we are to deal with issues of world-wide concern, and to maintain a sustainable, survivable Earth, placing the dominant political movement of our time against the Earth’s existential crises. Our contributors, all experts in their fields, each have assumed responsibility for a country, or two if they are related. This work entwines themes of worldwide concern with the political growth of nationalism because leaders with such a worldview are disinclined to co-operate internationally at a time when nations must find ways to solve common problems, such as the climate crisis. Inability to cooperate at this stage may doom everyone, eventually, to an overheated, stormy future plagued by droughts and deluges portending shortages of food and other essential commodities, meanwhile destroying large coastal urban areas because of rising sea levels. Future historians may look back at our time and wonder why as well as how our world succumbed to isolating nationalism at a time when time was so short for cooperative intervention which is crucial for survival of a sustainable earth. Pride in language and culture is salubrious to individuals’ sense of history and identity. Excess nationalism that prevents international co-operation on harmful worldwide maladies is quite another. As Pope Francis has pointed out: For all of our connectivity due to expansion of social media, ability to communicate can breed contempt as well as mutual trust. “For all our hyper-connectivity,” said Francis, “We witnessed a fragmentation that made it more difficult to resolve problems that affect us all” (Horowitz, 2020, A-12). The pope’s encyclical, titled “Brothers All,” also said: “The forces of myopic, extremist, resentful, and aggressive nationalism are on the rise.” The pope’s document also advocates support for migrants, as well as resistance to nationalist and tribal populism. Francis broadened his critique to the role of market capitalism, as well as nationalism has failed the peoples of the world when they need co-operation and solidarity in the face of the world-wide corona virus pandemic. Humankind needs to unite into “a new sense of the human family [Fratelli Tutti, “Brothers All”], that rejects war at all costs” (Pope, 2020, 6-A). Our journey takes us first to Russia, with the able eye and honed expertise of Richard D. Anderson, Jr. who teaches as UCLA and publishes on the subject of his chapter: “Putin, Russian identity, and Russia’s conduct at home and abroad.” Readers should find Dr. Anderson’s analysis fascinating because Vladimir Putin, the singular leader of Russian foreign and domestic policy these days (and perhaps for the rest of his life, given how malleable Russia’s Constitution has become) may be a short man physically, but has high ambitions. One of these involves restoring the old Russian (and Soviet) empire, which would involve re-subjugating a number of nations that broke off as the old order dissolved about 30 years ago. President (shall we say czar?) Putin also has international ambitions, notably by destabilizing the United States, where election meddling has become a specialty. The sight of Putin and U.S. president Donald Trump, two very rich men (Putin $70-$200 billion; Trump $2.5 billion), nuzzling in friendship would probably set Thomas Jefferson and Vladimir Lenin spinning in their graves. The road of history can take some unanticipated twists and turns. Consider Poland, from which we have an expert native analysis in chapter 2, Bartosz Hlebowicz, who is a Polish anthropologist and journalist. His piece is titled “Lawless and Unjust: How to Quickly Make Your Own Country a Puppet State Run by a Group of Hoodlums – the Hopeless Case of Poland (2015–2020).” When I visited Poland to teach and lecture twice between 2006 and 2008, most people seemed to be walking on air induced by freedom to conduct their own affairs to an unusual degree for a state usually squeezed between nationalists in Germany and Russia. What did the Poles then do in a couple of decades? Read Hlebowicz’ chapter and decide. It certainly isn’t soft-bellied liberalism. In Chapter 3, with Bruce E. Johansen, we visit China’s western provinces, the lands of Tibet as well as the Uighurs and other Muslims in the Xinjiang region, who would most assuredly resent being characterized as being possessed by the Chinese of the Han to the east. As a student of Native American history, I had never before thought of the Tibetans and Uighurs as Native peoples struggling against the Independence-minded peoples of a land that is called an adjunct of China on most of our maps. The random act of sitting next to a young woman on an Air India flight out of Hyderabad, bound for New Delhi taught me that the Tibetans had something to share with the Lakota, the Iroquois, and hundreds of other Native American states and nations in North America. Active resistance to Chinese rule lasted into the mid-nineteenth century, and continues today in a subversive manner, even in song, as I learned in 2018 when I acted as a foreign adjudicator on a Ph.D. dissertation by a Tibetan student at the University of Madras (in what is now in a city called Chennai), in southwestern India on resistance in song during Tibet’s recent history. Tibet is one of very few places on Earth where a young dissident can get shot to death for singing a song that troubles China’s Quest for Lebensraum. The situation in Xinjiang region, where close to a million Muslims have been interned in “reeducation” camps surrounded with brick walls and barbed wire. They sing, too. Come with us and hear the music. Back to Europe now, in Chapter 4, to Portugal and Spain, we find a break in the general pattern of nationalism. Portugal has been more progressive governmentally than most. Spain varies from a liberal majority to military coups, a pattern which has been exported to Latin America. A situation such as this can make use of the term “populism” problematic, because general usage in our time usually ties the word into a right-wing connotative straightjacket. “Populism” can be used to describe progressive (left-wing) insurgencies as well. José Pinto, who is native to Portugal and also researches and writes in Spanish as well as English, in “Populism in Portugal and Spain: a Real Neighbourhood?” provides insight into these historical paradoxes. Hungary shares some historical inclinations with Poland (above). Both emerged from Soviet dominance in an air of developing freedom and multicultural diversity after the Berlin Wall fell and the Soviet Union collapsed. Then, gradually at first, right wing-forces began to tighten up, stripping structures supporting popular freedom, from the courts, mass media, and other institutions. In Chapter 5, Bernard Tamas, in “From Youth Movement to Right-Liberal Wing Authoritarianism: The Rise of Fidesz and the Decline of Hungarian Democracy” puts the renewed growth of political and social repression into a context of worldwide nationalism. Tamas, an associate professor of political science at Valdosta State University, has been a postdoctoral fellow at Harvard University and a Fulbright scholar at the Central European University in Budapest, Hungary. His books include From Dissident to Party Politics: The Struggle for Democracy in Post-Communist Hungary (2007). Bear in mind that not everyone shares Orbán’s vision of what will make this nation great, again. On graffiti-covered walls in Budapest, Runes (traditional Hungarian script) has been found that read “Orbán is a motherfucker” (Mikanowski, 2019, 58). Also in Europe, in Chapter 6, Professor Ronan Le Coadic, of the University of Rennes, Rennes, France, in “Is There a Revival of French Nationalism?” Stating this title in the form of a question is quite appropriate because France’s nationalistic shift has built and ebbed several times during the last few decades. For a time after 2000, it came close to assuming the role of a substantial minority, only to ebb after that. In 2017, the candidate of the National Front reached the second round of the French presidential election. This was the second time this nationalist party reached the second round of the presidential election in the history of the Fifth Republic. In 2002, however, Jean-Marie Le Pen had only obtained 17.79% of the votes, while fifteen years later his daughter, Marine Le Pen, almost doubled her father's record, reaching 33.90% of the votes cast. Moreover, in the 2019 European elections, re-named Rassemblement National obtained the largest number of votes of all French political formations and can therefore boast of being "the leading party in France.” The brutality of oppressive nationalism may be expressed in personal relationships, such as child abuse. While Indonesia and Aotearoa [the Maoris’ name for New Zealand] hold very different ranks in the United Nations Human Development Programme assessments, where Indonesia is classified as a medium development country and Aotearoa New Zealand as a very high development country. In Chapter 7, “Domestic Violence Against Women in Indonesia and Aotearoa New Zealand: Making Sense of Differences and Similarities” co-authors, in Chapter 8, Mandy Morgan and Dr. Elli N. Hayati, from New Zealand and Indonesia respectively, found that despite their socio-economic differences, one in three women in each country experience physical or sexual intimate partner violence over their lifetime. In this chapter ther authors aim to deepen understandings of domestic violence through discussion of the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of theit countries to address domestic violence alongside studies of women’s attitudes to gender norms and experiences of intimate partner violence. One of the most surprising and upsetting scholarly journeys that a North American student may take involves Adolf Hitler’s comments on oppression of American Indians and Blacks as he imagined the construction of the Nazi state, a genesis of nationalism that is all but unknown in the United States of America, traced in this volume (Chapter 8) by co-editor Johansen. Beginning in Mein Kampf, during the 1920s, Hitler explicitly used the westward expansion of the United States across North America as a model and justification for Nazi conquest and anticipated colonization by Germans of what the Nazis called the “wild East” – the Slavic nations of Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine, and Russia, most of which were under control of the Soviet Union. The Volga River (in Russia) was styled by Hitler as the Germans’ Mississippi, and covered wagons were readied for the German “manifest destiny” of imprisoning, eradicating, and replacing peoples the Nazis deemed inferior, all with direct references to events in North America during the previous century. At the same time, with no sense of contradiction, the Nazis partook of a long-standing German romanticism of Native Americans. One of Goebbels’ less propitious schemes was to confer honorary Aryan status on Native American tribes, in the hope that they would rise up against their oppressors. U.S. racial attitudes were “evidence [to the Nazis] that America was evolving in the right direction, despite its specious rhetoric about equality.” Ming Xie, originally from Beijing, in the People’s Republic of China, in Chapter 9, “News Coverage and Public Perceptions of the Social Credit System in China,” writes that The State Council of China in 2014 announced “that a nationwide social credit system would be established” in China. “Under this system, individuals, private companies, social organizations, and governmental agencies are assigned a score which will be calculated based on their trustworthiness and daily actions such as transaction history, professional conduct, obedience to law, corruption, tax evasion, and academic plagiarism.” The “nationalism” in this case is that of the state over the individual. China has 1.4 billion people; this system takes their measure for the purpose of state control. Once fully operational, control will be more subtle. People who are subject to it, through modern technology (most often smart phones) will prompt many people to self-censor. Orwell, modernized, might write: “Your smart phone is watching you.” Ming Xie holds two Ph.Ds, one in Public Administration from University of Nebraska at Omaha and another in Cultural Anthropology from the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, where she also worked for more than 10 years at a national think tank in the same institution. While there she summarized news from non-Chinese sources for senior members of the Chinese Communist Party. Ming is presently an assistant professor at the Department of Political Science and Criminal Justice, West Texas A&M University. In Chapter 10, analyzing native peoples and nationhood, Barbara Alice Mann, Professor of Honours at the University of Toledo, in “Divide, et Impera: The Self-Genocide Game” details ways in which European-American invaders deprive the conquered of their sense of nationhood as part of a subjugation system that amounts to genocide, rubbing out their languages and cultures -- and ultimately forcing the native peoples to assimilate on their own, for survival in a culture that is foreign to them. Mann is one of Native American Studies’ most acute critics of conquests’ contradictions, and an author who retrieves Native history with a powerful sense of voice and purpose, having authored roughly a dozen books and numerous book chapters, among many other works, who has traveled around the world lecturing and publishing on many subjects. Nalanda Roy and S. Mae Pedron in Chapter 11, “Understanding the Face of Humanity: The Rohingya Genocide.” describe one of the largest forced migrations in the history of the human race, the removal of 700,000 to 800,000 Muslims from Buddhist Myanmar to Bangladesh, which itself is already one of the most crowded and impoverished nations on Earth. With about 150 million people packed into an area the size of Nebraska and Iowa (population less than a tenth that of Bangladesh, a country that is losing land steadily to rising sea levels and erosion of the Ganges river delta. The Rohingyas’ refugee camp has been squeezed onto a gigantic, eroding, muddy slope that contains nearly no vegetation. However, Bangladesh is majority Muslim, so while the Rohingya may starve, they won’t be shot to death by marauding armies. Both authors of this exquisite (and excruciating) account teach at Georgia Southern University in Savannah, Georgia, Roy as an associate professor of International Studies and Asian politics, and Pedron as a graduate student; Roy originally hails from very eastern India, close to both Myanmar and Bangladesh, so he has special insight into the context of one of the most brutal genocides of our time, or any other. This is our case describing the problems that nationalism has and will pose for the sustainability of the Earth as our little blue-and-green orb becomes more crowded over time. The old ways, in which national arguments often end in devastating wars, are obsolete, given that the Earth and all the people, plants, and other animals that it sustains are faced with the existential threat of a climate crisis that within two centuries, more or less, will flood large parts of coastal cities, and endanger many species of plants and animals. To survive, we must listen to the Earth, and observe her travails, because they are increasingly our own.

This chapter discusses DAU CardSim, a multiplayer card game for teaching defense acquisition strategies, and addresses the challenges in moving from a paper prototype of the game to a digital version. This post-mortem will break down the requirements and elements that went into the DAU CardSim design and the decision to adopt a card game system. The rapid development process used varying levels of simple prototypes for initial design and playtesting, as well as game balance and refinement. The culmination of the design process involved converting the physical card game to a digital version. This presented challenges in creation but lacked many of the inherent problems of developing a digital system from the ground up by streamlining the development cycle.

Entrepreneurial social capital is founded on the basis of the environmental trust. It takes advantage of a series of social network resources which are built by a network of relationships and coordinate abilities, so as to realize knowledge acquisition which will promote network capacity of firm performance. In the transition process of Chinese economy, the social capital of entrepreneurs themselves have practical significance on newly-established firms which need to break through the resource constraint and realize rapid growth. The research theory has enriched the theoretical connotation of entrepreneurs' social capital. It is divided into three dimensionalities; they are environmental trust, network relation, and network capacity, and then building a good model about entrepreneurial social capital, knowledge acquisition, and start-up firm performance. According to the empirical analysis of the newly established 564 companies in Yangtze delta area, the research results show that environmental trust has positive effect on the construction of network relationship and network capacity. While the knowledge acquisition was significantly and positively correlated with the start-up firm performance, it also indicates that the relation between the environmental trust and the start-up firm performance is an inverse U shape. However, the knowledge acquisition of enterprises will promote the relationship between entrepreneurial social capital and enterprise performance, as well as announcing that only having strong entrepreneurial social capitals can get the needed knowledge. Furthermore, one needs to translate knowledge into the internal ability of enterprise. Consequently, one can get a competitive advantage. This chapter explores all of this.

The European Union officially launched the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) in 2003, even if its roots can be traced back to 1997 when the central eastern European enlargement began to gather momentum. Arguably, the policy goes back even further to the EU’s response to the break-up of the former Soviet Union in the early 1990s. At that time, the EU started negotiating the partnership and cooperation agreements with the newly independent states and launched the Barcelona Process with Mediterranean countries in 1995. The Commission dealt separately with the different groups of neighbours (the Eastern and the Southern) until 2002 when, in a strategy paper, it specifically identified the need to establish a new, more coherent approach for all countries concerned. A Commission communication on the new ‘Wider Europe’ policy was published in 2003 and was endorsed by the Council in Thessaloniki in the same year.

Chapter 12 presents the progress of and problems faced by the Open approach in the Bengal Delta and draws attention to the special merits of the Open approach in confronting the adverse effects of climate change in this delta. It surveys the findings of river scholars in the Indian part of the delta favoring the Open approach. Reviewing progress in the Bangladesh part of the delta, the chapter follows the struggle against the Flood Action Plan (FAP) that argued for big embankment projects in the wake of the historic flood of 1988. It notes the changes that took place in Bangladesh’s water-related institutional set up following the FAP process and the prospects they hold for promoting the Open approach. The chapter also presents a few examples of water projects that conform with the Open approach. It offers a critique of the recently formulated Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 that fails to make a clear break from the Cordon approach. It reviews the development of the renewed, broad-based civic movement in Bangladesh for adoption of the Open approach.

Soviet archaeology, based on a revized Marxist paradigm of historical process, traditionally emphasized the primacy of social and economic processes, while at the same time empirically creating a foundation for palaeoenvironmental studies based on the interdisciplinary reconstruction of a subsistence economy. The collapse of the Soviet Union caused the break-up of the well-composed strict Soviet methodology of historical reconstruction, provoking intensive searches for new theoretical frameworks for both field and interpretative investigations. This paradigmatic and in some aspects epistemological crisis has created a unique background for the critical revision of a series of approaches and scientific schools which functioned during the second half of the twentieth century. As a result of this difficult, long-lasting, and often ambiguous process of self-reflection only a few concepts applied in Soviet archaeology have demonstrated a vital, cognitive capacity in the post-Soviet period; however, environment is one of these. The history of environmental thought in Soviet archaeology (as in Soviet social sciences in general) represents a unique genre: officially neglected and even theoretically non-existent, it was nevertheless broadly applied in practical research, and many important theories, concepts, and reconstructions have been developed on the basis of palaeoenvironmental data. This ambiguity of lack of official status mixed with practical application of an environmental approach in Soviet archaeology explains why a detailed history of Soviet theoretical approaches to the environment is as yet unwritten. However, this contribution tries to begin this process by briefly summing up the history of environmental approach implementation in Soviet and post-Soviet archaeology, outlining the basic stages of this process and examining the main concepts and notions explored in this context. The specificity of the material remains of hunter-gatherer daily life and subsistence as well as features of their archaeological investigation techniques (including studies of the geological characteristics of cultural layers alongside detailed examination of faunal remains) caused Stone Age archaeology to emerge within the framework of the natural sciences—geology and palaeontology. From the very beginning of Stone Age archaeology the Early Prehistoric population was viewed as an integral part of the natural environment.

From the perspective of the security official, the practice of torture raises two interrelated compulsions: that of efficacy and that of legality. The compulsion of efficacy is expressed by the need to make sure that all state actions conform to an instrumental rationality. The compulsion of legality is the tendency to justify all state actions in terms of their reference to law. When a deeply ingrained knowledge that torture is necessary “to get the job done” interacts with the belief that legality is a necessary condition for all legitimate state actions, one can readily expect an ongoing process of legalization of organized torture practices aimed at bringing every official act of necessity to be seen as conforming to law. The history of torture debates and practice in Israel illustrates this dynamic long-term process. The two compulsions—the compulsion of efficacy and the compulsion of legality—run through that history, creating an ongoing circular dynamic in which torture scandals are followed by systematic attempts to abolish the practice, which in turn open up opportunities for new regulation, creating new torture scandals to which the Israeli justice system responds by redrawing the lines so that what is seen as necessary violence will remain “within the law.” This chapter lays out this cyclical history, predicts its next stage, and ultimately suggests how to begin to break the cycle.

Explores how, in the context of drought, the parties were able to move From Litigation to Cooperation. After a serious diplomatic confrontation and ensuing lawsuit in which both countries ended up worse off than before, leaders on both sides of the border set out to frame a new mandate. With this new approach, the two sides sought to redefine their relations on the Colorado River and begin negotiations from a constructive, mutual gains mindset. Turning Crisis into Opportunity examines the ways in which the two sides seized a critical window of opportunity to move the negotiations forward following the devastating 2010 earthquake in Mexico’s Mexicali Valley, which weakened the alternatives of several domestic constituencies in Mexico who were opposed to a cooperative process with the U.S. No Negotiation without Representation explains how the U.S. was able to break the traditional diplomatic protocol to allow the seven U.S. states that own the rights to the Colorado River water to be appropriately represented and have a seat at the negotiating table. Involved for the first time as co-sovereigns with the U.S. and Mexican federal authorities, the contributions of the Upper Basin and Lower Basin states were critical to shaping an implementable agreement.

This chapter traces a series of climactic meetings of the National Security Council in December of 2006. By December, Vice President Dick Cheney thought it was “pretty clear that we've got to do something different than what we've been doing. December was then devoted to sort of nailing down what that was going to be.” The president and his advisors discussed fundamental issues regarding American goals and responsibilities in Iraq and increasingly concluded that only a surge option, as part of a change in military strategy and an effort at bottom-up political reconciliation in Iraq, could salvage the American mission there. That same month, the president visited the Joint Chiefs of Staff in their meeting room to hear and address their concerns about whether an intensified military effort in Iraq might overtax the US military and even “break the force.” In December, too, public discussion about the American future in Iraq was fueled by reports from the congressionally mandated Iraq Study Group, which advocated for a regional diplomatic strategy to help quell violence in Iraq, as well as from the American Enterprise Institute, which advocated increasing US forces in Iraq and pursuing a proper counterinsurgency strategy. The impact of these external reviews on the eventual surge decision remains hotly debated; the chapter helps place these efforts within the context of the internal administration policy process and Bush's decision making.

The conclusion revisits the major themes of book. It also highlights the larger implications of these findings for young people in the United States. New partnerships between education and penal facilities and wraparound services as a whole do not help young people stay away from the criminal justice system. Despite the positive intentions of these new services, law enforcement and education administrators inadvertently undermine their goal of helping youth by exposing them to further criminalization. Instead these new services break down social bonds between adults, institutional actors, and other young people that would help the girls in my study begin a more positive life-course. This is reflected in their failed attempts to finish probation, return to traditional school and leave the criminal justice system altogether. I revisit this clear disconnect between the well-intentioned goals of education and corrections administrators with negative outcomes young women must negotiate as they try, and often fail, to stay out of secure detention. I also remind the reader how this process has a set of challenges that are unique to Latinas’ intersecting identities.

Turbulent flows like those in the atmospheric boundary layer can be thought of as a superposition of eddies—coherent patterns of velocity, vorticity, and pressure— spread over a wide range of sizes. These eddies interact continuously with the mean flow, from which they derive their energy, and also with each other. The large “energy-containing” eddies, which contain most of the kinetic energy and are responsible for most of the transport in the turbulence, arise through instabilities in the background flow. The random forcing that provokes these instabilities is provided by the existing turbulence. This is the process represented in the production terms of the turbulent kinetic energy equation (1.59) in Chapter 1. The energy-containing eddies themselves are also subject to instabilities, which in their case are provoked by other eddies. This imposes upon them a finite lifetime before they too break up into yet smaller eddies. This process is repeated at all scales until the eddies become sufficiently small that viscosity can affect them directly and convert their kinetic energy to internal energy (heat). The action of viscosity is captured in the dissipation term of the turbulent kinetic energy equation. The second-moment budget equations presented in Chapter 1, of which (1.59) is one example, describe the summed behavior of all the eddies in the turbulent flow. To understand the conversion of mean kinetic energy into turbulent kinetic energy in the large eddies, the handing down of this energy to eddies of smaller and smaller scale in an “eddy cascade” process, and its ultimate conversion to heat by viscosity, we must isolate the different scales of turbulent motion and separately observe their behavior. Taking Fourier spectra and cospectra of the turbulence offers a convenient way of doing this. The spectral representation associates with each scale of motion the amount of kinetic energy, variance, or eddy flux it contributes to the whole and provides a new and invaluable perspective on boundary layer structure. The spectrum of boundary layer fluctuations covers a range of more than five decades: millimeters to kilometers in spatial scales and fractions of a second to hours in temporal scales.

Atomization is the process of disintegration of a liquid jet into ligaments and subsequently into smaller droplets. A liquid jet injected from a circular orifice into cross flow of air undergoes atomization primarily due to the interaction of the two phases rather than an intrinsic break up. Direct numerical simulation of this process resolving the finest droplets is computationally very expensive and impractical. In the present study, we resort to multiscale modelling to reduce the computational cost. The primary break up of the liquid jet is simulated using Gerris, an open source code, which employs Volume-of-Fluid (VOF) algorithm. The smallest droplets formed during primary atomization are modeled as Lagrangian particles. This one-way coupling approach is validated with the help of the simple test case of tracking a particle in a Taylor-Green vortex. The temporal evolution of the liquid jet forming the spray is captured and the flattening of the cylindrical liquid column prior to breakup is observed. The size distribution of the resultant droplets is presented at different distances downstream from the location of injection and their spatial evolution is analyzed.

The description of the complex flow of coolant water with particles is necessary to evaluate safety relevant effects of the sedimentation of isolation material on sump-sieves in nuclear power station. Classifying and modeling of the different phenomena maybe important in the case of a coolant accident, because the isolation material can be transported into the reactor containment, the building sump of the containment and into the associated systems [1]. In order to ensure the heat dissipation from the reactor core and the containment the cooling systems transport the water from the sump into the condensation chamber and then into the reactor pressure vessel. The functionality of the pumps can be affected by a high allocation of the sieves with fractionated isolation material. In this case the heat dissipation from fuel elements is not guaranteed. The transport of the material will be simulated with the CFD-code. The modeling of the flow with particles is very complex, because of the structure of the particles and their interaction with the fluid. There are different classes of particles with different attributes, e.g. sinking velocity. So one needs more than one disperse phase to describe the whole process, which is associated with a lot of computing power and not realizable for large geometries. The paper deals with experimental and methodical activities for the description of the agglomeration and the break-up of isolation material in fluid flow. The aim of this work is to describe the evolution of the volume parts of the different particle classes turbulent flows depending on the time in. The modeling phase starts with a very simple model to describe 3 particle classes (x, y, z) and results in a differential equation system with 3 equations. To describe all classes the model has to be expanded. Therefore the Lindenmayer-System approach has been adopted. These systems can be taken in cases where self-similarity takes place. The result is a differential equation system with iterations for the three classes (x(i), y(i), z(i)), with i as the parameter for the number of subclasses. The values for the agglomeration and break-up rates will be taken from experiments. As a result a model has been created which describes the evaluation of the different particles classes in turbulent flow. It helps to choose the correct particle class in the CFD simulation depending on the situation to simulate.

The break-up of a liquid jet in crossflowing air-stream has been numerically simulated at atmospheric pressure and temperature conditions using a Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code. The break-up model simulates the effects of jet bending, flattening and penetration prior to column fracture, droplet secondary break-up due to aerodynamic forces, changes in droplet drag due to distortion, and droplet dispersion due to gas phase turbulence and break-up process. Results from the calculations are compared with the PDI (Phase Doppler Interfometry) measured near-field data (e.g., volumetric flux, droplet size, velocity etc.) for different momentum flux ratios, orifice sizes and crossflow velocities. The agreement between computed results and measured data is generally good, considering the complex physics involved in the atomization process and the interaction between the liquid jet and air.

The diesel engine combustion process is very complex in nature. On the order of milliseconds, a high-pressure liquid spray is injected into a cylinder with a moving boundary. The spray undergoes break-up, dispersion, phase change and combustion. Accurate spray modeling is a prerequisite to modeling the diesel combustion process. Droplet break-up is governed by both primary and secondary break-up mechanisms. The Taylor Analogy Break-Up (TAB) Model was employed, in a self-contained simulation environment, to study the secondary break-up of a droplet flowing in a range of aerodynamic environments. The model, which describes the droplet distortion/break-up in an analogy to a spring-mass-damped system, was not formulated to solve the entire spray from start of injection to combustion, which is typically done with a PDF treatment. The developed simulation code provides a fundamental environment to parametrically study the effects of different break-up forcing functions (aerodynamic etc.) as well as provides the ability to refit power-law expressions that can then be used in phemonological diesel engine simulations. The paper first discusses the key physical mechanisms associated with breakup, the formulation/implementation of the numerical model, demonstrates its use to understand droplet parameter tradeoffs and how it can be used to construct reduced order break-up residence time models. Finally, the model is extended to a multi-DOF formulation to facilitate the understanding of the impact of additional breakup forces, which could be aerodynamic, collision-induced etc., on the droplet.

Our objective is to visualize the breakup of crude oil droplets, mixed with dispersants, in a turbulent flow. The current measurements are performed for a sample crude oil from Alaska National Slope mixed with dispersant COREXIT 9527. The droplet breakup measurements are conducted in a nearly homogeneous and isotropic turbulence facility, the central portion of which is characterized using 2-D PIV. The droplet break up is visualized at high spatial and temporal resolution using one view high speed, in-line digital holography. Subsequent analysis reveals relevant length scales and timescales involved in the break up process.

Abstract Splitting a single droplet into two unequal portions using a microfluidic T-junction has been an important functional feature of many modern lab-on-a-chip devices. A recent study introduced a general criterion for asymmetric droplet break-up in the range of intermediate Capillary numbers. The current work attempts to analyze, in more details, the different underlying mechanisms governing the asymmetric break-up process. In particular, this work focuses on the relationship between the break-up mechanism versus the splitting ratio of the daughter droplets. CFD simulation is used to closely monitor the effect of different fluid properties on the evolution of droplet break-up process. The splitting ratio under different flow conditions is characterized. Four mechanisms for primary droplet break-up are defined as follows: break-up with permanent obstruction, unstable break-up, breakup with tunnels and non-breakup. In particular, the main focus of this study is on the unstable break-up mechanisms where is very likely results to a much-deviated splitting ratio. Typically, yet unexpectedly, the resulting splitting ratio is often larger than the pressure gradient ratio in the T-junction. However, the two ratios are approximately equals to each other under a limited set of flow conditions. It has been observed that the splitting ratio could be more than double the pressure gradient ratio of the T-junction. The break-up is observed to be in the permanent obstruction mode if the splitting ratio is about the same magnitude as the pressure gradient ratio. The effects of the T-junction geometry on the break-up will also be examined.

The breakup process of threads from laminar operating rotary atomizer (LamRot) is in the scope of this investigation. A similarity trail is used to investigate the influence of the thread deformation within a cross-wind flow on the thread breakup process. The threads emerge from laminar open channel flow while the liquid viscosity, the flow rate, the pipe inclination towards the gravity as well as the cross-wind velocity is varied. The breakup length and drop size distribution are analyzed by a back-light photography setup. The results thus obtained are compared with results of previous examination by Schröder [1] and Mescher [2]. It is found that the breakup length decreases and that the drop size grows with rising cross-wind intensity, while the width of the drop size distribution increases. At the same operating conditions, the breakup length for laminar open channel flow is smaller compared to completely filled capillaries. In contrast to this observation, the drop size distribution remains nearly unchanged. The critical velocity for the transition from axisymmetric to wind-induced thread breakup was found to be smaller than for completely filled capillaries.

The dynamics of the break-up of curved jets produced by the prilling process were studied. The effects of liquid dynamic viscosity, rotation rate and orifice size upon the surface tension driven instabilities were investigated. Liquid dynamic viscosity was varied by using mixtures of glycerol and water which gave dynamic viscosities ranging from 0.001 to 0.081 Pa.s at 20°C. Over the range of experimental parameters studied, four different break-up modes were identified. For each mode, considerable differences in the break-up mechanism and in the drop size distributions produced were observed. Dimensional analysis has shown that the break-up modes can be predicted from a plot of Reynolds number against Weber number. The break-up mode observed is a strong function of viscosity and highly nonlinear effects were observed with the most viscous solutions used. The effect of rotation rate on the jet break-up length was inconclusive from the experiment.