Dissertationen zum Thema „Australian farmers“

Australian farmers are supplementing traditional practices with innovative strategies in an effort to survive recent economic, environmental, and social crises in the rural sector. These innovative strategies include moving towards a technology-based farm management style. A review of past literature determines that, despite a growing awareness of the usefulness of computers for farm management, there is concern over the limited demand for computer-based agricultural decision support systems (DSS). Recent literature indicates that women are the dominant users of computers on family farms yet are hesitant to use computers for decision support, and it is also unclear what decision-making roles women assume on family farms. While past research has investigated the roles of women in the Australian rural sector, there is a dearth of research into the interaction of women cotton growers with computers. Therefore, this dissertation is an ontological study and aims to contribute to scholarly knowledge in the research domain of Australian women cotton growers, agricultural DSS, and cotton farm management. This dissertation belongs in the Information Systems (IS) stream and describes an interpretive single case study which explores the lives of Australian women cotton growers on family farms and the association of an agricultural DSS with their farm management roles. Data collection was predominantly through semi-structured interviews with women cotton growers and cotton industry professionals such as DSS developers, rural extension officers, researchers and educators, rural experimental scientists, and agronomists and consultants, all of whom advise cotton growers. The study was informed by multiple sociological theories with opposing paradigmatic assumptions: Giddens' (1984) structuration theory as a metatheory to explore the recursiveness of farm life and technology usage; Rogers' (1995) diffusion of innovations theory with a functionalist approach to objectively examine the features of the software and user, as well as the processes of technology adoption; and Connell's (2002) theory of gender relations with its radical humanist perspective to subjectively investigate the relationships between farm partners through critical enquiry. The study was enriched further by drawing on other writings of these authors (Connell 1987; Giddens 2001; Rogers 2003) as well as complementary theories by authors (Orlikowski 1992; Orlikowski 2000; Trauth 2002; Vanclay & Lawrence 1995). These theories in combination have not been used before, which is a theoretical contribution of the study. The agricultural DSS for the study was CottonLOGIC, an advanced farm management tool to aid the management of cotton production. It was developed in the late 1990s by the CSIRO and the Australian Cotton Cooperative Research Centre (CRC), with support from the Cotton Research and Development Corporation (CRDC). CottonLOGIC is a software package of decision support and record-keeping modules to assist cotton growers and their advisors in the management of cotton pests, soil nutrition, and farm operations. It enables the recording and reporting of crop inputs and yields, insect populations (heliothis, tipworm, mirids and so on), weather data, and field operations such as fertiliser and pesticide applications, as well as the running of insect density prediction (heliothis and mites) and soil nutrition models. The study found that innovative practices and sustainable solutions are an imperative in cotton farm management for generating an improved triple bottom line of economic, environmental and social outcomes. CottonLOGIC is an industry benchmark for supporting these values through the incorporation of Best Management Practices (BMP) and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) principles, although there were indications that the software is in need of restructuring as could be expected of software over five years old. The evidence from the study was that women growers are participants in strategic farm decisions but less so in operational decisions, partly due to their lack of relevant agronomic knowledge. This hindered their use of CottonLOGIC, despite creative attempts to modify it. The study endorsed the existence of gender differences and inequalities in rural Australia. Nevertheless, the study also found that the women are valued for their roles as business partners in the multidisciplinary nature of farm management. All the same, there was evidence that greater collaboration and cooperation by farm partners and advisors would improve business outcomes. On the whole, however, women cotton growers are not passive agents but take responsibility for their own futures. In particular, DSS tools such as CottonLOGIC are instrumental in enabling women cotton growers to adapt to, challenge, and influence farm management practices in the family farm enterprise, just as CottonLOGIC is itself shaped and reshaped. Hence, a practical contribution of this study is to provide non-prescriptive guidelines for the improved adoption of agricultural DSS, particularly by rural women, as well as increasing awareness of the worth of their roles as family farm business partners.

Australian farmers are supplementing traditional practices with innovative strategies in an effort to survive recent economic, environmental, and social crises in the rural sector. These innovative strategies include moving towards a technology-based farm management style. A review of past literature determines that, despite a growing awareness of the usefulness of computers for farm management, there is concern over the limited demand for computer-based agricultural decision support systems (DSS). Recent literature indicates that women are the dominant users of computers on family farms yet are hesitant to use computers for decision support, and it is also unclear what decision-making roles women assume on family farms. While past research has investigated the roles of women in the Australian rural sector, there is a dearth of research into the interaction of women cotton growers with computers. Therefore, this dissertation is an ontological study and aims to contribute to scholarly knowledge in the research domain of Australian women cotton growers, agricultural DSS, and cotton farm management. This dissertation belongs in the Information Systems (IS) stream and describes an interpretive single case study which explores the lives of Australian women cotton growers on family farms and the association of an agricultural DSS with their farm management roles. Data collection was predominantly through semi-structured interviews with women cotton growers and cotton industry professionals such as DSS developers, rural extension officers, researchers and educators, rural experimental scientists, and agronomists and consultants, all of whom advise cotton growers. The study was informed by multiple sociological theories with opposing paradigmatic assumptions: Giddens' (1984) structuration theory as a metatheory to explore the recursiveness of farm life and technology usage; Rogers' (1995) diffusion of innovations theory with a functionalist approach to objectively examine the features of the software and user, as well as the processes of technology adoption; and Connell's (2002) theory of gender relations with its radical humanist perspective to subjectively investigate the relationships between farm partners through critical enquiry. The study was enriched further by drawing on other writings of these authors (Connell 1987; Giddens 2001; Rogers 2003) as well as complementary theories by authors (Orlikowski 1992; Orlikowski 2000; Trauth 2002; Vanclay & Lawrence 1995). These theories in combination have not been used before, which is a theoretical contribution of the study. The agricultural DSS for the study was CottonLOGIC, an advanced farm management tool to aid the management of cotton production. It was developed in the late 1990s by the CSIRO and the Australian Cotton Cooperative Research Centre (CRC), with support from the Cotton Research and Development Corporation (CRDC). CottonLOGIC is a software package of decision support and record-keeping modules to assist cotton growers and their advisors in the management of cotton pests, soil nutrition, and farm operations. It enables the recording and reporting of crop inputs and yields, insect populations (heliothis, tipworm, mirids and so on), weather data, and field operations such as fertiliser and pesticide applications, as well as the running of insect density prediction (heliothis and mites) and soil nutrition models. The study found that innovative practices and sustainable solutions are an imperative in cotton farm management for generating an improved triple bottom line of economic, environmental and social outcomes. CottonLOGIC is an industry benchmark for supporting these values through the incorporation of Best Management Practices (BMP) and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) principles, although there were indications that the software is in need of restructuring as could be expected of software over five years old. The evidence from the study was that women growers are participants in strategic farm decisions but less so in operational decisions, partly due to their lack of relevant agronomic knowledge. This hindered their use of CottonLOGIC, despite creative attempts to modify it. The study endorsed the existence of gender differences and inequalities in rural Australia. Nevertheless, the study also found that the women are valued for their roles as business partners in the multidisciplinary nature of farm management. All the same, there was evidence that greater collaboration and cooperation by farm partners and advisors would improve business outcomes. On the whole, however, women cotton growers are not passive agents but take responsibility for their own futures. In particular, DSS tools such as CottonLOGIC are instrumental in enabling women cotton growers to adapt to, challenge, and influence farm management practices in the family farm enterprise, just as CottonLOGIC is itself shaped and reshaped. Hence, a practical contribution of this study is to provide non-prescriptive guidelines for the improved adoption of agricultural DSS, particularly by rural women, as well as increasing awareness of the worth of their roles as family farm business partners.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Griffith Business School
Griffith Business School
Full Text

This thesis examines the political representation of Australian farmers. The NFF family of interest groups is charged with the political representation of farmers in Australia.Given that their state affiliates are the only organisations that farmers can directly join, this study takes the case of the New South Wales Farmers' Association (NSWFA) as its major reference point. A paradox is immediately confronted. On one hand, both the state and commentators refer to the NFF family as an exemplar of a successful modern interest group. However, on the other, the NFF family is being confronted with escalating levels of disillusionment and criticism from its own constituency.Two points of interest are highlighted. Firstly, it is suggested that theoretical frameworks, which assist commentators and researchers to come to the conclusion that the NFF family is 'successful', are not constructed in such a fashion as to throw sufficient light on the paradoxical nature of an existing situation. Secondly, this paradox suggests that the NFF itself must be able to disassociate the contingent relationship between its internal levels of support and external levels of access and influence. These two focal points are explored in this thesis, and the framework used by researchers to understand the actions of Australian farm interest groups are scrutinised. Discussing 'authentic' political representation assists considering the major theme of the 'representative paradox'. It is argued that this paradox is best understood by locating it within a search by farmers for authentic political representation - both through the NFF family and apart from it.

The National Farmers Federation (NFF) is a peak producer organisation. Its executive has purported to represent all Australian farmers with a unified voice. This thesis argues that primary producers are too heterogeneous a group ever to have developed much solidarity in articulation of or action for the furtherance of common interests and that this fact is reflected in the NFF. Heterogeneity results from farm size, product specialisation, level of technology adopted, geographical location and special needs. Successive farm organisations and the National Party (and predecessors) have attempted to encompass these differences since the 1890s. Producer differences either have led to secession or to unification when political and economic circumstances have warranted it. This diversity has prevented farm groups becoming united. The lack of unity at first prevented all farmers joining in one organisation, and when they did, they kept on splitting up. The charisma of Ian McLachlan allowed farmers to get together, but the diversity meant that the getting together benefited some not only without the others, but sometimes at the expense of others. This thesis explores the heterogeneity of the agricultural sector within the political and economic context of Australian agriculture and discusses its consequences, in the constant re-forming of farm organisations and the institutional framework of the NFF in the context of politicisation of agricultural interest groups. This thesis concludes that producer differences in terms of size and product specialisation determine how effectively they are represented. Corporate farmers have fared much better than family and family-plus farmers, who would probably be better represented by a small business organisation, with which they have more in common, rather than a farming organisation.

This study investigated the role of psychological variables in help-seeking behaviour and attitudes in a rural population, with particular emphasis as to whether differences existed between farmers and non-farming rural residents. These groups were contrasted, as research suggests that farmers appear to be a sub-group of the Australian population at increased risk of chronic health problems and suicide, even in comparison to other rural residents.
Doctor of Psychology (Clinical)

This thesis examines the political representation of Australian farmers. The NFF family of interest groups is charged with the political representation of farmers in Australia.Given that their state affiliates are the only organisations that farmers can directly join, this study takes the case of the New South Wales Farmers' Association (NSWFA) as its major reference point. A paradox is immediately confronted. On one hand, both the state and commentators refer to the NFF family as an exemplar of a successful modern interest group. However, on the other, the NFF family is being confronted with escalating levels of disillusionment and criticism from its own constituency.Two points of interest are highlighted. Firstly, it is suggested that theoretical frameworks, which assist commentators and researchers to come to the conclusion that the NFF family is 'successful', are not constructed in such a fashion as to throw sufficient light on the paradoxical nature of an existing situation. Secondly, this paradox suggests that the NFF itself must be able to disassociate the contingent relationship between its internal levels of support and external levels of access and influence. These two focal points are explored in this thesis, and the framework used by researchers to understand the actions of Australian farm interest groups are scrutinised. Discussing 'authentic' political representation assists considering the major theme of the 'representative paradox'. It is argued that this paradox is best understood by locating it within a search by farmers for authentic political representation - both through the NFF family and apart from it.
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Agricultural information dissemination to farmers has been studied extensively. However, farmers preferred methods of delivery has not been investigated thoroughly within a Western Australia (WA) context. Availability of different information delivery channels have led to the overwhelming and overlapping of information available to farmers. As a consequence, the type of information required by WA farmers should be considered as knowing information needs could allow farmers to access relevant, concise and timely agricultural information. To answer the research questions, a survey was designed, using Likert-scale, close ended and open ended questions techniques, enabling qualitative and quantitative data analysis. The study‘s findings are relevant to agricultural information providers, government and public agencies, and other researchers who work in the agricultural and farming industries in Western Australia, and Australia.

A positive ‘sense of place’ is vital for good mental health and wellbeing, particularly amongst people who maintain close living and working relationships with the Earth. However, environments important to peoples’ health and wellbeing are under threat from anthropogenic climate change. Shifting rainfall patterns, rising temperatures and more frequent severe weather events are desolating environments at a faster rate and on a greater scale than at any time in recorded human history. While climate-driven loss of place is understood in the academic literature to have negative emotional and psychological impacts upon Indigenous populations, this knowledge has rarely informed research examining climate change and its risks to similarly emplaced non-Indigenous people. Over recent years, climate change and its impacts upon Australian farmers has received growing research interest. Adverse climatic/seasonal conditions (such as drought) have been shown to negatively impact agricultural regions and rural communities, as well as farmers’ mental health and wellbeing. However, little research has investigated farmers’ sense of place or its relationship to farmers’ mental health and wellbeing, particularly in the context of a changing climate. The thesis explores these connections amongst family farmers living in the Western Australian Wheatbelt, a region that has experienced some of the most severe and abrupt climatic changes in Australia. Since the 1970s, winter rainfall has decreased by 20 per cent and seasonal variability (temperature and rainfall) has intensified. Highly dependent upon favourable seasonal weather conditions and exposed to climate-driven market fluctuations, Wheatbelt farmers are argued to be uniquely vulnerable to local-to-global climate risks that threaten not only their economic base, but also their sense of place and mental wellbeing. The research employs a qualitative case study design situated within an ‘ecohealth’ theoretical framework. Farmers’ sense of place and lived experiences of climate change were examined using a three-part interview series conducted with twenty-two farmers during the 2013-14 agricultural season. In addition, climate-change impacts upon the broader Wheatbelt region (conceived here as a large socio-ecological system) were documented by interpreting data collected from secondary sources and knowledge obtained from fifteen key informants representing various government, community and private organisations. The thesis findings reveal that farmers’ sense of place is a powerful determinant of their mental health and wellbeing. In addition, climate change was found to undermine farmers’ place-related mental wellbeing as a consequence of its negative impacts upon farmers’ homelands and their broader regional socio-ecological contexts. The thesis offers novel insights into Australian farmers’ sense of place and its importance for their mental health and wellbeing in particular, and, more generally, contributes new theoretical and applied research understandings of people-place relationships and their relevance to mental health and wellbeing in an era of chronic and worsening climatic change.

For thousands of years, farmers have ploughed their paddocks prior to planting a crop. This method of planting crops, using soil cultivation, was passed down through the generations, almost as a cultural ritual, with the primary purpose of burying the weeds to create a clean seed bed. Documented research results in Western Australia (WA) from as early as the late 1920s, demonstrated the yield advantages of planting a crop at the break of the season (April/May). Because few other options were available to them, growers had no choice but to wait until the weeds germinated before cultivating (ploughing) the soil, often several times, before planting a crop. In the mid to late 1960s, coinciding with the push by ICI Australia to sell its revolutionary Spray.Seed® herbicide, grain growers began to experiment with a new planting technique called direct drilling, minimum tillage or chemical ploughing. This was the forerunner to the modern day no-till movement. This method was based on the simple premise of spraying the herbicide on the paddock to kill the weeds, followed closely by planting the seed directly into the soil, thereby either reducing or eliminating cultivation from the system. Further, in the late 1970s, environmental pressures, particularly relating to the need to reduce water and wind erosion following extensive cultivation, forced farmers to innovate, and consider other ways, besides ploughing the soil, to plant a crop. This research project examines these various motivations behind the adoption of this revolutionary style of farming, the reasons why adoption stagnated across the grain growing regions of Western Australia and tells the stories of some of the first and early adopter growers. Through a series of semi-structured one-on-one in-depth interviews with five participants, this thesis documents the social history of this turbulent time in agricultural history, recording the stories of the people who were part of this global revolution in food production. The interviewees have all detailed their experiences in the practical implementation of using the direct drilling method in combination with the Spray.Seed® product, the relationships they made throughout this time, the events and meetings they attended, the responses they received from other industry participants, the environmental benefits they saw over time, and the business profitability achieved by committing to a vision of minimum cultivation over the longer-term. The interviews have captured the memories of the first and early adopter growers and a ‘pioneering’ agronomist who were bold enough to defy thousands of years of cultural tradition by removing multiple cultivations from their seeding strategies. Discussion centres on the geographical, social, and technical barriers that created a delay in industry-wide adoption, despite the repeated demonstration that this new strategy was clearly, in hindsight, more profitable and more environmentally sustainable than the traditional method of planting a crop using cultivation. This research also demonstrates the critical importance of documenting human stories before they are lost forever.

After the turmoil of the 1890s shearing contractors eliminated some of the frustration from shearers recruitment. At the same time closer settlement concentrated more sheep in small flocks in farming regions, replacing the huge leasehold pastoral empires which were at the cutting edge of wool expansion in the nineteenth century. Meanwhile the AWU succeeded in getting an award for the pastoral industry under the new arbitration legislation in 1907. Cultural and administrative influences, therefore, eased some of the bitter enmity which had made the annual shearing so unstable. Not all was plain sailing. A pattern of militancy re-emerged during World War I. Shearing shed unrest persisted throughout the interwar period and during World War II. In the 1930s a rival union with communist connections, the PWIU, was a major disruptive influence. Militancy was a factor in a major shearing strike in 1956, when the boom conditions of the early-1950s were beginning to fade. The economic system did not have satisfactory mechanisms to cope. Unionised shearers continued to be locked in a psyche of confrontation as wool profits eroded further in the 1970s. This ultimately led to the wide comb dispute, which occurred as wider pressures changed an economic order which had not been seriously challenged since Federation, and which the AWU had been instrumental in shaping. Shearing was always identified with bushworker ‘mateship’, but its larrikinism and irreverence to authority also fostered individualism, and an aggressive ‘moneymaking’ competitive culture. Early in the century, when old blade shearers resented the aggressive pursuit of tallies by fast men engaged by shearing contractors, tensions boiled over. While militants in the 1930s steered money-makers into collectivist versions of mateship, in the farming regions the culture of self-improvement drew others towards the shearing competitions taking root around agricultural show days. Others formed their own contracting firms and had no interest in confrontation with graziers. Late in the century New Zealanders arrived with combs an inch wider than those that had been standard for 70 years. It was the catalyst for the assertion of meritocracy over democracy, which had ruled since Federation.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
After the turmoil of the 1890s shearing contractors eliminated some of the frustration from shearers recruitment. At the same time closer settlement concentrated more sheep in small flocks in farming regions, replacing the huge leasehold pastoral empires which were at the cutting edge of wool expansion in the nineteenth century. Meanwhile the AWU succeeded in getting an award for the pastoral industry under the new arbitration legislation in 1907. Cultural and administrative influences, therefore, eased some of the bitter enmity which had made the annual shearing so unstable. Not all was plain sailing. A pattern of militancy re-emerged during World War I. Shearing shed unrest persisted throughout the interwar period and during World War II. In the 1930s a rival union with communist connections, the PWIU, was a major disruptive influence. Militancy was a factor in a major shearing strike in 1956, when the boom conditions of the early-1950s were beginning to fade. The economic system did not have satisfactory mechanisms to cope. Unionised shearers continued to be locked in a psyche of confrontation as wool profits eroded further in the 1970s. This ultimately led to the wide comb dispute, which occurred as wider pressures changed an economic order which had not been seriously challenged since Federation, and which the AWU had been instrumental in shaping. Shearing was always identified with bushworker ‘mateship’, but its larrikinism and irreverence to authority also fostered individualism, and an aggressive ‘moneymaking’ competitive culture. Early in the century, when old blade shearers resented the aggressive pursuit of tallies by fast men engaged by shearing contractors, tensions boiled over. While militants in the 1930s steered money-makers into collectivist versions of mateship, in the farming regions the culture of self-improvement drew others towards the shearing competitions taking root around agricultural show days. Others formed their own contracting firms and had no interest in confrontation with graziers. Late in the century New Zealanders arrived with combs an inch wider than those that had been standard for 70 years. It was the catalyst for the assertion of meritocracy over democracy, which had ruled since Federation.

Annual pasture legumes (APLs) are important in Western Australian farming systems, with subterranean clovers and annual medics being dominant. However, due to potential environmental, economic and biological constraints of these species, alternatives have been sought, with a second generation of new species being introduced since 1991. Despite the views of researchers about the advantages in WA conditions of the newly released annual pasture legumes over traditional pastures, there is a perception by some industry decision makers that their level of adoption has been lower than expected. However, there was not a good method for evaluating the level of adoption. The aim of this study was therefore to enhance understanding of how to improve the fit of new annual pasture legumes in Western Australian farming systems, taking two pastures, French serradella (Ornithopus sativus) cv. Cadiz and Biserrula (Biserrula Pelecinus) cv. Casbah (Hereafter, will be referred to as Cadiz and Casbah.), as examples.The objectives of the study were implemented in four steps. In step one, a framework, built on a three-tier hierarchy (broad adoption potential or BAP, broad attainable adoption potential or BAAP, and maximum attainable adoption potential or MAAP) was developed based on the agro-ecological suitability of the annual pasture legumes. BAP was calculated from the amount of suitable land in terms of soil and rainfall requirements for an APL. The BAAP was calculated by multiplying BAP with two coefficients related to the proportion of cropping area within a geographic region, and the crop-pasture ratio within the cropping area. The MAAP was calculated by multiplying BAAP with a coefficient related to the certainty of a successful pasture-growing season. This coefficient was derived from a Microsoft-Excell®-based Climate Reliability Calculator particularly developed for this study. The broad attainable adoption potentials (BAAP) for Cadiz and Casbah were calculated as 1.67 M ha and 1.18 M ha, respectively. These figures were about 81% less than the calculated broad adoption potential (BAP). The maximum attainable adoption potentials (MAAP) for Cadiz and Casbah in Western Australian cropping-belt were calculated as 0.99 and 0.89 M ha, respectively.In step two, a survey was conducted to understand the salient issues that farmers consider in relation to adopting a new annual pasture legume for their farming systems. An open-ended question was used for them for the attributes they desired for their ‘dream’ pasture. Questions were also asked about their experiences of strengths and weaknesses for Cadiz and Casbah. Responses were analysed using the principles of ‘grounded theory’. Furthermore, based on farmers’ perceptions, an APL-characteristics framework was developed for Western Australia. The framework consisted of six attributes of a pasture. They are, in order of importance calculated from the percent of farmers responses: superiority in establishment and growth (79%), ability in supplying quality feed (49%), improved potential in controlling weeds (38%), adaptability in broader agro-ecological horizon (36%), tolerant to major insect-pests (20%), and inexpensive (15%). Many farmers desired a combination of these components rather than just a single component. The two test APLs, Cadiz and Casbah, were compared under this framework based on the responses of the farmers.In the third step, using farmers’ perceptions of the salient attributes and other variables, an empirical model was developed to predict the likely adoption of any annual pasture legume in Western Australian farming systems. The model consisted of the product of two components, AAAR and TRMAP. The AAAR was the averaged annual adoption rate (as the percentage of all pastures grown in Western Australia) of the APL. TRMAP is the time, in years, required to reach the maximum adoption potential of the APL. The AAAR was related to the agronomic characteristics of the APL (the three most wanted characteristics by farmers, i.e. establishment and growth, feed supply and quality and weed control) and an ‘inter-competition’ factor, whereas the TRMAP was attributed to its scope of adaptation. Both AAAR and TRAMP were essentially regression models. The model performed well when tested independently for Cadiz and Casbah using inputs from two different sources, i.e. breeders and farmers. In the final step, the model was applied to predict the adoption of Cadiz and Casbah using inputs from breeders and farmers in order to understand what level of adoption breeders would have expected and to what extent farmers would support the breeders’ view. Results showed that breeders were expecting Cadiz and Casbah would be adopted in about 32% and 22% of their potential areas (MAAP) compared to the achieved adoption of 23% for Cadiz and 20% for Casbah, respectively.On the other hand, model output using farmers’ evaluation scores indicated that the adoption would be 20% for Cadiz and 19% for Casbah, which is much closer to the achieved adoption level. The difference between breeders’ expectation and farmers’ evaluation on adoption potential of Cadiz and Casbah was due to differences in evaluation scores provided by the two groups on different pasture characteristics in relation to establishment and growth, weed control and feed supply and quality. Some of the pasture characteristics desired by the farmers, such as reliable regeneration, seed settings, easy establishment, general vigor, good chemical tolerance, good feed supply and quality, suitable for wide range of soils, good insect tolerance are not commonly present when Cadiz and Casbah are grown in the farming environments.Two issues for further consideration if the adoption levels of Cadiz and Casbah were to be increased in WA farming systems are: decreasing the knowledge gap among farmers on tactical management of APLs though extension, and improved pasture characteristics through the breeding/selection process. Furthermore, this study designed a system consisting of three major components: the maximum attainable adoption potential (MAAP), the annual pasture legume characteristics framework (APL-characteristics for Western Australia) and achievable adoption potential (AAP). This system acts as a common platform - where breeders, farmers, extension specialists and policy makers could work as a team towards improving the fit of annual pasture legumes, and potentially other crops if the required supporting information was collected, in Western Australian farming systems.

Farm-related fatalities are a significant problem in Australian agriculture. Over the period 2001–04, there were 404 fatalities that occurred as a direct consequence of visiting, residing or working on a farm. This research is comprised of two separate, but related components; the economic cost of farm-related fatalities and the farm health and safety study; a qualitative study into farmer perceptions and behaviour relating to farm safety. This study employed a human capital approach to establish the economic costs of farmrelated fatalities to the Australian economy. Fatalities were selected for analysis as they are the most reliable, accurate and comprehensive form of farm injury data available. A study was conducted on 335 farm enterprises to examine farmer perceptions and estimates of performance relating to the culture of safety and their systems and procedures to manage health and safety and major hazards on their farms. Finally, the changes farmers were making to health and safety on their farms, the motivating drivers for those changes, and what they perceived to be the risks and hazards on their farms were also assessed. Modelling of direct and indirect costs associated with farm-related fatalities estimated that the 404 traumatic deaths over the period 2001–04 cost the Australian economy $650.6 million, in 2008 dollars. This equates to 2.7 per cent of the 2008 farm gross domestic product (GDP) due to potentially preventable farm accidents and injuries. The top five agents causing death (tractors, ATVs, drownings, utilities and 2 wheel motorcycles) accounted for exactly half of the fatalities, and 46.7 per cent ($303.5 million) of the economic cost. Significant differences in gender, age and industry were revealed in attitudes and perceptions of farm safety and the management of health and safety and major hazards. Farm enterprises also provided a considerable level of detail on the changes and improvement they had made to farm safety, the reasons and motivations behind those changes, as well as details on what they perceived as the key risks and hazards on their farms. The outcomes of this research have questioned some of the preconceived ideas relating to farmers’ perceptions, attitudes and practices in relation to farm safety and have also identified potential new approaches and target populations for increasing adoption and implementation of farm safety recommendations. The challenge is for farm safety researchers, Farmsafe Australia, work safety authorities, industry and farmer groups and health practitioners to encourage further investment and resources into farm health and safety research, which will enable them to capitalise on these findings and re-evaluate farm safety strategies and initiatives to reduce the level of risk on Australian farms and therefore, the incidence of fatal and non-fatal injury and the cost of to the Australian economy.

In Australia, farmers have been recognised as a particular at-risk group for suicide. A greater understanding is needed as to why this is the case so that contextually sensitive suicide prevention strategies may be developed. Further evaluation of suicide prevention initiatives is necessary to demonstrate their effectiveness. This project will advance current understanding of farmer suicide in Australia, develop a culturally appropriate suicide prevention program tailored specifically for this audience, and provide an evaluation measuring its impact. A mixed methods multiphase approach will be taken with the overall objective to better understand risk factors and attitudes towards farmer suicide (Component One) and to utilise this information to develop, deliver and evaluate an evidence-informed, tailored and culturally appropriate suicide prevention initiative (Component Two). Component One involves qualitative analysis of focus group data from an Australian Research Council Linkage grant ARC LP120100021 “Influences on farmer suicide in Queensland and New South Wales” gathered from male and female farmers from three diverse sites across New South Wales and Queensland. This information, in combination with a comprehensive literature review and practice-based evidence, will inform Component Two. Component Two involves the development, delivery and evaluation of a tailored suicide prevention workshop, SCARF (Suspect Connect Ask Refer Follow-up). SCARF is a 4-hour face to face workshop focusing on improving health to reduce suicide in accordance with suicide prevention best-practice. The content is theoretically informed by the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide and the Biopsycho-ecological model. Evaluation of the SCARF program comprises quantitative analysis to measure participant changes in levels of suicide stigma, suicide literacy, mental wellbeing and confidence to assist others. This study will contribute important knowledge towards the body of evidence in farmer suicide prevention.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Aust Inst Suicide Res&Prevent
Griffith Health
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The thesis studies the political participation of Thai farmers and focuses on two main factors, namely the domestic and the external impacts, which inform the case studies of rice, sugarcane, and potato farmers groups. Overall, the research has established that farmers groups have felt the impacts of domestic factors far more strongly than external factors. Furthermore, through comparative studies in relation to the case studies of rice, sugarcane, and potato farmers groups in Thailand, differences emerged between these three Thai farmers groups, in terms of the degree to which domestic factors impacted on their political participation. The theories of Western interest groups are reviewed, in order to examine their applicability to explaining farmers groups formation in Thailand. The concepts of 'collective benefits' and 'selective incentives', which were used by Mancur Olson have been adopted as the main theoretical framework. With reference to this, the research has established that selective incentives have played a highly significant role in Thai farmers groups formation, and concludes that the problems of mobilisation, which relate to rice, sugarcane, and potato farmers groups, have been solved primarily through the provision of a range of selective incentives by the farmers groups themselves. In order to classify the differing levels of political participation of Thai farmers groups, the analytical framework provided by Grant Jordan, Darren Halpin, and William Maloney has been utilised. Accordingly, the rice and potato farmers groups are classified as 'potential pressure participants', whilst the sugarcane farmers group is classified as an 'interest group', which has enabled an examination of their political participation through the Western concept of the policy network/community framework. In order to make the Western policy network/community framework more applicable to the policy-making process in Thailand, the specific, dominant characteristics of the Thai political culture, namely the patronage system and the operation of both vote-buying and corruption are included in the analysis. This conceptual stretching does not significantly affect the original concept of the framework and the way in which it was intended to be applicable, because it already includes informal relationships such as those, which exist within the policy network/community framework. This understanding is an important aspect, which forms a part of the theoretical contribution to the discipline of international political economy and to the arena of Thai political studies. The policy network/community framework provides a new conceptual lens in the study of the political participation of Thai farmers groups. Accordingly, these arguments promote the opportunity to consider alternative frameworks in the analysis of the political participation of Thai farmers groups, and group participation across civil society more generally. The study of the political participation of Thai farmers has utilised empirical evidence, which illustrates the successes of farmers' interest groups in both Japan and the United Kingdom, in order to explain the relative successes and failures of Thai farmers. In contrast to the experiences of Western and notably Japanese farmers groups, in many respects Thai farmers are largely excluded from the policy-making process, with the only exception in Thailand being certain sugarcane farmers groups. The thesis concludes that the political participation of farmers groups in Thailand has generally been affected by domestic impacts rather than by external impacts, and that their influence in domestic policy-making has been, and is likely to remain for the foreseeable future at least, somewhat limited.

In Australia and the US, women play a vital role in the agricultural sector. However, historically farmwomen’s contributions to agriculture as well as their individual knowledge and social resilience to stressors like climate and climate change have been unrecognized and rendered invisible. Drawing on interdisciplinary scholarship from geography and the humanities, this dissertation explores the farm as place in a changing climate, drawing on women farmers’ experiences, under three distinct themes: identity, place, and photography. The dissertation research includes three distinct parts. First, incorporating non-fiction writing and photography, I explore my agricultural and religious heritage, as well as familial connections to the landscape of rural Idaho. Second, and in conjunction with The Invisible Farmer Project, the largest ever study of Australian women on the land, I analyze women’s photo voices, relying primarily on interview and Facebook data, as well as photographs, to understand women’s emotive connections to the farm as place, farmer identities, and roles in the agricultural sector. Analysis of the Facebook posts revealed how women are establishing a new dialog about what it means to be a woman farmer and how emotion is the foundation for establishing community and connection. Women's posted photo voices allow us to gain new insights into the women farmers' connections to the farm as place as well as their diversified perspectives and identities. Third, using integrative methods, I study women farmers and ranchers in Idaho, United States and Victoria, Australia through an environmental history lens. Examining the history of water in each region, and how the layering of social and environmental factors shapes the farm as place, resilience, and women’s work, I study how the identities of the women farmers and the farm as place cannot be separated. In both the second and third parts, I seek to redefine "farmer" by revealing experiences that have been invisible in the traditional agricultural sector. Rural women farmers have diverse identities and experiences, and their contributions to the agricultural sector are significant. They perceive and adapt to climate impacts and they are resilient. Their experiences with the farm as place is at the center of their identities, resilience, day-to-day work, and shapes their adaptation strategies and emotional well-being.

This thesis examines the political economy of genetically modified (GM) crops. Its empirical focus is their impact on farmers in Australia. It also considers and compares the experiences of Canada and the United States where GM crops are more prevalent but which have comparable legal, political and agrarian economies to that in Australia. Investigating the question of whether farmers are being proletarianised due to the proliferation of GM crops, the thesis engages with the concept of enclosures and how enclosures are mobilised, through the prevailing corporate food regime, to respond to the various crises and contradictions of capitalism. GM crops are conceptualised here as a genetic enclosure that create market imperatives for farmers to buy seeds, establishing new sources of capital, while also being posited as a response to various social and ecological crises facing contemporary, industrialised agriculture. The thesis finds that a confluence of legal, economic, technological and public policy developments contribute to the concentration of economic and political power in agriculture. This has tangible impacts on the lives of farmers creating a tendency for them to become propertied workers or contractors for major seed companies. Farmers’ labour and the natural world are simultaneously subsumed by circuits of capital accumulation in this process, which forges an increasingly industrialised future for agriculture.

The original work of Thurstone ( 1928) on the measurement of attitude has been continued by many researchers. Although Thurstone immediately cautioned against the prediction of behaviour from attitude, and argued that the measurement of attitude in its own right was important, many researchers have studied the relationship between attitude and behaviour. Their general conclusion is that, except in specific situations where the behaviour and attitude are linked in particular ways, attitude and behaviour are not strongly correlated, and therefore, have suggested that they are different din1ensions. Duncan (1985) presents the hypothesis that attitude and behaviour, rather than representing two different dimensions of some construct, can be conceptualised as manifestations of the same underlying disposition but at different levels of intensity. Duncan further suggests that attitude is "easier" than behaviour. This study was designed to focus on the relationship between attitude and behaviour towards land degradation of farmers in the Central Wheatbelt of the State of Western Australia, and between attitude and behaviour towards urban pollution in Perth, the capital of this state. Land degradation and urban pollution are significant problems for the Central Wheatbelt and the metropolitan area of Western Australia, respectively. Farmers and urban dwellers were invited to complete written surveys on these issues. The key responses were agreement or disagreement to statements reflecting attitudes and reported behaviour. Demographic information and information regarding the level of commitment of the respondents to the attitude was also gathered. In the study of attitudes through responses to statements, there are two main response mechanisms. In one, there is an ideal direction and it is expected that the more positive the attitude, the more likely a particular responses. For example, the responses may be Disagree (D) or Agree (A) which are scored O and 1 respectively. Then, the greater the probability of the Agree response (scored 1), and the higher the score across more than one statement, the more positive the inferred attitude. The models that are used for analysing such responses have a monotonic form and are termed cumulative. In the second, there is an ideal point, and the closer a statement is to the person's ideal point, the more likely it is that the person will choose the Agree response, and the further away the statement is from the ideal point in either direction (more positive or more negative), the more likely a Disagree response. In this case, the total score across statements cannot be used directly to infer attitude. The models that are used for analysing such responses are single-peaked and are termed unfolding. In both kinds of analyses, persons and statements are located on an attitude continuum. Duncan's hypothesis, that attitude and behaviour may be located on the same continuum. suggests that in some studies, at least, the fact that they are found not to be related may be a methodological artefact. In the present study, the statements in the scale reporting behaviour with respect to environmental issues were written explicitly according to the cumulative response mechanism, and the statements in the scale reflecting attitude were written according to the unfolding response. However, in part to explore the matter of methodological artefacts, both scales were analysed according to both the cumulative and unfolding models, after the data were configured to suit each analysis. The study found that, as Duncan bad suggested, attitude and behaviour could be placed on the same continuum, as different manifestations of the same construct. However, the further contention that attitude is "easier" than behaviour appeared too simple according to these data. The data appear to support the contention that attitude alone is not sufficient to explain behaviour, and that attitude and level of involvement may be more effective. The demographic information collected explained some but not all assumptions about the relationship between attitude and behaviour. One particularly noteworthy result was that the correlation between attitude and behaviour was very low (order of 0.1) in the urban sample while moderate (order of 0.5) in the rural sample. It is suggested that part of this difference between rural and urban relationships between attitude and behaviour is explained by the differing situations of the two groups - farmers' attitudes and behaviour to land degradation relate directly to their livelihood. This has implications, not only for the seriousness with which the environmental degradation is viewed, but also for their responses which are an integral part of their working conditions. In contrast, for urban dwellers most behaviours relating to dealing with urban pollution are not directly related to their livelihood and must be carried out in their leisure time. To the degree that this observation explains the difference in the relationship between attitude and behaviour between the two groups, to that degree it shows that the relationship between attitude and behaviour is moderated by other related factors. Studies that test this relationship between attitude and behaviour towards the environment are issues for further research.

This study posits a model of 'rural extension' which begins from humans, not from technology or information. The model has been used to facilitate community development at the village level. The research illustrates the potential of drama and participative forms of theatre as empowering 'action' learning/researching tools to reach people in rural communities, and as a means of involving those communities in creativity and learning about themselves and their environment collaboratively. The writer seeks to integrate participatory approaches with community development and human inquiry, humanistic approaches to education, experiential learning theories, and drama education theories and methods. The central questions which this research addresses are : 1/. What are the functions and the methods of participative theatre (as systemic communication) in the process of social change and development? and 2/. How can these participative forms of theatre elicit whole aspects of local knowledge, that is, tacit/explicit knowledge, facilitate learning and foster critical thinking through grass-roots participation? The ideas were formulated and tested through intensive field experiences with Iranian nomads, Iranian farmers, immigrant farmers in NSW, Australia, and within a number of workshops with different groups of students at Hawkesbury. This includes a critique of rural development in Iran, examinations of rural extension from a critical perspective, drama and theatre as process, learning and conscientization, personal construct psychology, systems thinking, learning through metaphor, action theory, Boal's participative forum theatre theory, and action research. Finally, the study explores drama as a form of systemic communication (that is, dialogue through a number of group activity techniques)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Lameness is one of the most important welfare issues in the dairy industry with all cows being at risk during their productive life. It decreases milk production, compromises fertility and increases the chance of being culled. To reduce the likelihood of lameness in cows, a thorough knowledge of the risk factors is essential. Risk factors have been found to differ between farming systems which highlighted the need for a project to identify risk factors of lameness in NSW pasture-based dairies. The thesis reviews the literature on risk factors pertaining to lameness in dairy cattle worldwide with focus on the main aspects of lameness regarding pasture-based dairy farming. First study investigates the prevalence and the potential risk factors for lameness in 62 pasture-based dairies in NSW with the aim to identify risk factors for lameness and to provide the industry with an indication as to the relative contribution of these risks so that dairy producers could allocate their resources to areas most likely to have the greatest impact when planning a prevention strategy. The data gathered through the interviews with farmers focuses on their perception of lameness in their herds. International experience suggests farmers’ perception of lameness are less than the true prevalence, which was proved to be the case in NSW, Australia. The reduced perception of lameness appears to be associated with delayed treatment and poor treatment outcome. Treatment outcomes may be further compromised by almost 30% of farmers or farm staff not having undergone training as to how to effectively trim and treat lame cows. The final study gathers data on wooden hoof blocks commonly used in treatment of lame cows. This study assesses the association between wood density, longevity, and wear characteristics of wooden hoof blocks. It was found that the hardness of the commercial blocks is insufficient to provide an appropriate duration of protection for healing claw lesions.

Five experiments on crayfish under laboratory and outdoor field conditions were conducted to (1) establish relationships between moult stages and haemolymph osmolality (2) evaluate the interactions among size-dependent haemolymph ionic profile and physiology, feed ingestion and foregut evacuation rate and (3) evaluate the effects of abiotic and abiotic factors on the productivity of yabby populations. Moult stages significantly affected the haemolymph physiology, growth and health status. Zooplankton density and phosphorus influenced the yabby productivity.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury, 2001.
A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Environmental Management and Agriculture, University of Western Sydney, in fulfilment of the rquirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, 2001. Bibliography : p. 252-276.

The social and economic particularities of family farms have captured researchers’ attention for many years; but rural scholarship still lacks a clear, analytical sense of how and why family farms are organised in the ways that they are. This thesis critically examines the internal logics underpinning the socio-economic organisation of Australian farms. It adopts Johnsen’s (2003) conceptualisation of farm enterprises as three-way coalitions between farm businesses, farm households and the respective property holdings. Changes to the Australian agricultural property regime are used as the lens through which to observe how the organisational logics of farm enterprises are recalibrated in response to environmental policy reforms; specifically, the separation of land and water titles. Despite the obvious economic significance of separating land and water titles, the impacts on farm organisation remain under-researched. Hence, this thesis uniquely brings together scholarship on family farming with that of water reforms. A qualitative research method – farm life history – is used to generate narratives of the development of 40 farms in Victoria, Australia. Twenty-one of these are from an irrigation district where land and water titles have been separated, and nineteen from a dry land region unaffected by the reforms. The interpretive chapters comprise an analysis of the ways in which the ownership configurations of farm businesses, land and water assets embody farmers’ aspirations for building wealth and maintaining autonomy. These aspirations are jointly articulated in the concept of ‘structuring for serendipity’, which elevates the notions of risk, uncertainty and security as critical drivers shaping farm-level responses to contemporary conditions. The thesis concludes that the organisational forms observed within the Australian agricultural sector ultimately represent farmers’ pursuit of a sense of security in a constantly changing and uncertain countryside.

This study considered runoff of pesticides from cotton fields using a rainfall simulator. The Australian cotton industry is based on clay soils on low sloping land and uses a hill-furrow surface geometry. These conditions are unlike those in many studies of pesticide dissipation, sorption and runoff and there has been little previous research into hydrology, erosion and pesticide runoff in the industry. Of particular interest was to characterise runoff of different pesticides, clarity the underlying factors controlling pesticide runoff, and investigate management practices to reduce runoff of pesticides with contrasting chemical properties, for the conditions found in the cotton industry. Runoff behaviour of different pesticides has often been studied independently. Separating the inherent behaviour of the pesticide and the conditions of the study, and comparing pesticides, is difficult. Runoff concentrations depend on the hydrology and erosion of each site, and particularly on the timing of runoff events after spraying. These factors can be controlled and/or measured using a rainfall simulator. Furthermore, multi-residue pesticide analysis now allows study of a number of pesticides simultaneously, so that their behaviour can be compared directly for the same site conditions and management options. Review of the literature indicated that a large variation in pesticide runoff is related to application rate, formulation and placement, and dissipation, and that only a shallow soil surface layer contributes pesticides to runoff. In this study, the analysis was simplified by only considering placement on the soil surface (i.e. not on plant foliage) of liquid/emulsified formulations and soilincorporated sprays. A simple conceptual framework was used to compare and integrate data from simulated rainfall studies of pesticides used in the cotton industry and contrast them with data in the literature. By comparing pesticide runoff to the concentration in the soil surface at the start of rain, one set of factors, those that occur before the rainfall event - application and dissipation, were separated from those that occur during the rainfall event - leaching and runoff extraction. To complete the picture of how pesticides get from the spray nozzle to the edge of a field in runoff, four main areas were considered - dissipation, runoff extraction, sediment-water partitioning and management. Dissipation data were collected at four sites across the cotton growing areas and runoff data at three of these sites, on soils with medium to high clay content. Some 14 pesticides were studied, including the insecticide endosulfan (a- and (3-isomers and the breakdown product endosulfan sulfate) at all sites. Dissipation studies concentrated on the 3-6 weeks after application, when concentrations are highest, and on the soil surface layer that contributes pesticides to runoff. For practical reasons, soil concentrations were measured in the 0-25mm soil depth. While the major emphasis was on dissipation of endosulfan from soil and crop residues, several organophosphate (OP) insecticides (chlorpyrifos, dimethoate and profenofos) and a range of herbicides (fluometuron, metolachlor, prometryn, diuron, pendimethalin, pyrithiobac sodium) were also studied. Dissipation in the 0-25mm soil depth followed first-order exponential decay, with one phase, for most pesticides. However, large initial losses occurred for several of the insecticides studied: 35-55% for endosulfan, but only when applied at higher temperatures, most likely due to volatilisation. Initial losses of 50-75% occurred for the OP’s, dimethoate (inconsistently), chlorpyrifos and profenofos. Dissipation half-lives in the 0-25mm soil depth (after initial losses) were 6-20 days for endosulfan (total of a-, (3- and sulfate), 8-13 days for organophosphates, and 13-32 days for herbicides, a-endosulfan consistently dissipated more rapidly than p-endosulfan, but the two isomers were affected differently by site and/or climatic factors. Dissipation of endosulfan was similar for ULV and EC formulations, for bare and covered soil and for band and blanket sprays, but was somewhat slower after two applications. Only small amounts of endosulfan sulfate formed in dry soils, while more formed in temporarily wet soil, contributing about half the total endosulfan remaining after 30 days. Dissipation in surface 0-25mm soil was more rapid than in 0-50mm soil, but this varied from no effect for the rapidly dissipated OP’s to 1.6 times faster for endosulfan, and varied according to Koc for the herbicides. Herbicides with lower Koc dissipated faster in the surface layer than those with higher Koc, due to greater downward movement. Downward movement decreased the apparent halflife in the 0-25mm soil and increased the apparent half-life in 0-50mm soil. Half-lives in 0-25mm soil were considerably lower than published ‘selected’ values. Dissipation of endosulfan was consistent with studies in other warmer climates. The shallow depth of soil studied (which enhanced downward movement) and application on the surface contributed to this more rapid dissipation. The results are consistent with observations that “runoff available residues” dissipate more rapidly than generally expected for bulk soil. Endosulfan dissipated rapidly (e.g. 75-90%) from crop residue cover (wheat or cotton trash) within the first day after spraying, apparently a result of volatilisation. Half-lives for endosulfan on crop residues after the initial loss were similar to those in bare and covered soils. The data indicate that a benefit of retaining crop residues on the soil surface, in addition to reducing runoff and sediment losses, is that it intercepts and dissipates the endosulfan more rapidly than when sprayed onto soil. Runoff extraction was investigated, in a simple empirical analysis, by comparing concentration in soil (mg/kg) before rain and event average concentration in runoff (pg/L), using data from three rainfall simulator studies in cotton fields, for 14 pesticides, and from the literature. The ratio of runoff to soil concentrations, or the linear regression slope fitted through the origin, was termed the runoff extraction ratio (ER0). The pesticides varied widely in solubility (0.003-700,OOOmg/L) and ranged from strongly (DDE, KD~ 15,000) to weakly sorbed (fluometuron, dimethoate, pyrithiobac sodium, KD <30). Runoff extraction behaviour from bare soil was remarkably consistent for pesticides of widely different properties. Total concentrations in runoff of each pesticide were closely related to concentrations in the soil (0-25mm) before rain, generally with a similar relationship for all pesticides and sites, over four orders of magnitude range in concentrations. As a first approximation, concentration in runoff (pg/L) = 28 times concentration in soil (mg/kg), (or Ero = 28). Runoff extraction was also somewhat similar for dissolved N and P, and organic N. Ero values were not related to partition coefficients (KP) measure in runoff. However, runoff extraction did decrease with time after spraying and was lower for aged DDE and trifluralin at one site. This is considered to relate to lower concentrations in the surface few mm of soil (c.f. 0-25mm soil) over time. ERO values were similar for the slopes studied (0.2-4%), for long and short plots, and for banded and blanket spray plots. Runoff extraction was reduced where cover reduces sediment concentration. Runoff extraction was significantly lower for a weakly sorbed pesticide (dimethoate) in only one instance and not for a range of other weakly sorbed pesticides at the other sites. Concentrations in the water and sediment phases in runoff, and in sediment (mg/kg), were also linearly related to soil concentrations for pesticides of similar KP, but extraction in two phases varied according to normal partitioning (Eqn 5-5). The sediment concentration in runoff (10-60 g/L from bare plots) had a secondary effect on ER0, and only affected ERO when sediment concentration was low (i.e. with cover). This is because higher sediment concentrations were associated with lower concentrations in the sediment (mg/kg), due to greater desorption and decreasing physical enrichment. Less physical enrichment (due to size-selective sediment sorting) occurred than observed on coarser textured soil (e.g. enrichment ratio up to 8), with enrichment ratios mostly less than 1.0 (due to desorption) and no greater than 2.0. For all pesticides, the concentration in sediment (mg/kg) was within a factor of about two of the soil concentration adjusted for desorption using the normal partitioning equation. Organic carbon and clay were also only slightly enriched in sediment, despite considerable deposition in the furrows. This is because the soils eroded as aggregates (due to low sand and high clay content), and because coarser sediment had greater concentrations of sorbed pesticides than finer sediment, the opposite of what is normally expected (e.g. where coarser sediment is sand). The notable similarity of runoff extraction ratio for all pesticides in the rainfall simulator studies was probably because (a) the main factor that limit runoff of weakly sorbed chemicals, i.e. leaching from the runoff mixing zone, was ineffective because of low infiltration and ponding of infiltrated water in the shallow tilled layer in the bottom of furrows, (b) sediment concentrations were high enough to ensure transport of strongly sorbed pesticides, and (c) all pesticides had some transport in both the water and sediment phases, diluting the response to sediment load. The concentration of pesticide extracted from soil into runoff appears to be determined by the soil concentration, with, in the absence of significant leaching and with sufficient sediment transport, little differentiation between pesticides of different partition properties. This is partly because, on any plot, the same mass of soil and the same volume of water are involved in mixing, independent of the chemical being considered, and because factors that increase extraction of solutes also tend to increase detachment of sediment. Analysis of published runoff data for a range of pesticides in US croplands indicated similar average runoff extraction to the rainfall simulator studies in Australian cotton fields. However, runoff extraction was higher for much more erosive conditions (e.g. cultivated 10-15% slopes) and lower for low erosion conditions (furrow irrigation on low sloping fields in California). Runoff extraction was similar for this latter case (i.e. ERO~30) once adjusted to a higher sediment concentration. Analysis of the rainfall simulator and published data presents a conceptual framework where the major drivers of pesticide runoff were separated between (a) application rate and dissipation, described by soil concentration at the start of rain, which accounts for five orders of magnitude differences in runoff concentrations, and (b) runoff extraction during the rainfall event, which varied over a limited range. The first of these factors causes most of the difference in runoff between pesticides. Partition coefficients in runoff (KP) were not affected by cover and wheel traffic treatments even though these treatments had large effects on pesticide runoff concentrations. KP values increased with time after spraying, rapidly in the first few days and more slowly over the next few weeks, for all pesticides. KP values were greater than soil sorption KD values, increasingly so for pesticides of lower sorption. Thus pesticides normally considered weakly sorbed were much more sorbed in sediment than expected, particularly at longer times. Conversely, moderately/strongly sorbed pesticides, such as endosulfan, were less sorbed than expected in the first day or so. Partitioning appeared to be influenced by both time of contact with soil and time of mixing (during rain). The results are conceptually consistent with a two-compartment, bi-phasic (fast-slow) sorption model, with the soil in the runoff-mixing layer under rainfall being a continuous dilution system. The ‘slow’ phase, due to diffusion into less accessible soil domains, leads to increasing partition coefficients with greater time of contact. The short time of mixing means that the water phase is mainly interacting with the ‘fast’ or most accessible fraction, while the ‘slow’ fraction remains in the sediment phase. Percentages in the water phase in runoff, for 14 pesticides, roughly followed a published relationship with solubility, and an empirical relationship with soil sorption Koc values, but only for erosive conditions. These relationships do not reflect the full range in responses that occur due to the likely range of concentrations and organic carbon content of sediment, or the increase in KP with time. Because of lower KP values soon after spraying, less soluble pesticides had 20-45% in water. Conversely, a few days/weeks after spraying, more soluble pesticides had only 60-80% in water. Thus all pesticides tended to have a ‘foot in each camp’ and some potential for management using erosion control practices. It is an over simplification to expect ‘percent in water’ to be a characteristic of a pesticide. So long as sediment concentration and KP can be estimated, the percentage in the water phase can be calculated quite simply from first principles (Eqn 5-5) and behaviour for relevant field conditions can be assessed. This equation was used to show that reported values of percentage in the water phase for endosulfan that appeared to conflict (20-95%) and the values from the rainfall simulator plots (15- 45%) are explained by differences in sediment concentration and organic carbon in the studies. A wide range of percentages in water (10-95%) will occur for pesticides with KP of 5-500 (or solubilities -1-100), such as endosulfan, for the range of sediment concentrations and organic carbon that might occur in the environment. Improved practices are needed to minimise soil erosion, and related agrochemical transport, from cotton fields during rain. The most influential practice used in other agricultural industries, that is, retaining crop residues as surface cover, is rarely practiced in the Australian cotton industry. Therefore two options available to cotton growers, namely retention of surface cover and controlling wheel traffic, were evaluated using simulated rain on a well-aggregated black Vertosol. Increasing cover (0-60%) resulted in decreasing runoff, soil loss and sediment concentration. Runoff and soil loss were reduced by an order of magnitude with about 50% cover and by a small amount with notraffic. Cover and no traffic combined gave least runoff and soil loss. Pesticide transport in runoff was also reduced strongly by retaining on-ground cover and somewhat reduced by avoiding prior wheel traffic. With 45-60% cover, concentrations were reduced 5-fold for a-, |3- and total endosulfan; halved for endosulfan sulfate, trifluralin and DDE, and unchanged for prometryn. Cover had more effect on endosulfan because cover intercepted and dissipated the sprayed endosulfan, reducing concentrations in surface soil. Cover greatly reduced total pesticide losses (g/ha) because cover reduced runoff and soil loss considerably. With 45-60% cover, total losses were reduced by 90-98%. No-traffic gave 40% lower losses, and enhanced the effect of cover, but did not prevent large pesticide losses from bare plots. Cover provided more control of more soil-sorbed pesticides (endosulfan, trifluralin and DDE). Control of the less sorbed prometryn was largely due to cover reducing runoff. An examination of the practical requirements for maintaining effective cover in cotton farming systems indicated that most of the perceived conflicts with insect, weed and irrigation management could be overcome, although further study is needed. Many of these results have only been possible because of the use of the rainfall simulator, multiresidue pesticide analysis and the availability of sufficient resources. Such opportunities are rare in field research. By allowing an intensive regime of runoff sampling at controlled times after pesticide applications, the study has yielded data with more significance, enabling the conclusions made above regarding the relative behaviour of individual pesticides and their extraction from soil in runoff. The author acknowledges the contributions made by others to this study, but all of the experimental work and the data reported in this thesis were under his control.

Organophosphate (OP) pesticides, as a group, are the most widely used insecticides in Australia. Approximately 5 000 tonnes of active ingredient are used annually (Radcliffe, 2002). The OP pesticide group consists of around 30 identifiably distinct chemicals that are synthesised and added to approximately 700 products (Radcliffe, 2002). OP pesticides are used on fruit, vegetable, grain, pasture seed, ornamental, cotton, and viticultural crops, on livestock and domestic animals, as well as for building pest control. OP pesticides all act by inhibiting the nervous system enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and as such are termed anticholinesterase insecticides. The phosphorylation of AChE and the resultant accumulation of acetylcholine are responsible for the typical symptoms of acute poisoning with OP compounds. In addition to acute health effects, OP compound exposure can result in chronic, long-term neurological effects. The traditional method of health surveillance for OP pesticide exposure is blood cholinesterase analysis, which is actually biological effect monitoring. However, there are several drawbacks associated with the use of the blood cholinesterase test, including its invasive nature, the need for baseline levels and a substantial exposure to OP pesticide before a drop in cholinesterase activity can be detected. OP pesticides are metabolised fairly rapidly by the liver to form alkyl phosphates (DAPs). Approximately 70% of OP pesticides in use in Australia will metabolise into one or more of six common DAPs. During the last 30 years, scientists have developed a urine test that detects these six degradation products. However, unlike the blood cholinesterase test, there is currently no Biological Exposure Index (BEI) for the urine DAP metabolite test. Workers in the agricultural industry - particularly those involved with mixing, loading and application tasks - are at risk of exposure to OP pesticides. It is therefore important that these workers are able to assess their risk of health effects from exposure to OP pesticides. However, currently in Queensland, workplace health and safety legislation exempts the agricultural industry from hazardous substance legislation that incorporates the requirement to perform risk assessments and health surveillance (blood cholinesterase testing) for OP pesticide exposure. The specific aim of this research was to characterise OP pesticide exposure and to assess the feasibility of using urine DAP metabolite testing as a risk assessment tool for agricultural and related industry workers exposed to OP pesticides. An additional aim among farmers was to conduct an in-depth evaluation of their knowledge, attitudes and behaviours related to handling OP pesticides and how they assess the risks associated with their use of OPs. A cross-sectional study design was used to assess exposure to OP pesticides and related issues among four groups: fruit and vegetable farmers, pilots and mixer/loaders, formulator plant staff and a control group. The study involved 51 farmers in the interviewer-administered questionnaire and 32 in urine sample provision. Eighteen pilots and mixer/loaders provided urine samples and 9 exposed formulation plant staff provided urine and blood samples. Community controls from Toowoomba Rotary clubs provided 44 urine samples and 11 non-exposed formulation plant staff provided blood and urine samples; all groups also provided responses to a self-administered questionnaire. Participant farmers were drawn from the main cropping areas in south-east Queensland - Laidley/Lowood, Gatton, and Stanthorpe. The farmer group was characterised by small owner-operators who often had primary responsibility for OP pesticide mixing and application. Farmers had good knowledge of pesticide-related safety practices; however, despite this knowledge, use of personal protective equipment (PPE) was low. More than half of the farmers did not often wear a mask/respirator (56%), gloves (54%) or overalls (65%). Material Safety Data Sheets were never or rarely read and 88.2% of farmers never or rarely read OP pesticide labels before application. There were also problems with chemical suppliers providing farmers with MSDSs. The majority of farmers (90.2%) reported that they had never had any health surveillance performed and three-quarters had never read about or been shown how to perform a formal risk assessment. The main inhibitors to the use of PPE in the farmers' group included the uncomfortable and cumbersome nature of PPE, especially in hot weather conditions, and the fear of PPE use triggering neighbours' complaints to Government authorities. Factors associated with better PPE use included having positive attitudes and beliefs toward PPE use, higher knowledge scores and low risk perception. Farmers' use of OP pesticides was infrequent, of short duration and involved application via a boom on a tractor, a lower risk application method. Consequently, urine DAP metabolite levels in this group were generally low, with 36 out of 96 samples (37.5%) containing detectable levels. Detectable results ranged from 9.00-116.00 mol/mol creatinine. Formulators exposed to OP pesticides were found to have the highest urine DAP metabolite levels (detectable levels 13.20-550.00 mol/mol creatinine), followed by pilots and mixer/loaders (detectable levels 8.40-304.00 mol/mol creatinine) and then farmers. Despite this, pilots and mixer/loaders (particularly mixer/loaders) had the greatest number of samples containing detectable levels (94.4% of samples). The DAP metabolite most frequently detected across all groups was DMTP, which was the only metabolite found in control samples. Levels found in this study are similar to those reported in international research (Takamiya, 1994, Stephens et al., 1996, Simcox et al., 1999, Mills, 2001, Cocker et al., 2002). The observed DAP levels were not associated with a drop in cholinesterase activity among the formulation plant workers, as expected from the literature. Such exposure also is unlikely to be associated with acute health effects. In contrast, there is insufficient scientific knowledge to know whether levels recorded in this study and elsewhere may be associated with long-term, chronic health effects. Notably, DMTP levels also were observed among the presumably 'unexposed' comparison groups. Environmental background level exposures to OPs producing the DAP metabolite DMTP are therefore of potential significance and may be related, at least in part, to consumption of contaminated fruit and vegetables. There is also emerging evidence to suggest that exposure to DAP metabolites themselves through diet and other sources may contribute to the concentration of DAPs, including DMTP in urine, potentially complicating assessment of occupational exposures. Nevertheless, the urine DAP metabolite test was a useful, sensitive indicator of occupational OP pesticide exposure among agricultural workers and may be of use to the industry as part of the risk assessment process. Future research should aim to establish a BEI for the urine DAP test.

Organophosphate (OP) pesticides, as a group, are the most widely used insecticides in Australia. Approximately 5 000 tonnes of active ingredient are used annually (Radcliffe, 2002). The OP pesticide group consists of around 30 identifiably distinct chemicals that are synthesised and added to approximately 700 products (Radcliffe, 2002). OP pesticides are used on fruit, vegetable, grain, pasture seed, ornamental, cotton, and viticultural crops, on livestock and domestic animals, as well as for building pest control. OP pesticides all act by inhibiting the nervous system enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and as such are termed anticholinesterase insecticides. The phosphorylation of AChE and the resultant accumulation of acetylcholine are responsible for the typical symptoms of acute poisoning with OP compounds. In addition to acute health effects, OP compound exposure can result in chronic, long-term neurological effects. The traditional method of health surveillance for OP pesticide exposure is blood cholinesterase analysis, which is actually biological effect monitoring. However, there are several drawbacks associated with the use of the blood cholinesterase test, including its invasive nature, the need for baseline levels and a substantial exposure to OP pesticide before a drop in cholinesterase activity can be detected. OP pesticides are metabolised fairly rapidly by the liver to form alkyl phosphates (DAPs). Approximately 70% of OP pesticides in use in Australia will metabolise into one or more of six common DAPs. During the last 30 years, scientists have developed a urine test that detects these six degradation products. However, unlike the blood cholinesterase test, there is currently no Biological Exposure Index (BEI) for the urine DAP metabolite test. Workers in the agricultural industry - particularly those involved with mixing, loading and application tasks - are at risk of exposure to OP pesticides. It is therefore important that these workers are able to assess their risk of health effects from exposure to OP pesticides. However, currently in Queensland, workplace health and safety legislation exempts the agricultural industry from hazardous substance legislation that incorporates the requirement to perform risk assessments and health surveillance (blood cholinesterase testing) for OP pesticide exposure. The specific aim of this research was to characterise OP pesticide exposure and to assess the feasibility of using urine DAP metabolite testing as a risk assessment tool for agricultural and related industry workers exposed to OP pesticides. An additional aim among farmers was to conduct an in-depth evaluation of their knowledge, attitudes and behaviours related to handling OP pesticides and how they assess the risks associated with their use of OPs. A cross-sectional study design was used to assess exposure to OP pesticides and related issues among four groups: fruit and vegetable farmers, pilots and mixer/loaders, formulator plant staff and a control group. The study involved 51 farmers in the interviewer-administered questionnaire and 32 in urine sample provision. Eighteen pilots and mixer/loaders provided urine samples and 9 exposed formulation plant staff provided urine and blood samples. Community controls from Toowoomba Rotary clubs provided 44 urine samples and 11 non-exposed formulation plant staff provided blood and urine samples; all groups also provided responses to a self-administered questionnaire. Participant farmers were drawn from the main cropping areas in south-east Queensland - Laidley/Lowood, Gatton, and Stanthorpe. The farmer group was characterised by small owner-operators who often had primary responsibility for OP pesticide mixing and application. Farmers had good knowledge of pesticide-related safety practices; however, despite this knowledge, use of personal protective equipment (PPE) was low. More than half of the farmers did not often wear a mask/respirator (56%), gloves (54%) or overalls (65%). Material Safety Data Sheets were never or rarely read and 88.2% of farmers never or rarely read OP pesticide labels before application. There were also problems with chemical suppliers providing farmers with MSDSs. The majority of farmers (90.2%) reported that they had never had any health surveillance performed and three-quarters had never read about or been shown how to perform a formal risk assessment. The main inhibitors to the use of PPE in the farmers' group included the uncomfortable and cumbersome nature of PPE, especially in hot weather conditions, and the fear of PPE use triggering neighbours' complaints to Government authorities. Factors associated with better PPE use included having positive attitudes and beliefs toward PPE use, higher knowledge scores and low risk perception. Farmers' use of OP pesticides was infrequent, of short duration and involved application via a boom on a tractor, a lower risk application method. Consequently, urine DAP metabolite levels in this group were generally low, with 36 out of 96 samples (37.5%) containing detectable levels. Detectable results ranged from 9.00-116.00 mol/mol creatinine. Formulators exposed to OP pesticides were found to have the highest urine DAP metabolite levels (detectable levels 13.20-550.00 mol/mol creatinine), followed by pilots and mixer/loaders (detectable levels 8.40-304.00 mol/mol creatinine) and then farmers. Despite this, pilots and mixer/loaders (particularly mixer/loaders) had the greatest number of samples containing detectable levels (94.4% of samples). The DAP metabolite most frequently detected across all groups was DMTP, which was the only metabolite found in control samples. Levels found in this study are similar to those reported in international research (Takamiya, 1994, Stephens et al., 1996, Simcox et al., 1999, Mills, 2001, Cocker et al., 2002). The observed DAP levels were not associated with a drop in cholinesterase activity among the formulation plant workers, as expected from the literature. Such exposure also is unlikely to be associated with acute health effects. In contrast, there is insufficient scientific knowledge to know whether levels recorded in this study and elsewhere may be associated with long-term, chronic health effects. Notably, DMTP levels also were observed among the presumably 'unexposed' comparison groups. Environmental background level exposures to OPs producing the DAP metabolite DMTP are therefore of potential significance and may be related, at least in part, to consumption of contaminated fruit and vegetables. There is also emerging evidence to suggest that exposure to DAP metabolites themselves through diet and other sources may contribute to the concentration of DAPs, including DMTP in urine, potentially complicating assessment of occupational exposures. Nevertheless, the urine DAP metabolite test was a useful, sensitive indicator of occupational OP pesticide exposure among agricultural workers and may be of use to the industry as part of the risk assessment process. Future research should aim to establish a BEI for the urine DAP test.

Limited published data exists on the Australian duck industry, particularly in relation to the nutritional requirements of the commercial duck (Anas Platyrhynchos). A series of seven experiments was designed to determine whether current nutritional recommendations for energy, lysine, methionine, threonine and tryptophan were sufficient to optimise growth, feed efficiency, and carcass characteristics of the duck. The ability of the duck to perform diet self selection was then examined for its potential use in the Australian industry. The outcome of the diet self selection experiments showed that ducks sometimes self select diets when offered choices from four diets differing in nutrient density. A key outcome of this research was the development of a revised set of nutrient specifications designed to maximise the performance of the Australian commercially grown duck. These proposed specifications could be economically beneficial to the expanding Australian duck industry
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Limited published data exists on the Australian duck industry, particularly in relation to the nutritional requirements of the commercial duck (Anas Platyrhynchos). A series of seven experiments was designed to determine whether current nutritional recommendations for energy, lysine, methionine, threonine and tryptophan were sufficient to optimise growth, feed efficiency, and carcass characteristics of the duck. The ability of the duck to perform diet self selection was then examined for its potential use in the Australian industry. The outcome of the diet self selection experiments showed that ducks sometimes self select diets when offered choices from four diets differing in nutrient density. A key outcome of this research was the development of a revised set of nutrient specifications designed to maximise the performance of the Australian commercially grown duck. These proposed specifications could be economically beneficial to the expanding Australian duck industry

This thesis describes a research project in the South West Tapestry Region of Western Australia which uses phenomenological method to investigate the experiences of farm tourism hosts and guests. The overall aim of the research was to identify motivations of both hosts and guests in order to determine to what degree farm tourism in the SWTR provides the kind of holiday experience people are seeking. Phenomenology was chosen as a flexible yet rigorous methodology for researching lived experience, which would enable an in-depth understanding of motivations surrounding hosting farm tourism and choosing a farm tourism holiday. The initial stage of the project involved the collection of sociodemographic data from farm tourism operators with the purpose of documenting the current status of farm tourism in the region, and to build a regional profile as a context for the phenomenological investigation. Stage I of the research produced some significant findings in terms of expansion in the self-catering sector, seasonal demand patterns and visitor sources, all of which have obvious implications for future development and sustainability of farm tourism in the region. The research found that the amount of time hosts spent with guests in activities was a more important factor in the development of close relationships than accommodation type. The phenomenological investigation found hosts to be highly motivated to provide an enjoyable holiday experience on the farm for their guests, meaningful activities for children, and an opportunity for people to relax and recover from the stresses of city life. They enjoyed meeting new people and engaging in social activities with guests. There were some tensions, particularly around shared space, which need further investigation. The guests' motivations indicated they were seeking the sorts of experiences hosts were able to provide, which augurs well for the sector in terms of future business development. There was a preference from both groups for developing friendships with people who shared a common interest.

The Australian Government has set a 20% target for renewable energy by 2020 as part of a long-term commitment to decrease Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions by 60% on 2000 levels by 2050. In order to accomplish such goal, Australia will need to generate an additional 45 MWh of renewable energy yearly by 2020 where wave energy may play a significant role. Coastal waters of Australia’s southeast margin have been recognised to be suitable for exploiting wave energy resources and potentially capable of significantly contributing to Australia’s annual electricity generation. Nevertheless, until now, no thorough research has yet been conducted to adequately characterize such an unexploit-ed resource along shallow coastal waters. This dissertation presents a detailed assessment of the wave energy resource potential for Australia’s southeast coastal waters, focusing on promising nearshore regions where full-scale wave energy converter farms could potentially be deployed. The study meth-odology employed the wave energy transformation model SWAN to predict wave con-ditions along Australia’s southeastern coast from deep to shallow water depths at hourly resolution for a period of 30 years between 1979 and 2010. The model was driven with high-resolution non-stationary winds and full directional spectra boundary conditions to account for the multimodal sea states, which often subsist along Australia’s southeast coast. SWAN was calibrated and validated against measurements from several wave rider buoy locations for a wide range of sea states.
Thesis (Masters)
Master of Philosophy (MPhil)
Griffith School of Engineering
Science, Environment, Engineering and Technology
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This research reviews existing climate change literature and quantifies the climate change mitigation and adaptation potential of specific agricultural diversification activities at an individual farm level. It comprises modelling and simulations of net emission reductions and discounted market values of a range of small-scale renewable energy and carbon sequestration projects. The research aim is to enable private agricultural entities and governments to compare alternative investment options for both climate change mitigation and adaptation in the southwest of Western Australia. The research includes an analysis of ten small-scale renewable electricity systems and a range of sub-scenarios. In addition, six forestry sequestration projects are modelled, and one analysis of displacing fertiliser by using biochar are assessed. The results indicate that privately-owned, small-scale, grid-connected renewable energy systems were not competitive adaptation options for private entities relative to sourcing electricity from centralised renewable electricity generators connected to the network. The total discounted capital and operating costs, and the relatively minor mitigation potential of the small-scale energy systems resulted in very high mitigation costs. The overall discounted values of the systems were relatively insensitive to the magnitude of the existing subsidy mechanisms, either capital subsidies or feed-in tariffs. The forestry sequestration project results for the higher rainfall region show large differences in total discounted project costs over time. These costs were highly dependent on the project financing arrangements, while the tree species selection, and the previous land use were primary determinants of the biomass growth and the total carbon sequestered. The results indicate that the most productive agricultural lands in the region might be permanently retired from food production and replaced by single species tree plantations, although the viability of this option is dependent on future carbon market eligibility rules and carbon values. The biochar sequestration modelling results indicate that a reduction of phosphorus fertiliser use in low-rainfall cropping regions was possible when applying large quantities of biochar to the soil. The cost-effectiveness of using biochar in cropping systems was found to be insensitive to phosphorus fertiliser price or carbon market values. In contrast, the commercial viability of this option was highly dependent on the price paid for biochar, rather than the carbon price.

The endeavour to ‘redesign’ life at the molecular level has been widely characterised as controversial. Subsequently, agricultural biotechnology has rarely been out of the news in Australia and elsewhere throughout the last few decades during its development. Proponents are certain of the benefits, while critics are equally certain of the costs or hazards. Such polarisation is especially intense with regard to the introduction of genetically modified (GM) food crops. This thesis presents the findings from a survey of Australian canola farmers and their perspectives on the widescale introduction and regulation of GM food crops in Australia in relation to scientific, social, environmental and commercial risk and uncertainty. It also draws upon an analysis of GM regulation in Australia to determine how farmers have been involved in GM technology policy making...
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Environmental Sciences
Faculty of Science, Environment, Engineering and Technology
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This thesis presents the results of historical archaeological research at the Old Farm on Strawberry Hill in Albany, Western Australia. The site is an important colonial farm in Western Australia’s history; the location for the first farm in Western Australia (1827) and linked to many important individuals in the state’s colonial past. The site is owned and managed by the National Trust of Australia (W.A.) and is registered on both the West Australian, Heritage Council Register of Historical Places and the Australian Heritage Commission’s National Estate. Past historical and cultural biases had created an incomplete interpretation of this site that did not represent all social groups, including indentured servants, convict and Aboriginal labourers and women. The research has provided a holistic site interpretation that identified all social groups living and working on this site in the 1800s by analysing historical documents and archaeological excavated materials. The historical documentary record included both personal and official correspondence, diaries and drawings, as well as two valuable farm log books that documented the day to day events on the farm in the early to mid 1800s. The archaeological excavation was restricted to small area excavations in habitation areas still present on the site or in areas identified from 19th century surveyor maps. Both of these data sources were analysed to identify social and economic relationships, such as gender, status, class and ethnicity so that a comparison could be made between historical and archaeological data and a complementary interpretation created. The research was divided into three main periods of site occupation, firstly by convict gardeners during the government farm period from 1827 to 1832. The Spencer family period from 1833 to 1889, which is further defined by two phases, the six years from their arrival until Richard Spencer’s death in 1839 and the dispersal of the family and the property decline until it was sold in 1889. The third period of occupation by the Bird family was not discussed due to the discontinuation of a farming subsistence that distinguished it from a rural rather than an urban property. This study provides the current heritage managers with an updated interpretation of the site’s past and changing social and economic relationships on site and with the early town of Albany. It is hoped that this interpretation will be used to improve the site’s current representation and becomes the basis for a heritage conservation plan which not only recognises the importance of existing site structures, but also sub surface remains. This thesis also identifies a number of avenues for future research that will further enhance the site’s interpretation.

In 2025, there will be almost 8 billion people to feed as the worlds population rapidly increases. To meet domestic and export demands, Australian grain productivity needs to approximately triple in the next 20 years, and this production needs to occur in an environmentally sustainable manner. The advent of Hi-tech Precision Farming in Australia has shown promise in recent time to optimize the use of resources. Most

The question of fossil fuel depletion represents a significant contemporary agricultural problem. Once humans deplete the resources on which agriculture and food production depends, we will be daunted by the complexities of remaking the agricultural system, and faced with the consequences of our failures in the past. Arguably, no other single factor can affect future food production prospects as much as energy supply. In this context, there are growing debates about the extent to which diverse farming systems – including conventional and organic farming systems – may represent more energy efficient and productive systems. This thesis makes a contribution to this debate, by undertaking a case study of energy use on conventional and organic dairy farms in South-East Queensland. To do this, this thesis undertakes an energy audit of four farms; and in so doing, articulates the energy requirements related to milk production, and a starting point for addressing energy efficiencies and controlling energy use on the farm. This thesis then compares data across the four case studies to identify the effect of different management practices upon energy use and sustainability of individual enterprises. The results presented in this thesis demonstrate that along with concerns regarding diminishing fossil fuel reserves, and the need to re-design energy inefficient agriculture and food systems, rising energy costs have also resulted in a re-evaluation of energy use, leading many farmers to seek alternative – low energy – agricultural practices. Reducing on-farm energy consumption is recognised by many farmers as a vital step in ensuring the long-term viability of their farms. One of the outcomes of these circumstances has been an increased farmer interest in monitoring energy use patterns and quantifying energy use. Knowledge of the patterns of energy flows on the farm will act as important tools for farmers to assess the overall sustainability of their farming activities and lead to improved management practices, conservation of fossil fuels and an increase in profitability.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Biomolecular and Physical Sciences
Science, Environment, Engineering and Technology
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The study on different extension approaches was undertaken in the Bathurst area of New South Wales, Australia. One hundred farmers were surveyed in random pairs according to those who belong to the formal group, ???Landcare???, and those who did not. The survey included questions on personal, physical resources, ecological and economic factors, farm practices and management (including actual practice, use of extension methods and information sources) Focussing on behavioural change over time, attitudes, perceptions and intentions. The impact of extension approach on different levels of innovation was considered: simple (e.g. tree planting), medium (e.g. pasture development) and complex (soil erosion control) on behavioural change. It was hypothesised that the ???group??? extension approach should be more effective with complex innovations, but the main significant differences found were in level of tree planting (higher in government funded Landcare), money spent on erosion control (including tree planting) and attitudes to the severity of local erosion (all higher in Landcare members). There were no other differences in attitudes, intentions or change in farming practice except that non-Landcare farmers planted more pasture and applied more lime. The outcomes did not support the hypothesis, and it was not possible to distinguish the differences that did occur in performance from extension approach versus access to funds. Field days are an important extension method for the adoption of cropping by landholders. Among the different extension methods, those who conducted erosion control through pastures, preferred government officers and meetings. Those who adopted tree planting and were in Landcare preferred magazines as the extension method. This added further weight to the argument that the formal group extension approach may not be perceived by its members to have any influence on adoption at this level. Generally, mass media was more important in the early stages of adoption and personal influence more important in the evaluation stage. This also applied to simple versus complex innovations. Surprisingly all farmers placed a very high reliance on government officers for information and decision-making, particularly those in Landcare, compared to neighbours or family. Formal group extension still needs assessing but using models other than Landcare.

Interest in the effect of fish farming practices on the marine environment has arisen because there is concern that the wastes that fish farms produce may be contributing to eutrophication in coastal areas and the problem of harmful algal blooms. The focus of this thesis is an examination of phytoplankton distribution and abundance in relation to tuna fish farms in Boston Bay and near-shore Spencer Gulf. This is the first study in South Australia to define the short-term biomass fluctuations of chlorophyll and in vivo fluorescence, identify phytoplankton species distribution and abundance, including two potentially toxic dinoflagellates, and describe patch distribution relative to tuna fish farms in Boston Bay and the near-shore waters of Spencer Gulf. An ecological interpretation of phytoplankton distribution and abundance is determined and shows that community composition was different in lower Spencer Gulf compared to Boston Bay and upper Spencer Gulf sites. Pico- and nanophytoplankton were often the most abundant organisms. Diatoms and gymnoids were most common. Season and currents predominantly influenced the distribution of phytoplankton in Boston Bay and Spencer Gulf. Individual species may be influenced by inputs from the fish farms. Chlorophyll levels were different between the Spencer Gulf and Boston Bay sites and no differences were recorded, using mean levels of chlorophyll, between tuna cages and controls. Chlorophyll levels were higher east of Boston Island in autumn of 1999. Chlorophyll levels appeared to show a slight increase between years. This may have been an anomalous natural variation and future research may investigate this in the long term. In addition, Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was used to investigate differences between treatments and the functional grouping model supported an ecological interpretation of the factors from the PCA. A total of 131 taxa of phytoplankton were identified in this study. The 14 dominant taxa were used in the PCA and of these, 9 were diatoms. Phytoplankton abundance was not different between tuna cages and controls. However, when examining individual species, Karenia mikimotoi was more prevalent at tuna cages, close to shore, east and west of Boston Island than at other sites. PCA showed how different species bloomed together and were seasonal. Karenia brevis and K. mikimotoi featured predominantly in the PCA with K. brevis the dominant organism during summer and autumn along with Gyrodinium spp. and smaller gymnoids. K. brevis blooms were most likely influenced by water temperatures and fixation of nitrogen from a Trichodesmium erythaeum bloom. K. mikimotoi bloomed bimodally and may be influenced by ammonia excreted from fish from the tuna farms but , on the other hand, may be limited by the high salinities of South Australian waters. Currents in the region distribute both organisms. The final aspect of this study assessed finer temporal and spatial sampling using directional transects around tuna cages and controls using in-vivo fluorescence and size fractionated chlorophyll. The chlorophyll a sampling showed little spatial variability within a site in the 1000 m2 that the sampling area covers but far greater temporal variability (days). In contrast, fluorescence `mapping' expands the window of variability both spatially (within a site) and temporally (along transects and between days). This has given a spatial definition, which is unavailable from a single point sample, and thereby leaves room for much greater interpretation. Small patches are evident from the fluorescence mapping where this is impossible to detect from the single point samples. Therefore, the fluorescence `mapping' and patch definition show that the trend is widespread (spatially) and quite persistent (temporally) around the fish farm area. Size fractionated chlorophyll samples provided further insight into phytoplankton dynamics in this study where diatoms were favored over dinoflagellates and were responsible for the larger fraction of chlorophyll found at the tuna cage one (TC1) site. We suggest that seasonal fluctuations, high nutrient input from the farm activities and turbulence may be responsible for the different chlorophyll/fluorescent structures found at TC1. Future research may look at the long-term regional impact on phytoplankton size structure, biomass and communities from fish farm activities. As a good part of this journey involved counting phytoplankton using the Utërmohl technique, a short paper, published in the Journal of Plankton Research, on reducing the settling time of this method, is presented in Appendix.

This project investigates the possibility of achieving zero waste discharge on a dairy farm in south west Western Australia. The current best practices for dairy farm effluent treatment were assessed in a literature review and a water audit and a nutrient balance were conducted on a specific farm in Boyanup, W. A. with 500 cattle. The finding was 52 L/cow per milking of water were used, which is higher than the industry benchmark. Nutrients were leaking into groundwater table at six meters depth at low concentrations. Four different options were assessed in a techno-economic options assessment: i) no action to be taken; ii) installing a pond for effluent storage; iii) installing a tank for effluent storage, and iv) recycling effluent after primary treatment for dairy yard wash combined with construction of a roof on the yard for additional rainwater catchment and reduction of heat stress on cows. The paper concludes that a hybrid option incorporating effluent recycling for yard wash by installation of flood wash tanks, construction of a pond for storage during wet seasons, and the erection of a roof on the yard for additional rainwater catchment and reduction of heat stress on cows. This final recommendation was designed to achieve zero waste discharge and showed further benefits such as an increase in milk production and a reduction of labour. The installation cost for the proposed overall system was estimated at $170,000 with a payback period of 6.2 years.

The overall goal of this research was to advance the understanding of Salmonella and E. coli in the egg industry in WA. The first objective of this study is to assess the prevalence, serotype diversity, and genomic characterization of Salmonella in the egg industry (retail and farm environment) in WA. The second objective of this study is to improve the broader understanding of antimicrobial resistance and genomic characterization of E. coli in retail eggs. The results indicated Salmonella recovery of 11.5% (23/200) in collected retail eggs and 35% (93/265) of the environmental samples collected from layer farms. Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Infantis were the most prevalent serovars in both farm and retail investigations. All Salmonella isolated from retail table eggs were susceptible to all antimicrobials tested and only two isolates were found to be resistant to ampicillin. The results of the questionnaire from egg businesses in WA highlighted the need for effective management practices and biosecurity measures cleaning and disinfection of sheds, regular Salmonella testing programs, rodent control, vaccination, and provision of uncontaminated feed. Whole genome comparative analysis of retail isolates indicated an association between Salmonella genomic variation and the management system used to raise poultry for egg production. Our analysis indicated that Salmonella isolated from free-range retail eggs were carrying fewer virulence factors compared to isolates sourced from retail eggs branded as barn and cage eggs. Moreover, a very low carriage of resistance genes was detected in the isolates recovered from free-range produced eggs. The highest frequencies of non-susceptibility among selected generic E. coli isolated from retail eggs were observed against tetracycline (49%) and ampicillin (36%). We also reported the first detection of non-wild-type E. coli isolates against fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin) in supermarket eggs in Australia. The outcomes of these studies indicate the importance of further investigations on Salmonella and generic E. coli at the human-food of animal origin interface in WA. Findings and recommendations outlined in this thesis could be used to develop future management strategies in public health to better control of foodborne zoonotic diseases in Australia.

This thesis is an evaluation of the use the USLE to estimate soil loss from two pastoral land uses - commercial properties and "hobby farms" in Murrumbateman. Sensitivity analysis was used to evaluate the USLE components. Sediment measurement in farm dams was taken to estimate sediment yield from several sites, as an alternative approach to study soil loss. The annual soil loss from entire study area was 0.25 t/ha/year whilst these figures from commercial properties and hobby farms were 0.29 t/ha/year and 0.21 t/ha/year, respectively. The annual average sediment yield from three catchments in hobby farms was 0.3 t/ha/year. The USLE was found to be highly sensitive to slope steepness, ground cover and stocking rates. The critical values were 16% for slopes, 35% for the ground cover and 19 Dry Sheep Equivalent/ha for stocking rate. I tentatively conclude that the USLE is sufficiently sensitive to detect differences in soil loss between the two land uses. There is, however, a need to improve the operation of the model in some respects. The use of farm dams for estimating sediment yield also shows promise.

Baiting with sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) to protect lambs (Ovis aries) from red foxes (Vulpes vulpes L.) has become more frequent in NSW and other parts of Australia during the last 10 years despite the lack of reported evidence evaluating the effects of fox baiting on lamb survival. NSW Agriculture has developed fox control recommendations aimed at minimising impact, but these guidelines have not been tested experimentally. Defining the extent of a pest problem and the effectiveness of pest control are key components of a strategic approach to vertebrate pest management as it is the damage of pests that justifies their control. This thesis describes an experimental evaluation of the recommended practice of fox control in NSW. The effects of three levels of fox control were tested in the experiment; no treatment, baiting once a year before lambing (the recommended practice) and baiting three times a year (thought to be the maximum farmers would instigate). Each treatment had two replicates. No previous manipulative experiment using synchronous controls and matched replicates has been undertaken to test the effects. The study quantifies the level of fox predation on healthy lambs and the level of predation on lambs that had other causes including illness and mismothering contributing to this fox predation. It also examines the response of the fox population, lamb predation and lambing outcomes to different levels of fox control. The cost effectiveness of fox control is examined in relation to lamb predation and an investigation of the optimum level of fox control is begun. The experiment also provides the first chance to consider the examination of multiple response variables and the scale of field ecology experiments required to recognise a significant response and avoid a Type II error due to between replicate variability even with tightly controlled site selection criteria to standardise experimental sites, and with the synchrony of experimental control and treatment surveys. The study occurred on five sheep properties near Boorowa (34°28'S, 148°32'E) and Murringo (34°18'S, 148°3 1'E) in south-eastern Australia. The terrain was undulating to hilly with a maximum elevation of 660 m above sea level. The main agricultural enterprises in the district are Merino wool, fat lamb and beef cattle production and winter cereal cropping. The native vegetation of Eucalyptus woodland has been mostly cleared, though remnant patches occur. Most of the area is now sown with pasture of Phalaris tuberosa, Lolium spp. and clover Trifolium spp.. The experimental properties grazed self-replacing Merino flocks, primarily for wool production, so lamb survival was vital to the economic operation of the farm. Over 50 selection criteria including lamb survival rates, ewe fertility and bloodline, sheep management practices, climate and habitat features that affect lamb survival, past fox control practices and prey species were used to select sites Sites were representative of most sheep farming properties in the region, but were also extremely similar in factors that affected fox abundance and ewe and lamb survival, thus minimising variation between replicate sites. The manufactured meat baits used to poison foxes contained 3 mg of sodium monofluoroacetate (compound 1080). A replacement baiting program was carried out in 1995 and 1996. Fox control programs were carried out over the experimental units and adjacent buffer zones covering approximately two fox territories, approximately 6km2, around the lambing paddock under study. The recommended fox control practices described by NSW Agriculture also included neighbouring farmers taking part in an extended group baiting program. In all the area baited at varying intensities totalled 3400 km2. Synchronised lambing with neighbours was a further recommended practice to reduce fox predation and was carried out on these sites. Lambing occurred during a six to eight week period in late winter on all sites, a practice known as 'spring lambing', and on many surrounding properties so a surplus of lambs was available to foxes over a relatively short time. The benefits of fox control were measured directly as enhanced lamb survival derived from differences in lamb marking rates between ultrasounded flocks of approximately 1000 ewes and the predation of lambs was measured from over 2000 lamb carcases post-mortemed in 1994, 1995 and 1996. A mean of 138 lambs were expected at ultrasounding from 100 ewes and 113 lambs per 100 ewes were alive at lamb marking. There was no significant (P>0.05) effect of fox control on lambing performance (the number of lambs per 100 ewes that lambed) Fox predation was inferred as the cause of lamb death in a minimum of 0.8% and a maximum of 5.3% of lamb carcases during 1995 and 1996. There was a significant (P<0 05) effect of fox control on the minimum possible percentage of lamb carcases classified as healthy lambs killed by foxes, with the percentage declining from 1.50% (no fox control), to 0.90% (fox control once per year) to 0.25% (fox control three times per year). There was also a significant (P<0.005) effect of fox control on the maximum possible percentage of lamb carcases classified as healthy lambs killed by foxes with the percentage declining from 10.25% (no fox control), to 6.50% (fox control once per year) to 3.75% (fox control three times per year). The observed results were used to estimate the number of treatment replicates needed to be confident of detecting an effect of predator control on lamb marking performance. The estimated numbers were very high if small effects were to be detected. No significant correlation between the fox density and the minimum and maximum possible number of lambs carcases classified as killed by foxes was found. Bait uptake was monitored as were the costs of fox control.

Over the past century, oil and natural gas have been predominantly utilized as the main sources of energy in industries, households and in the transport sector. Ships, aeroplanes and automotive all rely on different variants of coal, oil and natural gas products to operate. However, in the past few decades, the volatility of oil prices, the increased regulatory pressure from environmental organizations to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the sharp cost reduction and increased efficiency experienced by the renewable energy (RE) industry, these combined factors have led to the exploration of alternative RE sources such as large scale wind and large scale solar. Damette and Marques further reveal that there is increased interest in RE sources as they are touted to not only reduce dependence on electricity but also because the sector is highly profitable…

Farmers in Australia and elsewhere face the challenge of remaining profitable whilst dealing with adverse structural arrangements and public expectations to better manage environmental degradation. This thesis draws on arguments that dominant paradigms in agricultural science and environmental management have often been ineffective in addressing these apparently competing demands and appear poorly suited to ‘messy’ situations characterized by uncertainty and complexity, and in which diverse stakeholders are motivated by varying goals and values. Engaging with such situations requires a philosophy and methodology that accepts a multiplicity of perspectives and which seeks to learn about and reflect upon novel ways of thinking and acting. Among the underlying ideas that have shaped this project is the importance of recognising the assumptions and commitments that researchers bring to their practice in order that traditions are not uncritically reproduced and that the products of our thinking are not reified. Regarding farming as less a set of technical practices and more as a human activity taking place within broader economic, social, cultural and ecological contexts, I sought to engage a group of farmers in southern Western Australia in a process of taking action to address an issue of common concern that would help them to live and farm well in their district. My role as both researcher and facilitator of conversations was driven by a commitment to dialogue as a process of meaning making and relationship building. Together we explored some of the broader contexts within which the narrower conceptions of economic and ecological problems are often uncritically placed. Taking concrete action together however proved beyond the scope of my research. The challenge of feeding ourselves while better caring for the land and each other will require imaginative as well as technical resources. To this end I have also sought to sketch out some of the creative possibilities contained within the health metaphor as it is applied to soil, arguing that its use as a proxy for quality or condition fails to utilize its disruptive potential.

This study posits a model of 'rural extension' which begins from humans, not from technology or information. The model has been used to facilitate community development at the village level. The research illustrates the potential of drama and participative forms of theatre as empowering 'action' learning/researching tools to reach people in rural communities, and as a means of involving those communities in creativity and learning about themselves and their environment collaboratively. The writer seeks to integrate participatory approaches with community development and human inquiry, humanistic approaches to education, experiential learning theories, and drama education theories and methods. The central questions which this research addresses are : 1/. What are the functions and the methods of participative theatre (as systemic communication) in the process of social change and development? and 2/. How can these participative forms of theatre elicit whole aspects of local knowledge, that is, tacit/explicit knowledge, facilitate learning and foster critical thinking through grass-roots participation? The ideas were formulated and tested through intensive field experiences with Iranian nomads, Iranian farmers, immigrant farmers in NSW, Australia, and within a number of workshops with different groups of students at Hawkesbury. This includes a critique of rural development in Iran, examinations of rural extension from a critical perspective, drama and theatre as process, learning and conscientization, personal construct psychology, systems thinking, learning through metaphor, action theory, Boal's participative forum theatre theory, and action research. Finally, the study explores drama as a form of systemic communication (that is, dialogue through a number of group activity techniques)

The aim of this research project was to use 15N nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to better understand nitrogen (N) cycling processes in forest plantations. In particular, the studies were designed to link to the effects of forest management practices and environmental conditions. 15N NMR cross polarization/magic angle spinning (CPMAS) and dipolar dephasing (DD)-CPMAS experiments of some simple N-containing compounds found widely in nature were first undertaken. This was done in order to understand how different sample conditions, such as the presence of moisture, sample mixing and dilution, affected the intensity and the observability of the NMR peaks corresponding to N containing functional groups. Our results exhibited changes in NMR signal intensities and various time constants calculated. In the case of variable contact time experiments, use of an equation that predicts both a bi-exponential rise and decay was found to fit the data obtained more accurately. The optimised parameters for 15N NMR CPMAS were then used along with other analytical techniques such as ion chromatography, total C and N and elemental analyses to study plant nutrient uptake, plant decomposition and the effect of forest ecosystem disturbances, in this case an insect infestation. These analytical data were also correlated with the changes in the 13C NMR spectra in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the chemical transformations in the forest ecosystem.