Dissertationen zum Thema „Agir politique“

Associé à la démocratie représentative, le vote en France est souvent observé à travers ses résultats (chiffre d’abstention, du vote blanc, inscription ou non inscription sur les listes électorales, etc.), ce qui laisse entendre que le fait démocratique serait caractérisé par les suffrages exprimés. Or, pour le citoyen le vote a un sens qui va au-delà du rituel des urnes. En tant que Sujet socio-psychologique, il vote en agissant autour d’enjeux fondamentaux dans le but de construire et de se construire par un acte puissant et utile en confirmant son histoire.Pour comprendre la signification du vote en tant qu’agir politique articulé à de nombreux agir (s) sociaux, eux-mêmes reposant sur des fondements psychologiques de l’agir humain, nous nous sommes positionnés en amont et en aval de la dynamique électorale et envisagé le comportement votant en fonction des connaissances, des croyances, des prédispositions normatives, affectives, bref, de l’attitude qui le sous-tend.La question générale de notre recherche est de décliner les conditions qui construisent le comportement votant
Associated with representative democracy, voting in France is often seen through its results (abstention, blank vote, registration or non-registration on electoral lists, etc.), which suggests that the actual democratic would be characterized by the votes cast. For the citizen, the vote has a meaning that goes beyond the ritual of the ballot box. As a socio-psychological subject, he votes regarding fundamental issues in order to bring out solutions and construct himself through this historical action seen as a powerful, effective and useful. In order to understand the significance of voting as a political act expressed in many social actions, which are based on the psychological foundations of human action, we positioned ourselves upstream and downstream of the vote and considered the voting behavior relatively to knowledge, beliefs, normative, affective dimensions, in short, to the attitude that supports it.The general aim of our research is to specify the conditions that construct the voting behavior

Il s’agit tout au long de ce travail d’approcher le politique au Liban, dans sa praxis, en interrogeant les actions d’une catégorie spécifique d’acteurs, les élites religieuses libanaises institutionnalisées. En se penchant sur leurs positionnements politiques, il s’agit d’observer dans quelle mesure la barrière confessionnelle entre ces chefs communautaires est transcendée au profit d’un objectif commun : conserver l’ordre social en vigueur. Pour cela, il convient de se pencher tout d’abord sur les ressources dont disposent ces acteurs pour asseoir et légitimer leur investissement dans le champ politique. Ces ressources sont à la fois d’ordre historique, fruits d’un héritage divergeant certes d’une communauté à l’autre, mais s’inscrivent également dans un cadre structurel et juridique spécifique qui tend à uniformiser les pratiques positionnelles, et qui confère à chacune des instances institutionnalisées les moyens d’un encadrement sociétal. Les ressources d’ordre charismatique et propres à chaque leader ne sont bien évidemment pas à négliger.L’étude des pratiques du positionnement implique de se pencher sur les vecteurs véhiculant la prise de parole, mais également la temporalité et la fréquence dans laquelle cette parole s’insère. Le discours politique se caractérise également par une uniformité flagrante de la rhétorique et du vocabulaire utilisés par ces dominants. La défense d’une cause, à laquelle est liée l’identité du groupe communautaire, le calibrage des stratégies de communication, ainsi que la préservation d’un équilibre nécessaire à entretenir avec le champ politique en terme de distance, sont autant de règles conditionnant la légitimité du discours produit.Ces positionnements n’étant pas sans défis, les acteurs religieux institutionnalisés se doivent également de gérer à la fois la concurrence d’outsiders proposant un discours moins uniforme et donc plus attractif, mais également les potentielles dissensions caractérisant les acteurs du champ religieux, ainsi que leurs relations avec ceux du champ politique. Gérer ces concurrences potentielles implique d’œuvrer en commun, en système, conjointement ou concomitamment, pour produire un discours des élites pour les élites, promouvant la sauvegarde d’un ordre social. En s’affranchissant des grilles de lecture communautaires ou clientélaires, à travers l’observation des positionnements d’acteurs disposant principalement d’un capital symbolique, nous sommes amenés à caractériser la formation d’un nouveau champ des élites de la conservation regroupant les acteurs religieux, mais également une partie du personnel politique œuvrant en vue de cette conservation de l’ordre social
This work aims at approaching politics in Lebanon in its praxis by questioning the actions of a specific category of actors : the Lebanese institutionalized religious elites. Addressing their political positioning means examining to what extend the confessional boarders can be transcended in order to reach a common goal : preserving the current social order.First, it is thus necessary to question the resources available to these actors in order to establish and legitimate their involvement in the political field. These resources take roots in a historical heritage, which varies from one community to the other, but take place in a structural and legal framework, which tends to harmonize the positional practices and to allow to the institutionalized bodies the means to frame the Lebanese society. The charismatic resources, which vary from one leader to the other, are not to be laid aside.This study of the positional practices involves not only to lay eyes on the vectors carrying the discourses, but also to observe the temporality and the frequency in which said discourses fit. This political discourse is characterized by a blatant uniformity in both rhetoric and vocabulary used by the dominants. Advocating for a cause, thus linked to the very identity of the group, shaping the communication strategies, but also preserving a necessary balance with the political field, in terms of proximity, are so many norms that determine the legitimacy of the produced discourse.This positioning is not without posing some challenges for the institutionalized religious actors who have to deal with the competition of outsiders who offer a less uniform, and thus more attractive discourse, but also with the potential divisions within the religious field, and the oppositions with the political actors. Dealing with these potential competitions implies a common, joint or concomitant action, in system, in order to produce a discourse by the elites and for the elites, promoting the safekeeping of the social order.By avoiding the communitarian and clientelistic reading grids through the observation of the positioning of specific actors who mainly possess symbolic capitals, we are led to shape the constitution of a new field of the conservative elites, gathering not only the religious actors but also a part of the political ones working in order to preserve the social order

La guerre en Bosnie-Herzégovine fut un conflit des plus meurtriers qui a apporté un discours inflammatoire conduisant à des dérapages sur le terrain entre les diverses forces en présence, et ce, au détriment d’une population prise en otage par une poignée de décideurs politiques et de leurs élites de la sécurité (policiers, militaires, agences de renseignements, etc.) qui ne cherchaient qu’à décider individuellement des enjeux politiques ayant lieu. Un conflit européen que nous avons exploré par l’utilisation du cadre théorique de la sécurisation/désécurisation d’Ole Waever, et ce, afin de mieux comprendre comment une sécurisation à l’extrême, au travers d’un acte de langage (speech act), peut se développer jusqu’à apporter la violence physique comme mode de résolution de différends. Un processus inquiétant qui soulève toute la question de la désécurisation comme approche d’euphémisation d’une menace afin de soustraire toutes tentatives de sécurisation de se développer ou d’être exploitées. Une approche qui nous a permis d’ouvrir la « boîte noire » qu’est l’État pour mieux saisir ces particularités ainsi que les luttes de pouvoir s’y déroulant. Une lutte de pouvoir qui se joue entre multiples acteurs qui ne peuvent être négligés dans toute situation sécuritaire. Une avenue choisie qui nous a permis de déterminer des options de désécurisation souhaitables qui auraient pu être explorées afin de maintenir la stabilité politique de cet État en devenir. Le tout nous permettant de dire que la désécurisation de la BiH comme approche fut une opportunité manquée.

Depuis la mise en place de la première surveillance de la qualité des cours d’eau et des rivières à l’échelle nationale en 1971, plusieurs types de mesures cohabitent à l’échelle du bassin-versant : les réseaux de surveillance pris en charge par les services de l’Etat, d’une part, les suivis qualité des eaux du bassin-versant (SQE-BV) assurés par des acteurs décentralisés d’autre part. L’acquisition de connaissances complémentaires sur l’eau issues de la mesure sur le terrain a accompagné l’évolution des pratiques locales de gestion de l’eau, de manière contrastée selon les régions, les bassins et sous-bassins. A la faveur de la contrainte réglementaire et d’un attelage partenarial Etat-Région, les cours d’eau bretons ont fait l’objet d’une politique de surveillance très développée. L’urgence d’agir face à une visibilité plus marquée de la pollution a motivé cette démarche dans les années 1990. Cette thèse illustre cette démarche régionalisée par plusieurs études de cas, dont celle du bassin précurseur de l’Yvel-Yvet. L’ensemble de la thèse, appuyée sur l’étude de ces suivis locaux et sur une temporalité de plus de vingt ans, mobilise le concept d’instrument d’action publique pour expliquer les étapes, les ressorts socio-politiques et les échelles de la mise en oeuvre de cette politique territorialisée de reconquête de la qualité des eaux
Since the establishment of the first national waterways and rivers quality monitoring in 1971, several types of measures coexist at the drainage basin scale: on the one hand, the monitoring networks supported by the State services; on theother hand, the water quality monitoring of the drainage basin (SQE-BV) provided by decentralized actors. The acquisition of complementary knowledge on water from the field measurement has accompanied the evolution of local practices of water management, in a different way depending on the regions, the basins and sub-basins. Thanks to the regulatory constraint and a State-Region partnership, Breton waterways have been the subject of a highly developed surveillance policy. This approach was motivated in the 1990s because of the urgency to act in front of a greater pollution visibility. This thesis illustrates the regionalised approach by several case studies, including that of the precursor basin of Yvel-Yvet. The whole thesis, based on the study of these local follow-ups and on a temporality of more than twenty years, mobilizes the concept of instrument of public action to explain the stages, the socio-political motivations and the implementation scales of this territorialized policy of regaining water quality

Dans le contexte du programme de recherche scientifique autrichien en économie, le processus de marché doit être appréhendé par le prisme du concept d'entrepreneur. La fonction créative d'entrepreneur se présente comme un processus individuel largement épistémique, lequel s'élucide en une action à effet catallactique. Elle contribue à l'émergence spontanée de l`ordre, concrétisant ainsi l'évolutionnisme individuel et institutionnel. Or son apparition dépend de déterminants institutionnels particuliers. Par conséquent, le processus de marché, qui émerge des actions catallactiques, requiert un fondement institutionnel spécifique comme une condition sine qua non. En outre, notre analyse s'étend au processus politique à travers le prisme de l'action politique, afin d'examiner l'adéquation de cette action à la nature catallactique. Cette analyse permet aussi de décrypter les institutions qui régissent l'ordre politique confectionné. Cependant, cette investigation relève au cours du processus politique, la déficience du fondement institutionnel indispensable à l'émergence de la fonction d'entrepreneur dans l'action politique. Cela constitue une barrière infranchissable pour l'analogie catallactique dans la pratique politique, et contribue à expliquer la défaillance de la conjecture de marché politique, en raison de l'impossibilité de l'émergence d'un échange politique légitime. Du point de vue de l'éthique, l'action politique s'avère nocive à l'ensemble des droits individuels, voire aux droits de propriété privée. Elle diverge de celle entrepreneuriale car elle dénie la coordination. Par conséquent, cette réalité nous amène à réfuter la conjecture d'entrepreneur politique
In the context of the Austrian scientific research program in economics, our study deals with the market process through the prism of Entrepreneur`s concept. The creative entrepreneurial function emerges as an epistemic individual process, which contributes to a catallactic action. It strengthens the emergence of the spontaneous order, thus shaping individual and institutional evolutionism. The emergence of such action mainly depends on institutional determinants. Therefore, the market process, emerging from catallactic actions, requires a specific institutional foundation. Thereby, our analysis concerns the political process; this, through the prism of the political action, to match the adequacy of this action to the catallactic one. This analysis also decrypts the institutions which determine the political order. However, this introspection identifies the deficiency of the institutional foundation required for the emergence of the entrepreneurial function through the political action. This barrier of the catallactic analogy in the political practice contributes to the refutation of the political market conjecture. The main reason of this failure is the impossibility of a legitimate political exchange emergence. From the objective ethics perspective, the political action harms the individual rights in general and the private property rights in particular. By denying the coordination, this political action shows a divergent nature from the entrepreneurial one. Therefore, this reality leads to refute the political entrepreneur conjecture

Dans le contexte du programme de recherche scientifique autrichien en économie, le processus de marché doit être appréhendé par le prisme du concept d'entrepreneur. La fonction créative d'entrepreneur se présente comme un processus individuel largement épistémique, lequel s'élucide en une action à effet catallactique. Elle contribue à l'émergence spontanée de l`ordre, concrétisant ainsi l'évolutionnisme individuel et institutionnel. Or son apparition dépend de déterminants institutionnels particuliers. Par conséquent, le processus de marché, qui émerge des actions catallactiques, requiert un fondement institutionnel spécifique comme une condition sine qua non. En outre, notre analyse s'étend au processus politique à travers le prisme de l'action politique, afin d'examiner l'adéquation de cette action à la nature catallactique. Cette analyse permet aussi de décrypter les institutions qui régissent l'ordre politique confectionné. Cependant, cette investigation relève au cours du processus politique, la déficience du fondement institutionnel indispensable à l'émergence de la fonction d'entrepreneur dans l'action politique. Cela constitue une barrière infranchissable pour l'analogie catallactique dans la pratique politique, et contribue à expliquer la défaillance de la conjecture de marché politique, en raison de l'impossibilité de l'émergence d'un échange politique légitime. Du point de vue de l'éthique, l'action politique s'avère nocive à l'ensemble des droits individuels, voire aux droits de propriété privée. Elle diverge de celle entrepreneuriale car elle dénie la coordination. Par conséquent, cette réalité nous amène à réfuter la conjecture d'entrepreneur politique
In the context of the Austrian scientific research program in economics, our study deals with the market process through the prism of Entrepreneur`s concept. The creative entrepreneurial function emerges as an epistemic individual process, which contributes to a catallactic action. It strengthens the emergence of the spontaneous order, thus shaping individual and institutional evolutionism. The emergence of such action mainly depends on institutional determinants. Therefore, the market process, emerging from catallactic actions, requires a specific institutional foundation. Thereby, our analysis concerns the political process; this, through the prism of the political action, to match the adequacy of this action to the catallactic one. This analysis also decrypts the institutions which determine the political order. However, this introspection identifies the deficiency of the institutional foundation required for the emergence of the entrepreneurial function through the political action. This barrier of the catallactic analogy in the political practice contributes to the refutation of the political market conjecture. The main reason of this failure is the impossibility of a legitimate political exchange emergence. From the objective ethics perspective, the political action harms the individual rights in general and the private property rights in particular. By denying the coordination, this political action shows a divergent nature from the entrepreneurial one. Therefore, this reality leads to refute the political entrepreneur conjecture

Ce travail historique porte sur le tissu des liens personnels et son évolution, sur la formation de la personne au sein et à partir de ses rapports de communication à différentes échelles entre le proche et le public dans l'URSS de l'époque stalinienne. La personne est considérée au croisement de ses engagements interactifs, multiples et des opérations réflexives à travers lesquelles elle se positionne par rapport au système politico-idéologique. L'étude est centrée sur les communistes engagés dans la construction du régime, notamment sur ceux que l'on peut qualifier de fondateurs de l'État soviétique, à savoir les bolcheviks de la première heure, dont les liens personnels se sont constitués très souvent à partir d'un engagement militant commun, sous l'égide du Parti. Appuyé sur des documents personnels (journaux, correspondances, mémoires) notre travail démontre le rôle décisif de la communication engagée entre proches pour le développement d'une capacité critique vis-à-vis du régime
This dissertation deals with personal ties and •their evolution in Stalin’s time. It examines the formation of the person through the process of communicational exchanges at multiple levels, from the intimate to the public realms. The person is analysed at the interface of her/his multiple interactive ties, as well as his reflections on positioning himself in a larger context, especially the politico-ideological system of the time in the Soviet Union. The study focuses on engaged communists, mainly those who could be called the founding fathers of the Soviet state: Bolshevik pioneers whose personal ties and friendships often emerged from, a common revolutionary militancy under the auspices of the Party. 8ased on personal documents such as diaries, letters and memoirs this thesis shows in particular the crucial role played by engaged communication among people close to each other in the development of critical capacity relative to the regime in power

Dans le domaine des sciences et des techniques où se polarise les relations entre savoir et pouvoir, se joue aujourd’hui les conditions d’un agir communicationnel propre à notre contemporanéité. Cette étude s’intéresse aux relations entre savoir et pouvoir, issues de controverses sociotechniques et plus particulièrement à leurs traitements par le biais de procédures hybrides. Il s’agit ici de mettre en évidence la dimension dialogique de la procédure de débat public (ITER en Provence) comme lieu privilégié d’interactions, de représentations, de sens et de normes visant tant à l’adhésion à la décision sur le projet en débat qu’à l’appropriation d’un nouveau code communicationnel entre l’Etat et les citoyens. Dans le contexte de la problématique de l’information et du débat de la société de la connaissance, les SIC autorisent un éclairage multidimensionnel du discours et de l'agir communicationnel de la procédure française de débat public dont l'enjeu tient d’une capacité de pouvoir d’influence et de persuasion. De plus, cette approche permet une vision à plusieurs niveaux de l'État en action et en interaction, dans le cadre des multiples enjeux du dialogue : thèmes, scènes, acteurs et des nouvelles attentes des citoyens à l'égard de l'État. Ainsi, cette étude facilite le décryptage de ces formes d'expression et de modalités d'association des acteurs traditionnels et des citoyens à l'action publique en matière de choix sociotechniques et en repère leurs significations. Le choix de cet objet permet donc, de révéler la montée en puissance de dispositifs normatifs et pratiques ordonnant les relations entre les profanes et les experts et in fine, entre le citoyen et l’Etat
In the realm of science and techniques, where relations between knowledge and power are polarized, what are being played out today are the conditions for a communicative action specific to our contemporary situation. This study looks into the relations between knowledge and power as they arise from socio-technical controversies and more specifically into how they are handled through hybrid procedures. The issue here is to highlight the dialogue-based dimension of the procedure of public consultation (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor in Provence) as the prime focus for interactions, representations, meanings and norms that are intended both to secure support for the decision reached on the project under discussion and to usher in a new code of communication between state and citizens. In the context of informational issues and of debate within the knowledge society, the Information and Communication Sciences shed light from many angles on the communicative action surrounding the French public consultation procedure where what is involved is the power to influence and the capacity to persuade. Moreover, this approach provides a split-level vision of the state in its actions and interactions in the context of the multiple factors at stake in dialogue: themes, stages, actors, and citizens’ new expectations of the state. This study makes it easier to decipher these forms of expression and the ways of associating traditional actors and citizens in public actions involving socio-technical choices and identifies their meanings. The choice of subject therefore reveals the surge in power of normative mechanisms and of practices ordering relations between laymen and experts and ultimately between citizen and state

Ce mémoire de recherche en droit comparé est relatif à la crise des Rohingyas. Plus précisément, il vise à étudier le rôle que pourraient jouer la France et le Canada, d’un point de vue pénal, afin de juger les principaux responsables des crimes commis à l’encontre des Rohingyas au Myanmar, étant donné la compétence limitée de la Cour pénale internationale.

Le transhumanisme promeut un modèle d’humanité intégralement soumis à la seule puissance technoscientifique qui se trouve elle-même orientée par l’idéologie néolibérale. La figure de « l’homme augmenté » ou « posthumain » se constitue sur la réduction de l’humain à ce qui dans sa condition est le plus « gouvernable », le plus docile, le plus facile à diriger et à adapter aux besoins d’efficacité et de performativité économique. Le transhumanisme devient ainsi le support de création et de conditionnement d’une nouvelle subjectivité disposée à se laisser conduire selon les exigences d’une société de marché. Le « posthumain » permettrait d’atteindre l’objectif ultime d’une dépolitisation totale des individus et de la société au profit d’une économisation intégrale des individus et de la société. Prise dans cette sotériologie transhumaniste, l’humanité des hommes n’apparaît plus comme une énigme (aínigma), comme ce que les hommes peuvent “laisser entendre de leur humanité” quand ils sont libres d’en questionner perpétuellement le sens qui renvoie à une Idée indéfinissable et donc essentiellement énigmatique [Robert Legros]. Lorsque l’énigme de l’humanité des hommes fait signe vers la condition politique [Hannah Arendt], elle constitue le moteur d’une démocratie toujours à venir [Jacques Derrida], invitant les hommes à s’approprier librement l’agir politique comme instrument de problématisation du sens de l’humain. Problématisation éminemment politique qui permet aux individus de refuser toute forme de normalisation aliénante de leur existence.En mobilisant les outils de la Théorie critique, de la philosophie politique, des théories de la démocratie et de l’histoire des idées politiques, l’enjeu de cette thèse réside dans l’analyse du mouvement transhumaniste à l’aune d’une domination de l’idéologie néolibérale qui dissimule le fait que l’utopie d’une posthumanité n’est que l’illusion idéologique d’une démocratie qui aura définitivement épuisé son énergie utopique en même temps qu’elle aura cessé de maintenir l’énigme de l’humanité des hommes comme la source politique d’une émancipation véritable
Transhumanism promotes a model of humanity that is entirely subject to the sole techno-scientific power that is itself oriented by neoliberal ideology. The figure of the "augmented man" or "posthuman" is constituted on the reduction of the human to what in its condition is the most "governable", the most docile, the easiest to direct and to adapt to the requirements of efficiency and economic performativity. Transhumanism thus becomes the support for the creation and conditioning of a new subjectivity willing to let itself be led according to the demands of a market society.The "posthuman" would allow to reach the ultimate objective of a total depoliticization of the individuals and the society to the profit of an integral economization of the individuals and the society. Taken in this transhumanist soteriology, the humanity of the men does not appear any more like an enigma, like what the men can “let understand of their humanity” when they are free to question perpetually the sense of it which refers to an indefinable Idea and thus essentially enigmatic [Robert Legros]. By mobilizing the tools of Critical Theory, political philosophy, theories of democracy and the history of political ideas, the stake of this thesis lies in the analysis of the transhumanist movement in the light of a domination of the neoliberal ideology which hides the fact that the utopia of a posthumanity is only the ideological illusion of a democracy which will have definitively exhausted its utopian energy at the same time as it will have ceased to maintain the enigma of the humanity of the men as the political source of a true emancipation

L’étalement urbain est un enjeu environnemental et socio-économique fort. De nombreuses politiques tentent de limiter l’urbanisation excessive autour des aires urbaines européennes ou nord-américaines. Pour appréhender la question de l’étalement urbain, il est nécessaire de comprendre quels sont les mécanismes en oeuvre dans les choix de localisation résidentielle des ménages. En effet, près de la moitié des surfaces artificialisées en Europe entre 2000 et 2006 l’ont été à des fins résidentielles. Plus de trois quarts de cette artificialisation s’est effectuée au détriment de terres agricoles. L’objectif de cette thèse est de construire un cadre théorique permettant de comprendre les mécanismes économiques reliant les choix de localisation résidentielle des ménages et les externalités produites par l’agriculture. Nous utilisons le modèle statique de ville monocentrique développé par l’économie urbaine. Les modèles théoriques développés mettent en évidence différents résultats. La production d’un niveau suffisant d’aménités agricoles peut amener un ménage à s’installer loin de la ville où il travaille mais à proximité d’un cadre de vie qu’il valorise. Le développement urbain fragmenté peut donc être une configuration naturelle pour une ville entourée d’une agriculture hétérogène. Par ailleurs, l’introduction d’une politique agri-environnementale incitant les agriculteurs à produire des externalités positives peut affecter indirectement les choix de localisation résidentielle des ménages. Finalement, toute politique susceptible d’affecter les caractéristiques de l’espace périurbain se doit de l’aborder par une approche holistique, prenant en compte ses nombreux déterminants
Urban sprawl is a major environmental and socioeconomic issue. Many public policies are designed to limit the excessive urbanization that occurs around large European and North-American urban areas. In order to address the urban sprawl issue correctly, it is necessary to understand the mechanisms driving households’ residential location choices. Indeed, in Europe, between 2000 and 2006, nearly half of the artificialized land was dedicated to residential use. More than three quarters of this land-use change occurred on farmland. The purpose of this work is to provide a strong theoretical framework which would allow giving keys for better understanding of the economic mechanisms involved in residential location choice on the one hand, and agricultural externalities on the other. We use the static model of the monocentric city, developed by urban economy. Our theoretical models allow us to highlight various results. A sufficient supply of agricultural amenities may drive households to locate further away from the city where they work, but nearer to a bettervalued life environment. We show that, under certain conditions, fragmented urban development may naturally occur in any city surrounded by heterogeneous agriculture. We also show that the introduction of an agri-environmental policy promoting the provision of agricultural positive externalities may indirectly affect households’ residential location choices. Therefore, any public policy that is likely to influence characteristics of the suburban area has to deal with a holistic approach, taking into account its many drivers

Cette thèse a pour objet la transformation des critiques portées à l'énergie nucléaire en France dans les quatre dernières décennies. Elle s'intéresse à l'évolution des critiques, en particulier du milieu associatif, en termes de production alternative de savoirs, comme en termes. De construction dynamique de nouvelles manières d'agir politique. Elle est construite autour d'une comparaison historique sur trois périodes clés caractérisées par des controverses et des enjeux majeurs pour J'avenir de la filière nucléaire. La première partie traite des années 1970 qui voient le lancement d'un programme antinucléaire massif ainsi que la montée d'un mouvement antinucléaire national très riche dans ses formes d'action. La deuxième partie s'intéresse à la décennie post-Tchernobyl qui engendre un renouveau de contestations sous forme de contre-expertises associatives, d'alertes médiatiques et de négociations continues autour de la nouvelle identité du nucléaire désormais voulue transparente. Dans la troisième partie, nous portons notre regard sur la période d'après le milieu des années 1990, marquée par la montée d'un impératif « participatif et écologiste» transformant l'énergie nucléaire en une énergie « verte et démocratique ». Cette recherche s'attache ainsi à proposer une narration sur des temps longs dans le domaine de l'histoire sociale et culturelle des productions de savoir, en mariant des micro-études de cas avec l'analyse des transformations plus globales du management du nucléaire dans l'espace public, en assocIant approches cognitives de la sociologie d'action collective et études de gouvernementalité
This thesis treats the transformations of criticism directed to the French nuclear energy industry during the last four decades. It tackles the evolution of NGO criticism in terms of alternative knowledge production and of dynamic construction of new forms of political action. It proposes a historical comparison of three key periods characterized by major controversies and events crucial to the future of the nuclear domain. The first part of the thesis handles the 1970's period, the launch of a massive nuclear plan and the rise of a national antinuclear movement which indeed was very rich in its action forms. The second part of the study focuses on the post-Chernobyl decade, featured by a renewal of contestations thanks to the reinforcement of counter-expertise, media alerts and controversies on the transparency claims of nuclear promoters. The third part of the thesis analyses the last fifteen years characterized by the construction of a new official discourse promoting nuclear energy as a "green" and "democratic" technology. This research is interdisciplinary and privileges the long forms of narration in the social and cultu. Ral history of science, by combining micro case studies with the analysis of global transformations of the management of nuc1ear energy in the public space, by mobilizing tools from the sociology of collective action and of govemmentality studies

L’objet de notre thèse est le turnover, indicateur communément mobilisé par les entreprises pour estimer le taux de roulement de leur personnel. Nous explorons les dynamiques sociales de ce phénomène dans l’hôtellerie et de la restauration, secteur traditionnellement impacté par de forts taux de turnover. Notre terrain d’application est l’Andorre, Etat souverain, dont la politique de gestion de l’immigration est pensée au travers des variabilités du marché de l’emploi.En combinant différentes méthodes sociologiques, cette thèse appréhende les acteurs et les actions qui concernent le turnover de personnel. Nous avons effectué six mois d’observation participante dans des établissements hôteliers andorrans et interrogé via un questionnaire les travailleurs tant sur leurs mobilités sectorielles et géographiques que sur leurs motivations conduisant à ces déplacements. Nous avons également interrogé les gestionnaires des ressources humaines et lobbyistes du secteur sur leurs manières de composer avec le turnover de leur personnel. Au carrefour d’une sociologie des organisations, des professions et d’une sociologie politique de gestion des flux migratoires, cette thèse défend tout d’abord le turnover comme la résultante d’arrangements effectués par les travailleurs et les employeurs vis-à-vis de la variabilité de l’activité touristique. Elle aborde ensuite de l’incertitude (horaires de travail et salaires) comme raison de départ des travailleurs des établissements hôteliers andorrans. Cette thèse éclaire par la suite, les représentations sociales des acteurs et la perspective d’une déprofessionnalisation des métiers de l’hôtellerie et de la restauration. Celle-ci conduit à l’ouverture « du champ des possibles » perçu par les travailleurs en matière d’emploi. Enfin, la thèse expose les conséquences, pour le secteur et pour les travailleurs, de la création d’instruments politiques de recrutement et de gestions des travailleurs-étrangers pour le marché de l’emploi andorran.Cette thèse met en œuvre une approche nouvelle et plus large du turnover en sociologie en associant les dynamiques organisationnelles à l’analyse des politiques publiques et des migrations
The labor turnover is a common indicator used by companies for evaluating the rate at which employees leave a company and are replaced by new ones. The purpose of this thesis is to explore the social dynamics relative to this indicator in the field of hotel and catering, an industry well-known for its high turnover rates, and in the country of Andorra, a sovereign state surrounded by France and Spain, where immigration policy is based on the fluctuations of its internal job market.To gain insights of the turnover phenomena, referring to actors and their actions, a combination of various sociological methods has been used: a six month participant observation in Andorran hotels; a survey on employees’ mobility and its motivations, be it geographic or sectorial; and finally, interviews with hotel’s human resources managers and lobbyists regarding their adaptive strategies to staff turnover.Standing at the crossroads between sociology of organizations, sociology of work, and sociology of politics on migration flow control, this thesis defines the turnover as a result of arrangements taken by employees and employers to cope with the significant variability of tourism trade activity. It also exposes the uncertainty of work conditions in Andorran hotels – time schedule and wages – as a reason for employees to leave their job. Then, by studying the social representations in the hospitality industry and the perspectives of a de-professionalization of its jobs, the perceptive “range of possibilities” consequently opened to workers on the job hunt is being explored. Finally, this thesis evaluates the impact of political recruiting tools and foreign workers’ management tools, created for the Andorran job market, on the hotel and catering sector and its employees.This thesis introduces a wider definition of the notion of turnover in sociology, by combining organizational dynamics with the study of migration policies

Il existe aujourd'hui une demande sociale pour l'amélioration du coût-efficacité des politiques agri-environnementales. Or, l'absence de référents sur les coûts à mettre en œuvre et l'efficacité à atteindre contribue à l'émergence de débats sur le choix des modalités d'application de ces politiques, et notamment sur le choix des critères d'éligibilité de la population cible. La démarche suivie vise à traduire certaines des revendications existantes concernant les critères d'éligibilité sous forme de programmes d'optimisation, afin de mesurer ex-ante leur impact sur le coût-efficacité des politiques.
Les résultats montrent que la solution collective la plus coût-efficace est réalisée quand seules les exploitations les plus coût-efficaces sont intégrées dans la politique. Or, cette solution ne représente pas la meilleure des solutions d'un point de vue environnemental ; les exploitations les plus polluantes n'étant pas toujours les plus coût-efficaces, et les bénéfices environnementaux de la politique étant susceptibles d'être dilués par l'intégration d'un nombre restreint d'exploitations. La prise en compte de la localisation des exploitations sur un territoire constitue une solution pertinente pour l'amélioration de l'efficacité environnementale d'une politique, même si cette solution s'avère être plus coûteuse. Aussi, si les pouvoirs publics optent pour des politiques plus performantes d'un point de vue environnemental, ils doivent s'attendre à ce que le coût de la politique soit supérieur à celui proposé par une solution économiquement efficace.

Cette thèse étudie la relation entre le commerce mondial agricole et les normes destinées à protéger l'environnement qui interviennent en amont et en aval des échanges. Notre travail est structuré autour de trois chapitres. Dans le premier, nous analysons les caractéristiques du réseau des mesures non tarifaires liées à l'environnement. Le deuxième chapitre mesure et examine les déterminants de l’efficacité agro-environnementale d’un large panel de 108 pays au cours de la période 2003-2013. Le dernier chapitre traite les effets commerciaux de la rigueur des politiques agro-environnementales ainsi que l’impact de l’hétérogénéité des réglementations sur les flux commerciaux bilatéraux. À cette fin, nous avons utilisé différentes approches non paramétriques et économétriques, notamment l'analyse des réseaux dans le premier chapitre, un modèle de frontière non paramétrique dans le deuxième chapitre et un modèle de gravité théoriquement justifié dans le chapitre trois.Nos résultats indiquent que la croissance des exportations agricoles des pays du Sud a été propice à la montée des conflits commerciaux liés à l'environnement. Alors que les pays d'Amérique latine et d'Asie du Sud-Est s'affirment de plus en plus comme des fournisseurs majeurs pour de nombreuses régions, nos résultats révèlent une nouvelle relation conflictuelle liée à l’environnement, ciblant les pays en développement et émergents d'un côté et se répandant de plus en plus au sein des pays du Sud de l'autre. Les résultats montrent aussi que, globalement, le secteur agricole a enregistré une hausse des scores d'efficacité agro-environnementale. Toutefois, de fortes disparités sont constatées entre les pays. Nous constatons également que l’ouverture commerciale et la spécialisation dans les exportations agricoles entravent l’inefficacité, confirmant ainsi l'hypothèse des «gains environnementaux du commerce». En outre, nous montrons que les mesures non tarifaires liées à l'environnement s'avèrent être des leviers pour améliorer la performance agro-environnementale des pays émergents, développés et à revenu intermédiaire, induisant ainsi un phénomène de «nivellement par le haut» dans leurs normes environnementales. Par ailleurs, nos résultats indiquent que la rigueur des réglementations environnementales réduit la capacité d'exporter du groupe des CAIRNS, confirmant ainsi l'hypothèse du « paradis des pollueurs ». En revanche, les politiques environnementales rigoureuses augmentent les exportations agricoles de l'Union Européenne et des États-Unis. Étonnamment, les exportateurs en voie de développement soutiennent également l'hypothèse de Porter, suggérant que des réglementations environnementales strictes peuvent renforcer leur capacité d'exportation. Enfin, nous concluons que l'hétérogénéité agro-environnementale entre les pays est plus déterminante pour la marge intensive des échanges agricoles que les accords commerciaux. Cependant, ses effets varient selon les groupes de revenus des pays exportateurs et importateurs
This thesis investigates the relationship between international agricultural trade and standards intended to protect the environment, considering both upstream and downstream measures. The work is structured around three chapters. In the first one, we analyze the network of environmentally-related non-tariff measures. Chapter 2 investigates the stringency and the determinants of agri-environmental regulations by measuring their efficiency in a large panel of 108 countries during the period 2003-2013. The last chapter examines the effects of agri-environmental regulations’ stringency and heterogeneity on the intensive margin of trade between 108 countries over the same period. To this end, we used non-parametric and econometric approaches. We employ the network analysis in the first chapter whereas we use a non-parametric frontier model and the double bootstrapped truncated regression in chapter two. In chapter three, we use a theoretically justified gravity model of trade.Our findings indicate that trade growth of southern countries has been conducive to rising environmentally-related trade conflicts. While Latin American and Southeast Asian countries are increasingly asserting themselves as major suppliers for many regions of the world, our results reveal new environmentally-related conflictual relation targeting developing and emerging countries on one side and increasingly spreading within southern agro-producers on the other. Further results show that the sector of crops has witnessed globally an increasing trend in average agri-environmental efficiency. An intriguing finding is that agricultural trade openness and the specialization in crop commodities’ exports hamper the inefficiency, supporting therefore the “environmental gains-from-trade” hypothesis. In addition, our results show that environmentally-related NTMs turn out to be levers for enhancing the agri-environmental performance of exporters, especially in the BRICS and high as well as middle-income countries. Nonetheless, low income countries react differently and record a deteriorating agri-environmental performance due to environmentally-related NTMs. We also show that the stringency of environmental regulations turns out to be trade reducing in the CAIRNS group, supporting thereby the pollution haven hypothesis. By contrast, rigorous agri-environmental policies have a significant trade-enhancing effect on bilateral agricultural exports of the EU and the USA. Surprisingly, low and middle income countries support also the Porter hypothesis, suggesting that strict environmental regulations can enhance their competitive advantage against foreign rivals. Finally, we conclude that difference in exporter and importer environmental regulations is more relevant to agricultural trade than trade agreements. However, trade effects vary according to the income groups of exporting and importing countries

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Funda??o Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro
R?flexion sur la dimension ?ducative des mouvements sociaux dans le Nord- Est du Br?sil. Ces mouvements sociaux sont analys?s ? la lumi?re de la th?orie de l agir communicationnel de J?rgen Habermans. Dans l? moment que cherche ?valuer les possibilit?s de ces mouvements contribuent ? pr?venir la pr?-existante culture politique consid?r? autoritaire. Conclut que de tels mouvements dans le contexte de le Nord-East sont porteurs d une culture politique de participation et que ce est trouv?e une lacune dans le syst?me politique pour son institutionnalisation. Pendant ce temps, le movementalist action aurait limites pour surmonter les persistante culture politique de soumission , client?liste et corporatif dans le moment qu il ne le privil?ge pas les moyens d action politique.
Este trabalho analisa a dimens?o educativa dos movimentos sociais agr?rios no Nordeste do Brasil. Estes movimentos como portadores de processos de aprendizagem s?o analisados ? luz da teoria da a??o comunicativa de J?rgen Habermas. Procura realizar uma avalia??o de tais movimentos quanto ?s suas possibilidades de produzir impactos na cultura pol?tica pr?-existente e considerada autorit?ria, o que pressup?e possibilidades e limites de socializa??o pol?tica dos atores sociais implicados. Conclui que os movimentos sociais s?o portadores de uma cultura pol?tica de participa??o e que esta encontrou brechas no sistema pol?tico para a sua corporifica??o institucional. Entretanto, a a??o movimentalista teria limites em termos de contribui??o para superar a persistente cultura pol?tica de sujei??o , clientelista e corporativista, ao n?o privilegiar as vias propriamente pol?ticas de a??o.

La question du rôle des ONG dans les relations internationales est constamment associée à celle de la réalité, revendiquée ou mise en doute, de leur autonomie par rapport aux autres acteurs de ces dernières, en particulier les Etats. Et de là, de façon récurrente, est débattue la légitimité de la participation des ONG aux processus internationaux de négociation. La présente thèse s'efforce de répondre simultanément à ces questions en interrogeant successivement l'histoire des théories qui ont décrit le phénomène "ONG" et ses formes apparentées (organisations de la société civile, réseaux et coalitions de celles-ci), les relations que les ONG entretiennent avec les organisations multilatérales, les différentes sortes d'Etats, les médias, l'opinion publique, les collectivités locales, les entreprises multinationales, puis en se penchant sur les évolutions qui se manifestent dans la famille des ONG (nouveau militantisme et structurations), pour conclure sur une analyse de la mécanique des fluides relationnels à laquelle cette dernière contribue. Quelques idée-clés se dégagent : les ONG sont des "hérauts" des principes du droit international questionnés aujourd'hui dans leur universalité, des consolideurs d'un système international de normalisation et de régulation affaibli, des protagonistes de l'espace public qui repolitisent ce dernier, et des constructeurs de réseaux transnationaux interagissant aves les institutions gouvernementales.

La santé est un construit complexe. Les configurations observées en France et plus particulièrement dans un espace régional témoignent d'un constant processus de reconstruction du champ de l'intervention en matière sanitaire, donc du concept même de santé, ainsi que des formes légitimes d'engagement. La santé déborde des frontières de l'intervention et de l'analyse en des termes sectoriels. Saisir non pas tant ce qu'elle est mais ce qu'elle devient appelle une approche de type descriptif au sens latourien. Une telle démarche sert à révéler des dynamiques de reconstruction cognitive et normative et d'engagement multiples de la part d'acteurs hétérogènes. Au-delà de la stricte analyse d'une politique publique, il s'agit de déployer la trame des acteurs, objets et représentations qui par leurs connexions forment un agir collectif en matière sanitaire. L'analyse permet de mettre au jour la construction d'un agir non pas sous forme d'un réseau structuré, d'un projet systémique élaboré collectivement, mais selon un processus d'ajustement : ajustement entre acteurs, ajustement des missions aux situations perçues, ajustement du modèle d'intervention publique. Ce sont donc des dynamiques d'actualisation plus que de réforme qui émergent de l'observation locale. Les acteurs entrent en cohérence selon un processus kaléidoscopique d'adaptation sans fin : sans fin parce que sans terminaison située dans l'espace et le temps, et parce que les interventions ne participent pas de la réalisation d'un but explicite unanimement reconnu comme la visée politique légitime pour l'ensemble des formes d'intervention qui, donc, constituerait un principe de gouvernance en matière sanitaire.

La politique agro-environnementale de l’Union Européenne s’appuie fortement sur des incitations financières, les Contrats Agro-Environnementaux (CAE), pour stimuler l’adoption par les agriculteurs de pratiques respectueuses de l’environnement. Selon l’hypothèse de rationalité économique, les agriculteurs adoptent ces contrats si les paiements couvrent leurs coûts d’opportunité. Toutefois, l’Économie comportementale considère que des facteurs psychologiques pourraient intervenir dans cette décision. Le premier objectif de cette thèse est de déterminer le rôle des facteurs comportementaux dans l’adoption des CAE. Dans le chapitre 1, nous utilisons un modèle de psychologie sociale, la Théorie du Comportement Planifié, pour mesurer le poids de ces facteurs dans la décision d’adopter un CAE pour la réduction de l’utilisation de pesticides. L’enquête révèle que les agriculteurs sont à la fois influencés par des motivations économiques classiques et par les normes (sociales et personnelles). Dans le chapitre 2, nous étudions plus en détails le rôle des normes. A travers un modèle théorique, nous mettons en évidence que ces normes peuvent faciliter ou faire obstacle à l’adoption de CAE. Une enquête web nous permet de confirmer l’importance des normes sociales injonctives et des normes personnelles. Dans la deuxième partie de la thèse, nous analysons les performances de dispositifs innovants et comment ces performances sont influencées par les facteurs comportementaux. Dans le chapitre 3, pour traiter le problème des seuils environnementaux, nous testons avec une expérimentation économique un contrat dont le paiement est conditionné à une participation collective des agriculteurs. Ce contrat se révèle plus efficace et efficient que les CAE classiques. Les deux derniers chapitres traitent d’une nouvelle application des CAE à la compensation écologique. A partir d’une enquête, nous identifions dans le chapitre 4 les facteurs qui influencent la participation à ce type de contrats ainsi que des problèmes d’efficacité et d’efficience. Dans le chapitre 5, nous montrons à partir d’une expérience de choix, que les agriculteurs, notamment les plus sensibles à l’environnement, sont sensibles à la manière dont est formulée l’objectif d’un CAE : ils préfèrent des contrats dont l’objectif est la préservation de la biodiversité, plutôt que la compensation de pertes de biodiversité. Nous concluons en insistant sur la complémentarité entre les instruments traditionnels et comportementaux dans la politique environnementale
The agri-environmental policy of the European Union strongly relies on financial incentives provided through Agri-envrionmental Schemes (AES) to stimulate farmers’ adoption of pro-environmental practices. A rational economic assumption is that farmers enroll if they are paid enough to cover their opportunity costs. However, behavioral economics consider that psychologic factors may be involved in this decision. The first aim of this thesis is to determine the role of behavioral factors in AES adoption. Chapter 1 uses a social-psychology model, the Theory of Planned Behavior, to measure the weight of behavioral factors in farmers’ decision to enroll in a pesticide-reduction AES. The survey reveals that farmers are both driven by traditional economic motivations and norms (social and personal). Chapter 2 studies in more details the role of norms. A theoretical model reveals that social norms may either hamper or facilitate the participation in AES and a web-survey, confirms the importance of social injunctive norms and personal norms. In the second part of the thesis, we analyze the performance of innovative designs and how it may be affected by behavioral factors. In chapter 3, to address cases of environmental threshold, we test with an economic experiment a contract in which payment is conditioned to collective farmers’ participation. This contract appears to be more effective and efficient than traditional AES. The two last chapters analyze a new application of AES: biodiversity offsets. Based on a survey, chapter 4 highlights factors that influence the participation in such contracts as well as issues of effectiveness and efficiency. In chapter 5, we show with a choice experiment that farmers, especially the most environmentally sensitive, are influenced by the contracts’ goal framing: they prefer contracts that aim at biodiversity conservation rather than at the compensation of biodiversity losses. We conclude by insisting on the complementarity between traditional and behavioral environmental policy instruments

Questo elaborato mira a comprendere l’impatto delle politiche securitarie in ambito migratorio sulla realtà concreta del sistema di accoglienza italiano, con un focus particolare sulle dinamiche illegali e criminali che esse contribuiscono a generare. La ricerca si inserisce all’interno di un momento storico molto particolare, che vede le politiche di accoglienza oggetto di cambiamenti su larga scala. Il caso studio analizzato riguarda il Cara di Mineo, il più grande centro di accoglienza nazionale, chiuso definitivamente nel luglio 2019. In questa struttura si ripropongono, amplificati, i meccanismi e i cortocircuiti propri dell’intero sistema. In particolare, l’indagine verte sul labile confine tra pratiche legali e illegali, sviluppatesi in un contesto segnato da marginalizzazione e isolamento. A queste dinamiche afferiscono comportamenti criminali specifici, come lo sviluppo di una cellula di criminalità organizzata nigeriana, che vengono esaminati sempre rispetto alla relazione con il terreno in cui si diffondono. Quella che si configura come una sorta di “fabbrica dell’irregolarità”, secondo i risultati della ricerca sul campo, svolge un ruolo cruciale nella sovrapposizione dei concetti di vittimizzazione e di agency criminale.
This dissertation aims to include the impact of securitization policies on the concrete reality of the Italian reception system, with a particular focus on the illegal and criminal dynamics that they contribute to generate. The research is part of a very particular historical moment, which sees reception policies subject to large-scale changes. The case study analyzed concerns the “Cara of Mineo”, the largest national reception center, definitively closed in July 2019. In this structure, the mechanisms and short circuits of the entire system are reproduced, amplified. In particular, the investigation deals with the unstable boundary between legal and illegal practices developed in a context marked by marginalization and isolation. Certain specific criminal conducts belong to these dynamics, such as the development of a Nigerian organized crime cell, which are always examined with respect to the relationship with the ground in which they spread. According to the results of the field research, what is configured as a sort of "factory of irregularity" plays a crucial role in overlapping the concepts of victimization and criminal agency.

Alors que la mise en ouvre du développement durable pose problème, nous disposons en France de structures singulières - les Parcs Naturels Régionaux (PNR) -Dont l’objectif est précisément de rendre compatible, à l’échelle de territoires délimités,la préservation de l’environnement et le développement économique et social.Dans un contexte où l’on s’interroge sur la possibilité de territorialiser davantage l’action publique, il est fondamental d’apprécier si les PNR ont vocation à devenir un outil des politiques de développement durable, ou s’ils doivent au contraire se cantonner à un rôle plus restreint de protection et de valorisation du patrimoine.Nous défendons dans cette thèse l’idée que les PNR peuvent constituer, au-Delà de leurs missions génériques et probablement grâce à elles, des leviers pertinents pour l’action publique en la matière.Pour analyser le rôle des PNR, nous concentrons nos recherches sur le cas de la mise en ouvre de la politique agri-Environnementale, composante environnementale dela Politique Agricole Commune (PAC). La question de la conciliation entre pratiques agricoles et préservation de l’environnement se pose en effet avec acuité dans les territoires de PNR, où l’activité agricole est importante. Par ailleurs, dans un contexte où l’objectif de «verdissement» de la PAC est clairement affiché par la commission européenne, les enjeux de la politique agri-Environnementale sont importants, tantsur le plan économique et social que sur le plan environnemental.La politique agri-Environnementale prenant la forme de contrats volontaires dontla mise en uvre est coûteuse, l’approche privilégiée dans la thèse est celle de l’économie des coûts de transaction. L’analyse est centrée sur les coûts supportés par lesacteurs privés (les exploitants), ces coûts étant considérés comme l’un des principaux freins à l’efficacité de la politique. Finalement, nous faisons l’hypothèse que lesPNR sont des micro-Institutions à même de réduire les coûts de transaction privés associés à la mise en uvre des contrats agri-Environnementaux.L’étude empirique, basée sur une analyse économétrique à partir données d’enquêtes,permet de montrer que les Parcs Naturels Régionaux réduisent significativement les coûts de transaction privés, en particulier dans la phase qui suit la signature du contrat (coûts ex post). Si les résultats attestent du poids considérable des instances départementales dans la mise en place des contrats étudiés (coûts exante), ils plaident pour une plus grande implication des PNR dans les dispositifs d’action publique de type MAE. Le résultat doit toutefois être nuancé par le fait que les PNR n’influencent pas favorablement la perception que les individus ont de la politique en question. Ce résultat, apparemment paradoxal, peut s’expliquer par l’identification de deux types de compétences spécifiques aux PNR : (i) des connaissances techniques à même de réduire les coûts de transaction privés et (ii)une vision transversale du territoire, porteuse de valeurs, qui influence la perception que les exploitants ont de la politique
No abstract available

La Tanzania produce una delle migliori varietà di caffè. Questa commodity, oltre a giocare un ruolo fondamentale per l’economia del paese, rappresenta una fonte di reddito diretta per mezzo milione di piccoli agricoltori. L’oggetto di studio del presente elaborato è l’analisi delle dinamiche evolutive e della competitività del settore del caffè in Tanzania. A tal fine, il lavoro di tesi si divide in tre parti. Il primo capitolo è dedicato ad un’introduzione generale sul caffè, del quale vengono analizzate le proprietà, la storia, la connotazione sociale legata al consumo della bevanda, il ciclo di lavorazione ed il rapporto della coltivazione di caffè con il cambiamento climatico. Il secondo capitolo è dedicato allo studio del mercato internazionale del caffè e vengono analizzati i cambiamenti strutturali della domanda e dell’offerta e l’evoluzione delle regolamentazioni internazionali del mercato. Il terzo capitolo è dedicato al settore del caffè in Tanzania. In particolare, questa terza parte analizza lo sviluppo della produzione e del commercio del caffè nel paese attraverso il sistema delle cooperative e gli effetti della conseguente liberalizzazione del mercato a seguito delle riforme nazionali avvenute negli anni Novanta. Infine, il capitolo si conclude con una descrizione delle attuali sfide ed opportunità del settore del caffè in Tanzania.

Les conséquences de l'agriculture intensive sur l'environnement font l'objet depuis les années 90 d'une intervention publique croissante. Face aux intérêts agricoles, l'efficacité des politiques agri-environnementales, souvent mise en cause, conduit à s'interroger sur l'application de l'action publique dans ce domaine. La thèse propose une étude de l'application d'un dispositif agri-environnemental réglementaire - le Programme de Maîtrise des Pollutions d'Origine Agricole - et incitatif - Ferti-Mieux - dans le bassin Adour-Garonne. Elle vise à analyser les échanges négociés dans l'application des dispositifs publics, entre acteurs publics, organisations professionnelles agricoles (OPA) et agriculteurs-destinataires, à partir d'entretiens approfondis. Une approche quantitative vise à analyser l'impact des contextes locaux sur l'application des dispositifs publics. La thèse est que la finalité environnementale des dispositifs est transformée par des arrangements négociés sur les moyens de leur mise en oeuvre. Ce processus d'adaptation est la conséquence d'une dynamique d'appropriation stratégique des dispositifs publics, individuellement par les agriculteurs, collectivement par les OPA. Il est modulé selon le poids des enjeux agricoles et touristiques locaux
The consequences of intensive agriculture on environment are subject to increasing public intervention since the 90's. These agri-environmental policies are confronted with agricultural interests and their efficiency is often criticized. This leads to question oneself on how they are implemented. This thesis studies the implementation of an agri-environmental regulation (the Program for Control of Agriculture-Originated Pollution) and an encouraging policy (Ferti-Mieux) in the Adour-Garonne region. Backed up with thorough interviews, the negotiated exchanges between public agents, agriculture professional organizations and the designated farmers are analyzed. Moreover, a quantitative approach analyzes the impact of local situations on the implementation of policies. The proposed argument is that the environmental objectives of the policies are adapted by negotiated arrangements on the implementation means. This adaptation process is the consequence of an dynamics of strategic appropriation of the policies, individually by the farmers and collectively by the professional organizations. Some modulations are noticed due to local agriculture and tourism stakes

Questa ricerca si domanda: le politiche di sviluppo locale come possono abilitare persone e organizzazioni a diventare attivatori e protagonisti dei processi di sviluppo del proprio territorio? E, in particolare, come possono abilitare coloro i quali possono essere considerati agenti di cambiamento ad essere i protagonisti dei processi di sviluppo locale?  La tesi ripercorre la storia dello sviluppo locale in Italia con una precisa lente di osservazione: chi sono stati, nel corso della storia, i soggetti locali abilitati ad influire sulle politiche di sviluppo del proprio territorio? Di quale ‘comunità’ si sono occupate le politiche di sviluppo locale del nostro Paese nel corso del tempo? L’analisi si sofferma in particolar modo sull’approccio place-based e il disegno della Strategia Nazionale per le Aree Interne (SNAI), una politica sperimentale di sviluppo, prototipo dell’approccio place-based per le politiche di coesione del periodo 2014-2020, che persegue l’intenzione di abilitare nel processo di co-progettazione della strategia quei “soggetti rilevanti” che possono essere considerati agenti di cambiamento. La SNAI viene analizzata in ogni sua componente teorica e nella sua interpretazione e declinazione da parte di vari soggetti impegnati nella SNAI, a diversi livelli e con ruoli differenti. Il quarto capitolo raccoglie una “collezione di studi di caso” (Dente, 2011), metodologia attraverso la quale si studia criticamente un approccio dominante del policy making, il place-based approach in questo caso, narrando i processi per individuare i meccanismi che generano gli esiti osservabili. I casi studiati sono tre aree interne: l’Alta Marmilla in Sardegna, la Val Simeto in Sicilia, l’area Sud Ovest Orvietano in Umbria. Si tratta di tre storie con peculiarità specifiche, ma con alcune caratteristiche ed esiti comuni che permettono di individuare degli elementi abilitanti e ‘disabilitanti’ della Strategia Nazionale per le Aree Interne nel suo passaggio dall’intenzione della funzione abilitante all’azione territoriale. Tali elementi vengono trattati nel capitolo delle conclusioni, il quinto, nel quale viene messa a fuoco anche una convergenza tra gli esiti positivi e negativi della Strategia Nazionale per le Aree Interne e gli esiti delle altre politiche di sviluppo locale analizzate nel primo capitolo. Da questa convergenza si deducono alcuni assiomi dello sviluppo locale, replicati nel disegno di ogni politica di sviluppo studiata, che vengono messi in discussione per giungere alla proposta di una nuova tematizzazione possibile dello sviluppo locale, che apprende dagli esiti positivi e negativi emersi. Per dare sostanza a questa nuova tematizzazione, nelle conclusioni si citano altre politiche e pratiche che esercitano una funzione abilitante. La nuova tematizzazione dello sviluppo locale proposta tocca tre temi in particolare: la necessità di azioni rapide e puntuali da affiancare alla lunga progettazione di programmi e strategie complesse, la necessità di strumenti di attuazione che non alzino barriere per i “nuovi” e per le sperimentazioni crossettoriali, un’architettura istituzionale che consenta la ricerca di soluzioni sartoriali per il contesto specifico. La tesi propone dunque dei policy advice per il nuovo corso della Strategia Nazionale per le Aree Interne previsto per il periodo 2021-2027, ma intende anche contribuire ad una riflessione sull’indiscutibilità di alcuni assiomi dello sviluppo locale che allontanano le politiche di sviluppo locale dalle persone.

Ridurre l’obesità infantile è una priorità della sanità pubblica Europea. Una delle azioni chiave per frenare tale epidemia è seguire sane abitudini alimentari fin dall’infanzia. L’obbiettivo di questa tesi è perciò esplorare cosa facilita e ostacola l’adozione di sane pratiche alimentari tra i bambini – da una prospettiva comportamentale e politica. La letteratura scientifica suggerisce la famiglia come uno degli ambienti più suscettibili ad influenzare i comportamenti alimentari dei bambini. Per questo motivo il primo capitolo esplora il ruolo degli adulti come modelli all’interno della famiglia. Oltre alla famiglia, anche la scuola è un ambiente chiave per promuovere sani comportamenti alimentari tra i bambini. La principale iniziativa Europea per migliorare tali comportamenti avviene infatti proprio dentro le scuole. L’effetto positivo di questo programma, dove è attuato, è ampiamente riconosciuto. Tuttavia, non tutte le scuole riescono a parteciparci. L’obbiettivo del secondo capitolo è perciò cercare l’esistenza di potenziali driver di non partecipazione da parte delle scuole. L’efficacia del programma Europeo Frutta e Verdura nelle Scuole è valutata a livello nazionale: “gli Stati Membri devono valutare lo svolgimento del programma al fine di verificarne la sua efficacia rispetto ai propri obbiettivi”. Tuttavia, questi obbiettivi seguono solo in parte ciò che viene suggerito in letteratura scientifica per valutare tali tipi di intervento. Guardando al caso dell’Italia e dell’Irlanda, il terzo capitolo confronta i report di valutazione dei due paesi con quello che viene suggerito nella letteratura scientifica e con quello che è richiesto dalla Commissione Europea.
Halting childhood obesity is a major priority of the European public health agenda. One of the key actions to tackle the obesity epidemic is following healthy eating habits since childhood. The objective of this dissertation is therefore to explore drivers and barriers affecting the adoption of healthy dietary patterns among children – from a behavioural and policy perspective. The scientific literature indicates family as one of the environments most prone to influence the children’s eating habits. For this reason, the first chapter explores the modelling role played by the adults within the household. Besides family, also school is a crucial setting to promote healthy eating behaviours among children. Indeed, the main European initiative to improve dietary habits takes place within schools. The positive effect of the scheme is widely recognised in the schools where implemented. However, not all schools succeed to take part in it. The objective of the second chapter is therefore to investigate the presence of potential drivers of school non-participation. The effectiveness of the implementation of the EU School Scheme is assessed at country level: “Member States shall evaluate the implementation of the scheme to assess its effectiveness against its objectives”. However, these objectives follow only in part what is suggested in the scientific literature for evaluating such kind of programs. Focusing on the Irish and Italian case study, the third chapter compares the evaluation reports carried out in the two countries with what is suggested in the scientific literature and what is demanded by the European Commission.

L’avènement des enjeux environnementaux en agriculture est une tendance observable depuis les années 1990 dans l’ensemble des pays industrialisés, qui les intègrent pourtant de manière très différente à leurs politiques agricoles respectives. Cette thèse s’applique à expliquer l’institutionnalisation et l’évolution nationales différenciées de ces enjeux par le biais d’une analyse comparée entre le Québec et la France. Le cadre d’analyse proposé prend en compte à la fois les structures et les acteurs de la construction et du développement de la politique dite agroenvironnementale en étudiant spécifiquement deux variables explicatives : la configuration des politiques agricoles et le rôle des administrations publiques. L’enquête qualitative se déroule sur un temps long (1990-2013) et combine trois techniques de collecte de données : l’analyse documentaire, l’analyse de discours et l’entretien semi-dirigé. Au terme de cette thèse, force est de constater que les organisations fondatrices des politiques agricoles nationales (administration et profession agricoles) jouent un rôle de filtre des dynamiques réformatrices présentes à l’échelle globale et qu’elles « acclimatent » les référentiels de développement durable et du management public aux spécificités de leur pays et de leur secteur d’action publique
Since the 1990s, environmental issues in agriculture have increasingly become a public policy problem in industrialized countries, notwithstanding the fact that they are integrated very differently in their respective agricultural policies. Based on this observation, this research seeks to explain the various national institutionalization and evolution paths of the so-called agri-environmental policy through a comparative analysis between Quebec and France. The analytical framework considers both the structures and the policy actors in the agri-environmental policy construction by studying specifically two variables: the configuration of agricultural policies and the role of public administrations. This qualitative research investigates a long time frame (1990-2013) and combines three data collection methods: content analysis, discourse analysis and semi-structured interviews. This thesis shows that traditional agricultural policy key players (agricultural administrations and agricultural professional organizations) act as filters of reformist ideas present globally and that they “acclimate” both the sustainable development paradigm and the new public management paradigm to the specificities of their countries and of their public policy sector

The contribution is a preliminary research for the evaluation of the economical impacts of a measure financing project investments in the forest enterprises (measure 122-art. 27 Reg. (CE) 1968/05). In synthesis, the study went in deep on methodologies, rarely applied within the forestry sector for policies impacts assessment, then, in a pilot-region, it implemented some methodologies to select the groups of enterprises of interest to collect the variable needed by the analysis and at last, a more accurate system of measurement of those variable has been tested. Initially the research propose a bibliographic activity in the frame of a meta-analysis about the approach to policy impact evaluation, generally named counterfactual. With this name, literature refers to a family of methods primarily devoted to infer on causality within a potential results framework as introduced by the seminal works Rubin (1974) and Splawa-Neyman, (1923). Within observational studies, these techniques can refine the results of evaluations based on simple pre-post or with-without comparisons. Then, the meta-analysis highlights, the differences between the way to conduce impacts analysis in two Rural Development Measures financing, in the period 2000-06, investments respectively on agriculture and forestry enterprises. In particular, in the agricultural measure economical impacts are systematically assessed by counterfactual methods, in particular the Differences-in-Differences. By the contrary, simple descriptive reports and beneficiary survey are performed to evaluate the forestry measure. Further results show how much the differences on disposability of secondary economical data between the two sector influenced the possibility to adopt quantitative approach for impact evaluation instead of a qualitative-descriptive one. The second part of the research activities has the objective to create a census list of forestry and logging enterprises starting from administrative sources. Actually this list is the first attempt to define a statistical population for the forestry sector; the list has been created in for a pilot-region: the Veneto region. The possibility to identify this units is particularly limited for the group of forest enterprises (forest owner), because of the lack of a juridical definition of such entity. In the study the author define these units on the base of a criteria of average quantity of cuts (in 10 years) in a forest area of property (or under management). The administrative source employed to observe the criteria is composed by the regional register of forest felling authorization requests. The census list include less than 3% of subjects that has done a felling authorization, but they count for the 55% of the total mass felled. The more in deep analysis have concerned the distribution of the subjects in respect of class of cuts dimension and in respect of the kind of forest where the cuts have been located, how much the different kind of enterprises contribute to the regional cut, the frequency of felling execution and the geographical distribution of units. At last, the contribution deals with the following accounting problem affecting the accuracy of observations of economic variable in the forest enterprises: meaningful performance measure for this subjects cannot be based solely on annul returns, but must take account of value added in forest stands. The analysis focuses on the effect on profit and loss account due to the adoption of accounting procedure of double-entry bookkeeping to include the value growing stock capital and its annual change. The procedure has been tested in a forest enterprises.
Il presente contributo è uno studio preliminare utile alla valutazione degli impatti economici di una misura di finanziamento agli investimenti strutturali nelle imprese forestali (misura 122 – art. 27 Reg. (CE)1698/05). In sintesi, il contributo ha approfondito alcune metodologie, poco applicate in ambito forestale, per quantificare gli impatti delle politiche, successivamente ha applicato, in una regione pilota, alcune metodologie atte a individuare le imprese presso cui rilevare le variabili utili all’analisi e, infine, ha studiato una procedura, più accurata rispetto a quella normalmente impiegata, per misurare tali variabili. Nello specifico la tesi di dottorato propone inizialmente una rassegna bibliografica ed una meta-analisi circa l’approccio all’analisi di impatto che va sotto il nome di controfattuale. A quest’ultimo, la letteratura associa una famiglia di disegni e metodi di valutazione empirica espressamente prodotti dalla ricerca sociale per inferire sulla causalità secondo una logica a risultati potenziali, facendo soprattutto riferimento ai lavori di Rubin (1974) e Splawa-Neyman, (1923). Tali metodologie consentono, in studi osservazionali, di affinare stime che si basano su semplici confronti pre-post o con-senza politica. Nel quadro del precedente periodo di programmazione delle politiche di sviluppo rurale (2000-2006), la meta-analisi ha poi evidenziato come a scala europea vi siano state forti differenze tra i metodi impiegati per valutare gli impatti delle precedenti misure strutturali di interesse agricolo e forestale: nelle misure strutturali agricole si sono riscontrate soprattutto valutazioni che ricorrono sistematicamente a metodi controfattuali non sperimentali, in particolare la differences-in-differences. nel caso della misura forestale le valutazioni ricorrono invece, nella maggior parte dei casi, a semplici resoconti descrittivi e beneficiary surveys. Ulteriori analisi sottolineano come la diversa disponibilità di fonti statistico-economiche secondarie sulle imprese dei due settori abbia pesato in modo rilevante sulla possibilità di ricorrere ad un approccio quantitativo invece che qualitativo-descrittivo. La seconda parte delle attività di ricerca è stata finalizzata alla creazione di una lista censuaria di imprese di produzione ed utilizzazione forestale a partire da liste amministrative a disposizione. Si tratta in effetti del primo tentativo di definire una popolazione statistica del settore forestale e il “caso studio” è stato implementato in una regione-pilota: il Veneto. La difficoltà maggiore ha riguardato la necessità di ovviare alla mancanza di una definizione e di un censimento delle imprese che operano nella produzione forestale (proprietari e gestori di proprietà a bosco). In questo studio tale entità è stata individuata con il criterio della quantità media di prelievo legnoso (calcolato sull’ultimo decennio) dalla superficie a bosco di proprietà (o dalla superficie in gestione). Tale criterio è osservabile a partire dalle richieste di autorizzazione di taglio in bosco (es. domande, progetti di taglio). La lista include meno del 3% dei soggetti che fanno richieste di prelievo, ma che contano per il 55% dei prelievi totali. Il restante 45% è prelevato da soggetti che prelevano limitate quantità, soprattutto in boschi ceduo. Ulteriori analisi hanno principalmente riguardato la ripartizione dei soggetti per classi di prelievo e per forma di governo su cui sono eseguiti i prelievi, quanto contribuiscono le varie tipologie di soggetti al prelievo regionale in ceduo e fustaia, la frequenza con cui eseguono tali prelievi e la distribuzione dei soggetti per provincia. Ci si è occupati, infine, di un problema contabile che influenza l’accuratezza nell’osservazione di variabili economico-reddituali presso l’impresa di produzione forestale, nello specifico: i risultati di bilancio potrebbero fornire indicazioni errate e fuorvianti qualora non venga inclusa la variazione di valore annuale del bene patrimoniale bosco. Il contributo analizza le implicazioni a livello di bilancio, derivanti dall’adozione di una procedura contabile in partita doppia, che contabilizza il contributo del bosco alla formazione del risultato d’esercizio secondo una logica che considera il bosco alla stregua di un “fondo di accantonamento”: ogni prelievo è classificato come una liquidazione di una parte del fondo, l’accrescimento legnoso non utilizzato nell’anno corrisponde invece ad un accantonamento di capitale. Gli effetti sono stati osservati rispetto ad altri due bilanci stilati per lo stesso caso-studio, ma applicando, rispettivamente, la procedura contabile “tradizionale”, che non include il contributo annuale del bosco (la superficie a bosco è valutata al suo prezzo sul mercato immobiliare) e la procedura, ben conosciuta in contabilità forestale, che lo determina in base ad una differenza di inventari. Il soprassuolo legnoso è stato valutato al suo valore di realizzazione, quale valore più probabile di macchiatico nell’ipotetico scenario che fosse liquidato interamente. L’analisi su di un soggetto pubblico che conduce un’azienda di produzione forestale, suggerisce come il meccanismo proposto consenta la redazione di un prospetto di bilancio in grado di fornire all’analista maggiori informazioni sui fenomeni di impresa: da una parte vi è l’informazione circa la variazione di valore del soprassuolo legnoso, dall’altra restituisce le eventuali plus-minus valenze da attribuire a fenomeni non ordinari, slegati dalla produzione legnosa, che avvengono in sede di vendita di un lotto boschivo.

The production of electrical energy in Veneto is currently characterized by a high dependence on conventional resources such as coal and natural gas. Recent European regulations have set new national targets for the production of electricity from renewable sources by 2020. In addition, the EU has placed a declining cap on CO2 emissions for large plants. What level of renewable energy production is realistic for the Veneto region to achieve? What different technologies will be utilized in realizing this level? What degree of subsidy will be necessary to achieve goals set by the European Union? To answer these questions, we built VES (Veneto Electricity Simulator), a system dynamics model that can be used to analyse the complex systems in the electricity sector, which are characterized by many interacting variables such as production, energy mix, and the external effects of such activities. In this paper, we discuss the use of VES to examine the expenditures and the externalities associated with 1) the proposed changes in one of the EU renewable energy production subsidies and 2) possible changes in the market price of CO2 emissions.
La produzione di energia elettrica in Veneto è caratterizzata da un’alta dipendenza dalle fonti fossili quali il carbone ed il gas. Le recenti normative europee hanno fissato un target di consumo di energia elettrica prodotta da fonti rinnovabili da raggiungere entro il 2020 e contemporaneamente è stato posto un tetto alle emissioni di CO2 per gli impianti di grandi dimensioni che gradualmente si ridurrà nel tempo. Che target di produzione da energie rinnovabili riuscirà a raggiungere il Veneto? Che peso avranno le diverse tecnologie? Quanti sussidi saranno necessari per raggiungere gli obbiettivi stabiliti dall’Unione Europea? Per rispondere a queste domande è stato costruito il modello di simulazione VES (Veneto Electricity Simulator). Il modello costituisce un’implementazione della metodologia “System Dynamic Analysis” orientata all’analisi di un sistema complesso come quello elettrico nel quale interagiscono variabili legate all’attività di produzione, alle scelte di politica energetica ed agli effetti di tali attività. Nel presente articolo mediante l’uso del modello VES vengono analizzati i costi e le esternalità derivanti 1) dalla variazione del livello di sostegno del prezzo di vendita dell’energia elettrica prodotta dalle fonti rinnovabili e 2) gli effetti sul settore elettrico delle variazioni dei prezzi delle emissioni della CO2.

Les agroécosystèmes font face à un déclin des services écosystémiques (SE) de régulation, non-marchands. Nous l’interprétons via deux concepts économiques : les biens publics qui appellent une régulation, et la production jointe qui souligne les conséquences des interactions entre SE dans leur régulation.Cette thèse étudie comment accroître la fourniture de SE non-marchands par des incitations économiques, en prenant en compte la multiplicité des SE et les interactions entre eux.Nous étudions d’abord la régulation des biens publics joints à l’aide de microéconomie théorique. Ensuite, nous menons une analyse appliquée avec des données agroécologiques simulées et des méthodes numériques pour définir les solutions coût-efficientes et les incitations pour leur mise en œuvre. Nous comparons plus particulièrement les incitations basées sur les actions et sur les résultats.Nous montrons théoriquement que les interactions entre SE rendent leur régulation plus complexe, notamment avec des incitations basées sur les résultats, et quand le coût varie selon les bouquets de SE. Dans l’analyse appliquée, nous montrons que prendre en compte le coût de la fourniture des SE est crucial pour maximiser leur fourniture avec un budget limité. Nous montrons que les incitations basées sur les résultats sélectionnent les solutions coût-efficientes mais induisent un budget plus élevé que les incitations basées sur les actions, à cause des interactions entre SE. Enfin, nous montrons que l’analyse à l’échelle du paysage et l’hétérogénéité modifient les solutions qui maximisent les SE, mais pas les propriétés des deux types d’incitations.Nos résultats soulignent que les politiques agro-environnementales doivent cibler les services écosystémiques de manière intégrée, si possible à l’échelle de la ferme ou du paysage et considérer le coût de leur fourniture. Les incitations basées sur les résultats ne sont pas la solution à tous les problèmes des politiques agroenvironnementales
Agroecosystems show a decline in regulating, non-marketed ecosystem services (ES). We interpret this decline through two economic concepts: public goods, which call for regulation, and joint production, which underlines the role of interactions among ecosystem services in their regulation.This thesis studies how to increase the provision of non-marketed ES through the implementation of economic incentives, while accounting for their multiplicity and the complex interactions among them.We first study the regulation of joint public goods with microeconomic theory. We then carry an applied analysis with simulated agroecological data and numerical methods to define cost-efficient solutions and simulate the implementation these solutions with economic incentives. We especially compare result-based and action-based incentives.We show theoretically that interactions among ES make their regulation more complex, especially with result-based incentives and when the production cost varies among bundles of ES. In the applied analysis, we show that accounting for the cost is crucial to maximise ES with a limited budget. We show that result-based incentives select cost-efficient bundles of ES but lead to higher policy budgets than action-based ones, due to interactions among ES. Eventually, we show that considering the landscape scale and heterogeneity plays on the solutions maximising ES, but not on the comparison between result-based and action-based incentives.Our results underline that agri-environmental policies need to target ES in a integrative way, at the farm or landscape scale, and consider the cost of providing non-marketed ES. Result-based incentives don’t solve all issues of agri-environmental policies

In the context of multi-level governance, the commitment to ensure effective and efficient management of resources for implementation of regional development and cohesion policies should involve all stakeholders at various tiers of decision making, from local public administrators to final beneficiaries. Making all aware of accurate control and greater transparency in the use of public resources, can help create a climate of trust between the administrators and citizens; reduce the bureaucratic burdens and give greater credibility to the results of public interventions. In this regard at local level, it is increasingly the need for assessment tools that provide decision-makers with better and more useful information also on projects of limited scale and activities concerning confined. Where it is possible through the involvement of the local population and all public and private bodies that are affected by territorial interventions. The Local Action Groups (LAGs) of the european initiative LEADER for the rural areas development have always been an active part in promoting the culture of cooperation and coordination and the empowerment of all economic and social components of a community to assess the outcome by EU structural founds' measures. This research aims to develop an operational tool to self-assessment by public-private partnerships (LAGs type) which allows them to control their strengths, their areas for improvement and the degree of satisfaction of stakeholders. The methodology developed in collaboration with GALs and other related subjects is intended to be simple and sustainable, in terms of human and financial resources so it ensures that good practices of self-control are incorporated in the daily activities of these organizations. The self-assessment system is oriented to a regular monitoring of the organization management with respect to seven key principles of "good governance": g-local sustainable development, effectiveness, efficiency, participation, transparency, accountability and capacity. Such checking can use a limited number of indicators that are flexible and according to needs, can be further refined independently by the organization itself. This system has been tested with LAG direct/indirect operators at Flanders (Belgium), Umbria and Veneto Regions. Self-assessment can help a single organization and its related bodies to approach the complexity of reality and to make appropriate use of increasingly limited resources. A constant and accurate analysis of information promotes knowledge and learning both inside and outside of the organization through the sharing of best practice and continuous dialogue with the various stakeholders. This instrument allow LAGs to measure the results achieved in local development for the loans obtained, also in relation to the expectations of the public and beneficiaries. In addition, these data of regular monitoring and internal control, are the first step in order to provide better information at local context, more readily understandable to citizens and more useful to take political decisions at various tiers of government. Future research could be directed to take up the challenge of identifying the desired values to associate with each indicator that we designed in order to elaborate quantitative or qualitative judgments from measures observed during the self-assessment
In un contesto di multi-level governance, l'impegno per assicurare una gestione efficace ed efficiente delle risorse destinate alla attuazione delle politiche per lo sviluppo e la coesione dei territori deve coinvolgere tutti gli attori, ai vari livelli decisionali, fino agli amministratori pubblici locali e ai beneficiari finali. Una generale sensibilizzazione verso un controllo accurato e una maggiore trasparenza dell'uso delle risorse pubbliche, può contribuire a creare un clima di fiducia tra gli amministratori e i cittadini, riducendo le barriere burocratiche e dando maggiore credibilità  ai risultati degli interventi pubblici. A tal proposito nei contesti locali, emerge sempre più la necessità  di disporre di strumenti di valutazione che forniscano informazioni più adeguate e più utili ai decisori anche su progetti di limitate dimensioni o degli interventi che riguardano aree circoscritte anche attraverso un coinvolgimento diretto, ove possibile, della popolazione locale e di tutti i soggetti pubblici e privati che sono in qualche modo "interessati". I Gruppi di Azione Locale (GAL) dei programmi europei LEADER per lo sviluppo delle aree rurali sono da sempre parte attiva nel promuovere la cultura della cooperazione e del coordinamento e la responsabilizzazione di tutte le componenti economiche e sociali di una comunità  per una valutazione dell'esito degli interventi locali finanziati dai fondi strutturali europei. Questa ricerca si propone di elaborare uno strumento operativo di autodiagnosi a disposizione di partnership pubblico/private locali, del tipo dei GAL, che consenta loro di tenere sotto controllo i punti di forza, gli aspetti da migliorare nonché il grado di soddisfazione dei loro interlocutori nel territorio. La metodologia sviluppata in collaborazione con i GAL e altri soggetti ad essi afferenti vuole essere semplice e sostenibile, in termini di risorse umane e finanziarie, per far si che buone pratiche di autocontrollo siano incorporate nelle attività  quotidiane di queste organizzazioni. Il sistema di autovalutazione predisposto consiste in un un regolare monitoraggio delle modalità  di gestione di un'organizzazione rispetto a 7 principi chiave di "buona governance": sviluppo sostenibile g-locale; efficacia, efficienza; partecipazione, trasparenza, responsabilità  e capacità. Per tale verifica sono utilizzabili un numero limitato di indicatori flessibili che possono essere ulteriormente perfezionati in modo autonomo dalla organizzazione stessa, secondo le proprie esigenze. Tale dispositivo è stato perfezionato e testato con degli operatori diretti o indiretti di GAL delle Regioni delle Fiandre (Belgio), Umbria e Veneto. L'Auto-valutazione può aiutare una singola organizzazione e i soggetti che con essa si relazionano ad avvicinarsi alla complessità  della realtà  e a utilizzare in modo appropriato risorse sempre più limitate. Una costante e puntuale analisi delle informazioni favorisce la conoscenza e l'apprendimento sia all'interno della organizzazione che all'esterno attraverso la condivisione di procedure e il continuo confronto con i diversi soggetti. Tale strumento consentirebbe ai GAL di misurare i risultati raggiunti nello sviluppo locale a fronte dei finanziamenti ottenuti, in relazione anche alle aspettative della popolazione e dei beneficiari. Inoltre queste misure di regolare monitoraggio e controllo interno, sono il primo passo per disporre di informazioni più adeguate ai contesti locali, più immediatamente comprensibili ai cittadini e più utili a prendere le decisioni politiche ai vari livelli di governo. Ricerche future potrebbero essere indirizzate a cogliere la sfida di individuare i valori desiderati associabili a ciascun indicatore del set da noi predisposto che consentano di pervenire a dei giudizi di valore quantitativo o qualitativo delle misure osservate nel corso dell'autovalutazione

A l’heure où la prise en charge médicale s’avère de plus en plus nécessaire pour accompagner la fin de vie, il nous apparait que sa place est de plus en plus importante et de moins en moins questionnée. Or, réduire la fin de vie à la question du mourant et de sa prise en charge est pour le moins problématique. L’arrêt d’hydratation et d’alimentation, les différentes formes de sédation, l’euthanasie, le suicide assisté, les soins palliatifs résument-ils à eux seuls ce que l’on peut dire de la fin de vie ? Peut-elle se résumer uniquement à une question d’ordre médical ? N’est-elle pas avant tout une question d’ordre existentiel où, à l’heure de notre déclin, nous sommes confrontés à l’agonie ? Souffrance et finitude se trouvent au cœur de notre interrogation et nous poussent à nous confronter au pâtir de la vie, nous dévoilant ainsi comme être de chair. Grâce à la philosophie henryenne, l’agonie va peu à peu se dévoiler comme une occasion ultime de révélation de soi à soi en tant que soi. Face à l’aporie du mal qui frappe, nous découvrons les hommes capables toujours d’y faire face par un effort de repersonnalisation. C’est cet effort nécessaire qui va se dévoiler tant dans le champ métaphysique, que dans le champ éthique, et que dans le champ politique. C’est ce même effort qui amène l’homme à prendre ses responsabilités et à répondre aux questions existentielles. La subjectivité de chacun se doit alors de devenir le centre de l’institution soignante. L’agonie devient possibilité de repenser la place de la personne au sein du système hospitalier : place de la personne soignante, de la personne soignée, de ceux qui accompagnent, tout en développant une éthique de l’accompagnement qui doit ensuite se décliner dans une politique. Car si, métaphysiquement, vivre son agonie ne peut se justifier que par l’Amour, éthiquement, il nous faut construire une nouvelle poétique de l’action faisant place à la fraternité issue de la chair, à l’imagination de l’homme pour répondre à l’appel d’autrui et de la vie, et à la subsidiarité, afin que chacun soit respecté dans son agir et sa conscience. Politiquement, cela nous ouvre alors à un système hospitalier respectueux de chaque « Je Peux » qui se déploie en son sein. Le respect du consentement du patient reste ainsi la pierre angulaire du système hospitalier ; mais il ne peut se construire que dans une alliance avec les soignants
In the context of today’s world, medical care is becoming increasingly necessary to assist patients at the end of life. It appears that this care is taking on more and more importance and is subject to fewer and fewer questions. is less and less questioned. However, confining the end of life to the state of dying and its medical support is problematic. Can the end of life be resumed as stopping hydration and artificial feeding, sedation in its different forms, euthanasia, assisted suicide, and palliative care? Can it be summed up as a simple medical question? Isn’t the end of life, first and foremost, linked to an existential question in which, at the time of our decline, we come face to face with agony? Finiteness and suffering are at the heart of our questioning as we confront life’s hardships, revealing the mystery of the flesh. With the help of Michel Henry’s philosophy, agony will gradually reveal itself as an ultimate opportunity for self-revelation. Faced with the paradox of evil, we find Man capable of coping with an effort of re-personification. This necessary effort will unfold in the metaphysical, ethical and political fields. This same effort allows Man to take responsibility for himself and to contemplate existential questions. The subjectivity of each person must become the center of the healthcare institution. Agony becomes the possibility to rethink the place of the individual person within the hospital system: the care giver, the care receiver and those supporting them, all while developing an ethical personal assistance which must then translated into policies. Because even if metaphysically, living out agony cannot be otherwise justified but by Love, ethically we must build a new way of operating. We must leave room for fraternity as a consequence of being of the flesh, to imagination in order to respond to our fellow man and our life’s calling, and to subsidiarity so that everyone is respected in his actions and consciousness. Politically, it opens up the possibility of a hospital system respectful of each "I Can" which is echoed within its walls. Respect for the patient's consent remains the cornerstone of the hospital system but can only be built with an alliance with caregivers

Cette thèse est consacrée aux services environnementaux, dans le domaine de l'entretien et de la gestion de l'espace rural, en mobilisant l'économie des services. Après avoir défini et caractérisé ces services environnementaux, nous montrons les différents « secteurs institutionnels » au sein desquels s'organise leur production. En l'absence de source statistique concernant les services environnementaux, nous présentons ensuite un inventaire de ces services produits à l'échelle de trois territoires ruraux. Il en ressort que ce sont les collectivités locales, et non les agriculteurs, les principaux producteurs de ces services. Enfin, une analyse spécifique du rôle des « secteurs institutionnels » est conduite à travers trois études de cas, dont l'une concerne une politique agri-environnementale (la « prime à l'herbe »), la deuxième une structure d'insertion sociale et la dernière une action de développement local centrée sur des services environnementaux.

Les Mesures agro-environnementales territorialisées (MAEt) ont été introduites en France pour la programmation 2007-2013 de la Politique Agricole Commune (PAC). La perspective de la réforme de la PAC offre l'opportunité de proposer des pistes d'amélioration de ces mesures. Cette thèse évalue dans une première partie ce dispositif MAEt avec une attention particulière portée aux enjeux de lutte contre les pollutions de l'eau d'origine agricole. Nous étudions dans le premier chapitre la décentralisation croissante du dispositif agro-environnemental, le ciblage et l'adaptation aux territoires à enjeux prioritaires. Cette analyse est illustrée par les résultats d'une enquête menée à l'échelle nationale auprès des agriculteurs éligibles et des agents responsables de la mise en œuvre des MAEt, avec deux focus sur l'Eure et Loir et le Languedoc-Roussillon. Ces analyses complémentaires nous permettent d'apporter des éléments d'explication au trop faible taux d'adoption des mesures de réduction d'intrants. Dans le deuxième chapitre nous estimons avec des méthodes économétriques d'évaluation des effets de traitement si ces mesures, basées sur une auto-sélection des participants, permettent effectivement de réduire l'utilisation d'herbicides par les viticulteurs engagés dans la région Languedoc-Roussillon. La seconde partie de la thèse propose deux dispositifs innovants qui pourraient améliorer l'acceptabilité des MAE par les agriculteurs. Nous étudions dans le chapitre 3 l'effet de l'introduction d'une dimension collective dans les contrats, par la méthode de modélisation des choix appliquée au cas des viticulteurs du Languedoc Roussillon. Cette dimension collective se concrétise par un ‘bonus' monétaire versé à chaque viticulteur engagé à condition qu'un objectif de surfaces engagées soit atteint collectivement. Pour finir, nous analysons dans le chapitre 4 la possibilité d'utiliser des appels à projets pour allouer les contrats agro-environnementaux, sur la base de l'expérience pilote menée par l'Agence de l'Eau Artois-Picardie. Ce mécanisme laisse aux agriculteurs la liberté d'adapter le cahier des charges et les montants des mesures en fonction de leur propre consentement à recevoir
Territorialized agri-environmental measures (MAEt) were introduced in France for the 2007-2013 Common Agricultural Policy program. The forthcoming CAP reform is an opportunity to improve the design of existing agri-environmental schemes. The first part of this thesis assesses this scheme (MAEt), with special attention paid to water pollution issues. In the first chapter we analyse theadvantages and limits of the partial decentralization of decision-making in the setting-up of agrienvironmentalprojects and of improved targeting through the identification of eligible priority areas.This analysis is illustrated by the results of a national survey conducted with eligible farmers andagents in charge of the implementation of the scheme and by two case studies conducted in Eure etLoir and Languedoc-Roussillon. These surveys help us to identify the reasons for the too low adoptionrates of pesticides reduction measures by farmers. In the second chapter, we estimate the impact ofherbicide reduction measures adopted by winegrowers in the Languedoc-Roussillon region using atreatment effects approach. The second part of the thesis proposes two innovative designs aiming atincreasing the acceptability of agri-environmental measures by farmers. In chapter 3 we study theintroduction of a collective dimension in the contracts. This collective dimension relies on a monetary‘bonus’ paid to each farmer who has signed a contract, provided that the proportion of landcollectively enrolled in the agri-environmental scheme reaches a predefined threshold. We finallyanalyse in chapter 4 the possible use of reverse auctions for the allocation of agri-environmentalcontracts, on the basis of the pilot experiment implemented by the Water Agency in Artois-Picardie.This mechanism enables farmers to adapt the practices they commit to and the payment that they receive to their own willingness to accept

Cette thèse de doctorat applique des approches microéconomiques empiriques et théoriques pour analyser l'efficacité des paiements pour services environnementaux dans le secteur agricole. J'évalue des leviers pour favoriser leur adoption par les agriculteurs à différentes échelles. Je montre empiriquement que cibler une partie des aides au revenu de la politique agricole commune vers un financement accru des mesures agro-environnementales et climatiques et du soutien à l’agriculture biologique favorise la participation à ces dispositifs. Ma principale contribution est de mettre en évidence qu'un bonus de parrainage dans les paiements pour services environnementaux est prometteur pour favoriser la participation d’une masse critique d’agriculteurs lorsqu'il existe des effets de seuils écologiques.Les résultats de cette thèse suggèrent aussi que des paiements basés sur les résultats, sous forme de bonus collectif ou de paiement proportionnel à un indicateur environnemental, sont efficaces à la condition que le niveau de paiement soit suffisamment incitatif. Avec une approche théorique, je m’intéresse à la demande et propose un outil, le label santé, pour augmenter le consentement à payer des consommateurs dans le cas particulier où la technologie de production jointe des services environnementaux est complémentaire à l'amélioration de la qualité intrinsèque du produit agricole en terme de santé. Je contribue à la littérature en montrant que les préoccupations de santé des consommateurs peuvent financer efficacement les services environnementaux et compléter les politiques agro-environnementales
This PhD thesis applies empirical and theoretical microeconomic approaches to analyse the efficiency of payments for environmental services in the agricultural sector. I assess levers to promote their adoption by farmers at different scales. I show empirically that targeting part of the income support of the Common Agricultural Policy towards increased funding of agri-environmental and climate measures and support for organic farming promotes participation in these schemes. My main contribution is to show that a sponsorship bonus in payments for environmental services is promising to encourage the participation of a critical mass of farmers when ecological threshold effects exist. The results of this thesis also suggest that result-based payments,in the form of a collective bonus or a payment proportional to an environmental indicator, are effective on the condition that the level of payment is sufficiently attractive. With a theoretical approach, I focus on the demand side and propose a tool, the health label, to increase consumers' willingness to pay in the particular case where the joint production technology of environmental services is complementary to the improvement of the intrinsic health quality of the agricultural commodity. I contribute to the literature by showing that consumers' health concerns can efficiently finance environmental services and complement agri-environmental policies

Notre thèse, rédigée dans le cadre de la Didactique des Langues et des Cultures, explore les potentialités du texte de théâtre en tant qu'outil pédagogique pour la classe de FLE de niveau secondaire. Dans une croisée interdisciplinaire, nous avons débuté notre projet de thèse : « Du texte à la scène - Didactique du Français Langue Étrangère par les approches théâtrales en République de Moldavie », à partir d’extraits de la pièce L’Avare de Molière et dans une perspective particulièrement nouvelle de l’appropriation de la culture étrangère, ainsi que de l’épanouissement artistique de l’élève et du futur citoyen. C’est dans cette dynamique que nous avons mis en place en tant qu’outil d’insertion pédagogique, un atelier de théâtre, auprès d’un groupe d’apprenants dans deux classes de FLE de XIIe, dans un des lycées du nord de la Moldavie. L’objectif de ce travail a été de présenter, premièrement, un bilan de la situation actuelle de l’enseignement des langues en République de Moldavie dans le secondaire, plus spécifiquement du statut de la langue française qui a pour particularité d’être en seconde position (depuis son recul important qui débuté en 2010) derrière l’anglais, première langue étrangère enseignée dans les grandes villes. Nous nous sommes interrogée également sur les rôles et la place des manuels scolaires dans la classe moldave de FLE. Ensuite, nous avons tenté d’identifier les raisons des difficultés de la production orale des apprenants moldaves dans deux classes de FLE de XIIe (situées entre les niveaux B1 et B2 du CECRL), recherche réalisée à partir d’une enquête de terrain.Le deuxième axe de notre recherche consiste à réfléchir sur les contributions que peut apporter la pratique théâtrale pour le développement de l’expression orale en classe de FLE, notamment dans la gestion du malaise lié à l’insécurité langagière, psychologique et relationnelle des apprenants moldaves confrontés à la difficulté du passage à l’acte lors de la prise de parole en français. Nous avons étudié la possibilité d’élaborer dans un nouvel enjeu didactique l’évaluation de la performance des apprenants dans le cadre de l’enseignement par compétences, à l’aide des textes choisis dans la comédie française du XVIIe siècle afin de mesurer la rentabilité de cette méthode pédagogique, le type et la qualité de l’interaction produite, la satisfaction de l’apprenant et l’efficacité de l’enseignement. Deux hypothèses de départ ont orienté notre recherche : 1. La passivité verbale des apprenants moldaves en classe de FLE est en lien étroit avec leur sentiment d’insécurité dans la pratique de la langue ;2. Le théâtre pratiqué dans la classe de FLE incite les élèves à produire du langage dans une situation significative qui leur permet de s’approprier la langue. Les pratiques théâtrales développent et favorisent l’improvisation et l’expression spontanée des apprenants. C’est aussi un véhicule privilégié pour la transmission des éléments socio-culturels du langage. Nos hypothèses ont été mises à l’épreuve par le biais d’une expérience théâtrale, à partir de laquelle nous avons réussi à analyser les particularités des activités artistiques sur le plan linguistique, corporel et gestuel, mais aussi d'un point de vue relationnel. Ce dernier élément nous a permis d'observer de plus près le rôle de l'enseignant, la préparation pédagogique spécifique et les difficultés que cela implique (choix du texte, préparation de l’atelier théâtral, gestion du temps, les limites inhérentes à cette dynamique et les obstacles qu’il peut rencontrer), le mode d’évaluation possible pour un tel enseignement, la prise en compte des capacités d’implication des apprenants
Our thesis, based on the Didactics of Languages and Cultures, explores the potential of theater text as a pedagogical tool in classes of French as a Foreign Language (FFL). In an interdisciplinary cross, we started our thesis project : « From the text to the stage - Didactics of French as a Foreign Language through Theatrical Approaches in the Republic of Moldova », based on excerpts from L’Avare by Molière and in a particularly new perspective of the appropriation of foreign culture, as well as the artistic flourishing of the pupil and the future citizen. It is in this dynamic that we set up as a teaching insertion tool a theater workshop, with a group of learners from two 12th forms that study FFL in one of the high schools from the North of Moldova.The purpose of this work was to present, firstly, a review of the current situation of language teaching in the Republic of Moldova in secondary education, more specifically the status of the French language which has the distinction of being in second position (since its significant decline that began in 2010) behind English, the first foreign language taught in major cities. We also wondered about the roles and place of textbooks in the Moldovan class of FFL. Then, we tried to identify the reasons for the difficulties of the oral production of Moldovan learners in two classes of 12th form studying FFL (their communicative competences being located between levels B1 and B2, according to the CEFRL scale of evaluation), research carried out by means of a survey.The second goal of our research is to reflect on the contributions that theatrical practice can bring to the development of oral expression in French as a foreign language, especially in the management of the difficulties related to the linguistic, psychological and relational insecurity of Moldovan learners that find it difficul to act out while speaking French.We studied the possibility of elaborating from a new didactic perspective, the assessment of the performance of learners in the framework of teaching by skills, based on texts chosen from the French comedy of the seventeenth century : though measuring the profitability of this teaching method, the type and quality of the interaction produced, the satisfaction of the learner and the effectiveness of the teaching.Two initial hypotheses guided our research :1. The verbal passivity of Moldovan learners in the FFL classroom is closely related to their feeling of insecurity in the practice of the language ;2. Theater in the FFL classroom encourages students to produce language in a meaningful situation that allows them to appropriate the language. Theatrical practices develop and promote improvisation and the spontaneous expression of learners. It is also a privileged vehicle for the transmission of socio - cultural elements of language.Our hypotheses were tested through a theatrical experience, thanks to it we managed to analyze the peculiarities of the influence of artistic activities on various elements like body, voice and gestures, but also from a relational point of view. This last element allowed us to observe more closely the role of the teacher, the specific pedagogical preparation that implies, the difficulties (choice of the text, preparation of the theater workshop, time management, the limits inherent to this dynamic and the obstacles that it may encounter), the possible evaluation method for such teaching, the taking into account of the learners' involvement capacities

Les Systèmes Agroalimentaires Localisés représentent des formes d'organisation de productionet de consommation particulières. Ils se différencient des systèmes agro-industriels dans larelation singulière qui unit les hommes, les produits et le territoire, dans la valorisation deressources spécifiques et dans des modalités de coordination géographiquement et socialementsituées. Un nombre croissant d'initiatives cherchent à les mettre en œuvre au travers descircuits courts, des circuits de proximité ou des projets alimentaires territoriaux.Nos travaux proposent d'éclairer d'un regard sociologique les mécanismes de construction deces systèmes alimentaires à partir de l'étude fine d'expériences pionnières. Nous mobilisons lescadres d'analyse déployés par la sociologie de l'innovation et de l'acteur-réseau d'une part, etpar la sociologie des réseaux d'autre part. L'expérience de la coopérative agricole Fermes deFigeac témoigne des processus d'activation du lien entre l'agriculture, l'alimentation et leterritoire, et de valorisation des ressources spécifiques. Ils se matérialisent dans les réseauxsociotechniques qui portent les circuits alimentaires territorialisés. Inspirés du modèle de lacoopération agricole, les responsables de l'organisation soutiennent l'expérimentation d'unedémarche de gouvernance alimentaire afin de coordonner les stratégies individuelles dans desstratégies coopératives pour répondre aux enjeux collectifs de développement.Les analyses révèlent les processus de traduction, de transformation et de médiation quiinterviennent au sein des organisations et à leurs frontières. Ces opérations s'avèrentnécessaires aux constructions collectives et aux coordinations des acteurs (humains et objets,individus et collectifs). Nous montrons le rôle des positions intermédiaires dans l'articulationdes stratégies et les capacités d'adaptation et d'innovation. Nous rendons également compte dela diversité et la variabilité des formes relationnelles qui accompagnent ces dynamiques.Menés dans le cadre d'une recherche-action, nos travaux s'inscrivent dans la volonté de coproductionthéorique et empirique. D'un point de vue opérationnel, nous attirons l'attentionsur l'importance des médiations (animations, documents, échanges…) dans les processuscollectifs et coopératifs et de l'indétermination (imprévisibilité) des dynamiques de changement.Nous proposons de tenir compte des réseaux secondaires et d'identifier les acteursintermédiaires (au-delà des représentants formels) dans les analyses de gouvernance alimentaireterritoriale
Local Agri-Food System (SYAL) represents a particular form of organization of production andconsumption. SYAL differs from agro-industrial system as it encompass the singular web ofrelationship which unit people, the qualification of products and territory through the valuationof specific resources and the types of coordination that are geographically and socially situated.An increasing number of initiatives try to implement them, through short food circuits,proximity supply chains or local food projects.Our work proposes an empirical journey and a sociological theorizing of the mechanismsthrough which a particular local agri-food system has been enhanced. We mobilize theframeworks of Actor-Network-Theory (ANT) on one hand and by the Social Network Analysis(SNA) on the other hand. We took the opportunity of an in depth study of an agriculturalcooperative named “Fermes of Figeac” to decipher processes of structuration of associationbetween farming practices, food provisioning, territorial human agency and valuation'sprocesses of the specific resources. Those associations are materialized in socio-technicalnetworks, which supported territorialized food supply chain. Inspired by the foundationalmodel of agricultural cooperation, the managerial core set of the organization has experimentedan approach of food provision governance in order to transform individual strategies in cooperativestrategies with the aim to answer sustainable challenge at the local level.Analyses based on ANT and SNA methodology assess translation's, transformation's andmediation's processes that intervene within organizations and on their borders. Going beyond afunctional analysis, we also analyze the collective construction and the coordination of humanagency and objects, at both individual and collective levels. We particularly shed light on therole of intermediation positions in strategic articulations and of the capacities of adaptation andinnovation. We also report the diversity and the variability of the relational forms that sustaindynamics of change.Released in an action-research approach, our work intends to articulate theoretical andempirical production. From an operational point of view, we draw attention to mediations(animations, documents, exchanges…) in the collective and co-operative processes and to theunpredictability of dynamics of change. This leads to take into account secondary networks andto identify intermediaries (beyond the formal core set of managers) in the analysis of territorialfood governance

Biofuels started to raise interest almost 40 years ago, when the Arab oil embargo pushed oil prices up and therefore spurred the research towards new forms of energy. Nevertheless, biofuel production has not really taken off until recently, when the combination of high oil prices, concern about greenhouse gas emissions, and the progressive reduction of oil reserves induced many countries across the world to implement policies encouraging biofuels production. At the beginning of the 2000s, biofuels were seen as a panacea for energy security (domestic energy source, highly reliable), economic stability (energy price stability, rural development, employment generation, reduce supply-demand gap for agricultural commodities), and for environment protection (better waste utilization, GHG emissions reduction), especially after the drawing up of the Kyoto protocol, according to which signatory countries had to reduce their GHG emissions by about 5% from their 1990 levels, by 2012. Biofuels are currently produced from agricultural commodities, therefore their repercussions on the agricultural and food sector might be substantial. In this framework it is clear that the responsibility that big countries (those able to affect world prices) have is substantial. Countries like the US, Brazil, and the EU have been encouraging biofuel production in recent years and ended up artificially creating a new market for agricultural commodities without fully understanding, a priori, the possible negative consequences of such decision. They decided to subsidize renewables because of the increased pressure by the public opinion towards greenhouse gas emissions reduction, reduce dependency on oil imports, and the need to meet the targets set by both the Kyoto protocol. Biofuel expansion took place not only in a controversial manner, without coordination at international level, but also in a critical historical moment. The past two decades have been characterized by a strong increase in world food demand, mainly due to economic expansion in emerging economies like China, India, Brazil, and some South East Asian countries. The strong increase in demand faces an agricultural supply that in the short period is inevitably inelastic, which results in higher prices and higher volatility (due to reduced stocks). Much of the initial enthusiasm towards biofuels has been declining in the last few years. First of all, biofuel expansion has increased the demand for many agricultural commodities, which, in a framework of increasing food demand in the world, triggered a sharp increase in agricultural prices with strong negative implications for poor people especially in developing countries. Many doubts have also been raised concerning the real effectiveness of biofuels in reducing GHG emissions. Emission-computing methodologies are not always accurate and sometimes are difficult to put in practice. Agriculture intensification and land use changes, both consequences of biofuel expansion, are two of the factors more likely to have increased GHG emissions rather than reduced. Furthermore, biofuel policies have been designed and implemented by countries on an individual basis, without the coordination at international level that would have been needed to avoid the numerous side-effects that biofuels have been having on international food markets and on the environment. My doctorate research analyzes all aspects of the biofuel sector at world level with special emphasis on its sustainability under an economic, environmental, and ethical point of view. The research starts with a description of what biofuels are and in which sub-categories they can be divided. Then, it provides a review of biofuel policies around the world and data on production, prices and trade. The work also provides figures on production, prices and trade of the main agricultural commodities used for biofuel production and the evolution of cropped and forest areas worldwide in the last twenty years. Main biofuel producers are the US, Brazil and the EU. In the first two countries is ethanol the main biofuel produced (obtained from corn in the US and from sugarcane in Brazil), while in the EU the leasing biofuel is biodiesel (from vegetable oils). In 2011, 51.8% of Brazilian sugarcane production and 42.2% of US corn production were used to produce ethanol. Areas cropped with sugarcane and corn, in the two countries were 4.2 and 15.5 million hectares in 2011, which correspond to 1.5% and 16% of total agricultural area respectively. By 2021 ethanol production will absorb almost 61% of Brazilian sugarcane production and 57% of US corn production, ceteris paribus. In 2021 the amount of land needed to grow all sugarcane needed to produce ethanol in Brazil will be more than 8 million hectares, almost equal to the entire current sugarcane area in the South American country. In the US the area that will be needed to cultivate corn for ethanol production will grow to slightly less than 20 million hectares, equal to 53% of current corn area in the US and 20% of current total agricultural area. These data highlight the different impact sugarcane- and corn-based ethanol have on agricultural production. Brazilian and American ethanol production was 22.9 and 52.8 million m3 in 2011 respectively, implying an “ethanol yield” of 5.5 m3/hectare for sugarcane ethanol and of 3.4 m3/hectare for corn-ethanol. This means that producing ethanol from sugarcane is more efficient and less consuming in terms of land than corn-ethanol. Considering also biodiesel, the amount of land needed to crop biofuel feedstocks, in Brazil and the US grows to 3 and 18.4% of total agricultural land. These areas are forecasted to increase to 6.3 and 23% by 2021, implying an increasing competition for land. In 2011 the EU used 5.4 million tons of domestically produced rapeseed oil and at least 3.9 million tons of imported palm oil to make biodiesel. The amount of land needed to grow rapeseed within the Union and oil palm in third countries (mainly Indonesia and Malaysia) was 5.2 and 1.3 million hectares respectively. The area needed to crop rapeseed for biodiesel production, in the EU, was equal to 5.2% of total agriculture area. Assuming that the percentage of rapeseed oil on total vegetable oil production in the EU will remain the same of 2011 and that the share of it employed in the food sector will also remain unchanged, it is possible to forecast that, in 2021, the EU will need 6.6 million tons of rapeseed oil and at least 10 million tons of palm oil from third countries to meet its consumption targets. This means that at least 3.4 million hectares of land, in South East Asia will be needed to produce palm oil destined to the EU. The core of the thesis is the analysis of the sustainability of biofuels on one hand, and of biofuels’ implications on food production on the other. The sustainability of biofuel production is analyzed through a literature review and re-interpretation of the existing literature on the topic, encompassing effects of mass biofuel production on the environment, GHG emissions, land use changes, water availability, and implications for developing countries. One of the most important aspects of biofuel sustainability is their effects on agricultural production and agricultural prices. The empirical part of this thesis employs econometric tools to assess the degree of integration between energy and agricultural markets in the main biofuel producing countries and price transmission elasticity between international and EU agricultural markets before and after the last reform of the CAP. In the US and in Brazil energy and agricultural prices move together in the long-run and the influence of oil prices has been growing over time. This means that policy-makers, in the future, will have to pay great attention to the mutual influence energy and agricultural policies can have on each other. In Europe this close relationship between energy and agricultural prices was not detected, however European agricultural markets have been influenced by biofuel policies in the US, and to a lesser extent Brazil, indirectly, through their effects on international commodity prices. What emerges from this work is that biofuels, in the current political, economic demographic, situation are, for many aspects, not sustainable. Side-effects of biofuel production are many and often even difficult to quantify. Solutions provided are often utopic or, even if good in theory, very difficult to implement. Biofuel production has been having negative effects on food production and prices, biodiversity and social welfare in the last decade, inside and outside the countries of production. The “original sin” was the initial lack of coordination between policies issued unilaterally by different countries, something that now seems extremely difficult to fix. Governments should, as it has been recently suggested by the United Nations, consider the option of modifying their biofuel programs because of their negative consequences on food security in many low-income countries. Also the promotion and implementation of biofuel policies in developing countries should be avoided as a measure for fostering development. It is very unlikely that rural poor will benefit from policies subsidizing the biofuel sector since most of the land in developing countries is owned by big multinational companies or by foreign states (land grabbing). The development of the biofuel sector would also increase food prices even in countries where such increase has been marginal so far because of scarce price transmission from the world market. Poor people living in urban areas would be worse off by higher food prices as well as small farmers who, in developing countries, are often net-purchasers of food. It has been suggested by many scholars and international organizations that, in order to become sustainable, biofuel production should shift from first-generation to second-generation technologies (those that allow the use of non-food crops or wastes for biofuel production). This will not be easy to achieve. Current second-generation biofuel production is still very small and will not grow substantially unless major investments are made by governments and, under the right conditions, private companies. Moreover it is not governments nor policy-makers who decides whether is profitable to put marginal land under cultivation and to crop non-food biofuel crops on it. Farmers are those making such decisions and they will not do it unless it is profitable. Current record-high agricultural commodity prices raise many doubts on the fact that farmers will shift from food to non-food crops without substantial government subsidies. An increase in subsidies to the agricultural sector, even just for energy crops, is unlikely to happen anytime soon because of the financial and economic crisis that hit many countries around the world and because of pressure by the WTO and other international organizations to reduce the degree of protection. In case it will be decided to keep subsidizing biofuels, new polices will have to be designed and implemented at world level, needing a very high degree of coordination between countries and flexibility, which is difficult to imagine can be reached in the short or even the medium term. An emblematic case, in this sense, is GHG emission accounting mechanisms that currently are based on life-cycle assessment analysis and that are often incomplete (i.e. limited to a single country or region) or unable to take all factors into account (i.e. indirect land-use changes). Research, in the next years, will have to focus on two main topics. On one hand second- and third-generation techniques for biofuel production will have to be refined and made economically (but also environmentally and socially) viable, possibly together with progressive reduction in the support in favor of first-generation biofuels. On the other hand, a better definition of the methodologies to assess the environmental, economic and social impacts of biofuel production will be crucial in order to correctly evaluate the sustainability of biofuel programs. In particular, the development of reliable methodologies to assess the environmental impact of biofuel production is very important since, in the future, subsidies could be calculated in a way to reward the production of biofuels able to provide (proved) positive externalities to the environment as well as increase social welfare.
Di biocarburanti si iniziò a parlare circa 40 anni fa, in concomitanza con la crisi petrolifera determinata dall’embargo da parte dei paesi OPEC. Il conseguente forte aumento del prezzo del petrolio stimolò infatti la ricerca nel campo delle forme di energia alternative. La produzione di biocarburanti è tuttavia decollata solo di recente, grazie all’azione combinata di molteplici fattori: elevate quotazioni del petrolio, necessità di contenere le emissioni di gas serra e la riduzione delle scorte di combustibili fossili; tutte cose che hanno indotto molti paesi a mettere a punto programmi volti allo sviluppo del settore dei biocarburanti. All’inizio degli anni 2000 i biocarburanti venivano considerati la soluzione ideale per risolvere i problemi dell’approvvigionamento energetico, della stabilità economica (stabilizzazione dei prezzi dell’energia, sviluppo rurale, creazione di posti di lavoro, aumento della domanda di materie prime agricole) e della protezione dell’ambiente (utilizzazione più efficiente dei rifiuti e riduzione delle emissioni di gas serra). Un impulso decisivo allo sviluppo delle politiche fu dato dalla stipula del Protocollo di Kyoto nel quale i paesi firmatari si impegnavano a ridurre le proprie emissioni di gas serra del 5% rispetto ai livelli del 1990 entro il 2012. Al momento attuale i biocarburanti vengono in larga parte prodotti a partire da materie prime agricole, quindi le ripercussioni della loro produzione sul settore agricolo possono essere rilevanti. In tale àmbito appare chiara la forte responsabilità, in termini di effetti sui mercati agricoli mondiali, che hanno i paesi che più di tutti hanno sovvenzionato il settore: Stati Uniti, Brasile e Unione Europea. Tali paesi, tramite le loro politiche, hanno creato un nuovo mercato di sbocco per molte materie prime agricole, senza capire a fondo, a priori, le conseguenze di tale azione. Le principali motivazioni addotte dai decisori politici per giustificare le sovvenzioni al settore dei biocarburanti furono la necessità di ottemperare ai dettami del Protocollo di Kyoto, aumentare l’indipendenza energetica, creare nuovi posti di lavoro, migliorare il reddito degli agricoltori e stabilizzare i prezzi dell’energia. L’espansione del settore dei biofuel è avvenuta non solamente in maniera quantomeno controversa, senza coordinazione a livello internazionale, ma anche in un momento storico molto delicato. Gli ultimi venti anni sono stati infatti caratterizzati da un grande aumento della domanda mondiale di cibo, soprattutto a causa della forte crescita economica dei cosiddetti paesi emergenti: Cina, India, Brasile e paesi del Sud-Est asiatico. Il forte aumento della domanda si scontra contro un’offerta di materie prime agricole giocoforza rigida nel breve termine, cosa che genera forti aumenti di prezzo e della volatilità delle quotazioni (soprattutto a causa del forte ridimensionamento delle scorte). Negli ultimi anni gran parte dell’entusiasmo iniziale nei confronti dei biocarburanti è andato scemando. Per prima cosa l’espansione del settore dei combustibili “verdi” ha aumentato la domanda per molte materie prime agricole che, in un contesto contraddistinto da un forte aumento della domanda mondiale, ha generato un sensibile aumento dei prezzi alimentari, con ripercussioni particolarmente negative per le fasce più povere della popolazione, soprattutto nei paesi meno sviluppati. Anche l’effettiva efficacia dei biocarburanti nel ridurre le emissioni di gas serra è stata fortemente messa in dubbio. Le metodologie utilizzare per il conteggio delle emissioni non sono sempre accurate o di facile attuazione. L’intensivizzazione dei processi agricoli e i cambiamenti d’uso dei suoli, entrambi conseguenza dell’aumento della produzione agricola, sono due fattori che molto probabilmente hanno causato un aumento delle emissioni di gas serra invece che una diminuzione. Inoltre, le politiche a favore del settore delle energie rinnovabili sono state progettate e messe in pratica in maniera spesso unilaterale da parte dei vari paesi, senza quella coordinazione a livello internazionale che sarebbe stata essenziale a evitare le conseguenze negative sui mercati agricoli e sull’ambiente. La mia ricerca di dottorato analizza tutti gli aspetti del settore dei biocarburanti a livello mondiale con particolare attenzione a quelli della sostenibilità: economica, ambientale e sociale. La ricerca inizia con una descrizione delle varie tipologie di biocarburanti attualmente prodotti a livello mondiale e prosegue con una rassegna delle politiche a favore dei biocarburanti nei principali paesi. In séguito vengono analizzate le produzioni, i prezzi e il commercio internazionale di biocarburanti e delle materie prime dalle quali sono ottenuti. I principali paesi produttori di biocarburanti sono gli Stati Uniti, il Brasile e l’Unione Europea. Nei primi due viene prodotto principalmente etanolo (a partire dal mais negli Stati Uniti e dalla canna da zucchero in Brasile), mentre nell’Unione Europea è il biodiesel il biocarburante di riferimento (prodotto a partire da oli vegetali). Nel 2011, il 51,8% della produzione brasiliana di canna da zucchero e il 42,2% di quella statunitense di mais sono state usate per produrre etanolo. Le superfici necessarie, nei due paesi, per la coltivazione della materia prima per la produzione del biocarburante sono state pari a 4,2 e 15,5 milioni di ettari, che rappresentano l’1,5 e il 16% della superficie agricola totale dei due paesi. Nel 2021, ceteris paribus, la produzione di etanolo assorbirà circa il 61% della produzione brasiliana di canna da zucchero e il 57% di quella statunitense di mais. Sempre nel 2021, in Brasile, le superfici necessarie per coltivare canna da zucchero destinata la settore dell’etanolo raggiungeranno gli 8 milioni di ettari, pari a tutta l’area attualmente coltivata a canna da zucchero nel paese sudamericano. Negli Stati Uniti le superfici necessarie a coltivare il granturco per la produzione di etanolo cresceranno fino a sfiorare i 20 milioni di ettari, un’estensione pari al 53% dell’area attualmente investita a mais e al 20% della superficie agricola totale del 2011. Da questi dati è possibile osservare la forte differenza, in termini di impatto sulle produzioni agricole, tra la produzione di etanolo brasiliana (imperniata sulla canna da zucchero) e quella statunitense (basata sul mais). La produzione brasiliana e statunitense di etanolo, nel 2011, è stata rispettivamente di 22,9 e 52,8 milioni di metri cubi, implicando una “resa” in etanolo di 5,5 e 3,4 metri cubi a ettaro. Ciò significa che la produzione di etanolo a partire dalla canna da zucchero è più efficiente in termini di superfici necessarie alla coltivazione della materia prima. Tenendo in considerazione anche il biodiesel, in rapida espansione in entrambi i paesi (dove viene ottenuto a partire dall’olio di soia), l’incidenza percentuale delle superfici utilizzate per coltivare la materia prima per la produzione di biocarburanti (etanolo e biodiesel) cresce fino a raggiungere il 3% del totale della superficie agricola in Brasile e il 18,4% negli Stati Uniti. Tali percentuali sono destinate a raggiungere il 6,3 e il 23% entro il 2021. Nel 2011 l’Unione Europea ha impiegato 5,4 milioni di tonnellate di olio di colza (prodotto all’interno dell’Unione) e almeno 3,9 milioni di olio di palma (importato da Indonesia e Malesia) per produrre biodiesel. Le superfice necessaria, all’interno dell’UE, per la coltivazione della colza usata nel settore dei biocarburanti è stata di 5,2 milioni di ettari nel 2011, mentre quella impiegata per la produzione di olio di palma nei paesi terzi di almeno 1,3 milioni di ettari. Sempre nel 2011, il 5,2% della superficie agricola totale dell’Unione è stato utilizzato per la coltivazione di colza da destinare alla produzione di biocarburanti. Assumendo che la percentuale di olio di colza impiegata nel settore alimentare nell’Unione Europea rimarrà la stessa anche negli anni a venire, è possibile prevedere che, nel 2021, l’UE avrà bisogno di 6,6 milioni di tonnellate di olio di colza e di almeno 10 milioni di tonnellate di olio di palma (importato da paesi terzi) per raggiungere i suoi obiettivi di consumo in materia di biodiesel. Ciò implica che almeno 3,4 milioni di ettari di terreni, presumibilmente in Indonesia e Malesia, saranno necessari per produrre tutto l’olio di palma di cui il settore del biodiesel comunitario avrà bisogno. Il fulcro di questa tesi è l’analisi della sostenibilità della produzione di biocarburanti e le sue conseguenze sulla produzione di materie prime agricole. La sostenibilità dei biocarburanti viene esaminata attraverso una revisione della letteratura esistente sull’argomento, con particolare enfasi sugli effetti della forte espansione del settore dei carburanti “verdi” sull’ambiente, sulle emissioni di gas serra, i cambiamenti d’uso del suolo, la disponibilità idrica e le implicazioni per i paesi in via di sviluppo. In termini di sostenibilità, uno degli aspetti più importanti riguarda gli effetti del forte aumento della produzione di biofuel sulla produzione e sui prezzi delle materie prime agricole. Questa tesi, nella sua parte empirica, utilizza tecniche econometriche per misurare il livello di integrazione tra i mercati energetici e quelli agricoli nei principali paesi produttori. Viene inoltre anche stimata l’elasticità di trasmissione dei prezzi tra il mercato mondiale e quello comunitario nel caso delle principali materie prime agricole, prima e dopo l’ultima riforma della Politica agricola comune (Riforma Fischler). Negli Stati Uniti e in Brasile i prezzi agricoli e quelli dell’energia (petrolio ed etanolo) condividono il medesimo trend di lungo periodo, con l’influenza del prezzo del petrolio che è andata crescendo negli ultimi anni. Ciò implica che i decisori politici dovranno, in futuro, prestare grande attenzione agli effetti che le politiche energetiche hanno sui mercati agricoli e viceversa. In Europa non è stato possibile dimostrare la presenza di una relazione diretta tra prezzi agricoli e prezzo del petrolio, tuttavia è possibile affermare che i mercati agricoli europei subiscano le conseguenze delle politiche a favore dei biocarburanti di altri paesi, in particolare degli Stati Uniti, in maniera indiretta, cioè tramite l’effetto di tali politiche sui prezzi internazionali. Ciò che merge da questo lavoro è che i biocarburanti, nella situazione economica, politica e demografica attuale, sono, per molti aspetti, non sostenibili. Gli effetti collaterali della produzione di biofuel sono numerosi e spesso difficili da quantificare. Le soluzioni proposte dalla letteratura sono spesso utopiche o, seppur corrette dal punto di vista teorico, molto difficili da applicare. L’espansione del settore dei biocarburanti sta avendo effetti negativi sulla produzione e sui prezzi delle materie prime agricole, sulla biodiversità e sul benessere sociale, sia all’interno dei principali paesi produttori che all’esterno di essi. Il “peccato originale” è stato la mancanza di coordinazione iniziale tra le varie politiche, progettate e messe in pratica in maniera unilaterale dai vari paesi; una cosa alla quale, oggi, è molto difficile porre rimedio. I governi dovrebbero, come è stato recentemente raccomandato dalle Nazioni Unite, considerare la possibilità di modificare in maniera sostanziale i propri programmi di sviluppo del settore dei biocarburanti a causa soprattutto delle pesanti conseguenze che hanno sulla sicurezza alimentare nei paesi a basso reddito. Per questa ragione l’utilizzo dei biocarburanti come misura volta a stimolare lo sviluppo nei paesi poveri dovrebbe essere evitata. È altamente improbabile che i poveri nelle zone rurali traggano alcun beneficio dallo sviluppo del settore dei biocarburanti nei loro paesi poiché gran parte della terra è posseduta da grandi compagnie multinazionali o, in alcuni casi, da paesi terzi (land grabbing). Lo sviluppo del settore dei biocarburanti nei paesi in via di sviluppo contribuirebbe, dall’interno, a mantenere elevati i prezzi dei generi alimentari anche dove finora tale effetto, a causa del basso livello di trasmissione dei prezzi agricoli mondiali, è stato marginale. L’aumento dell’inflazione alimentare causato dalla produzione di biocarburanti avrebbe effetti negativi sia sui poveri delle aree urbane che sue quelli delle aree rurali poiché in molti casi i piccoli coltivatori, nei paesi in via di sviluppo, sono compratori netti di generi alimentari. Molti studi, anche da parte di organizzazioni governative internazionali, mettono in risalto il fatto che la produzione di biocarburanti possa diventare sostenibile solo attraverso lo sviluppo delle cosiddette tecnologie di seconda o terza generazione (cioè quelle che permettono l’uso di materia prima non-food per la produzione di biocarburanti) e l’uso di terreni degradati e marginali per la coltivazione delle materie prime. Tuttavia, tutto ciò è di difficile realizzazione. Attualmente i biocarburanti di seconda o terza generazione sono ancora in fase di sviluppo e la loro produzione non crescerà in maniera sostanziale se non tramite forti investimenti da parte dei vari governi e, in determinate circostanze, di investitori privati. Va ricordato che non sono i governi quelli che decidono se la coltivazione di materia prima per la produzione di biocarburanti in aree degradate o marginali sia economicamente conveniente: sono infatti i coltivatori quelli che prendono le decisioni ed essi non lo faranno se non vi troveranno alcun beneficio economico. L’attuale livello, molto elevato, dei prezzi agricoli pone seri dubbi sul fatto che i coltivatori siano disposti a passare dalla produzione di materie prime food a quelle non-food in assenza di forti incentivi pubblici in tal senso. Tuttavia, un aumento del livello di supporto all’agricoltura, anche solo nel caso delle colture energetiche, difficilmente avverrà nel breve termine, a causa soprattutto della crisi economica, che ha ristretto i budget di spesa di molti paesi, e le pressioni, in sede WTO, per una riduzione del livello di protezione dei mercati. Nel caso in cui si decida di mantenere gli aiuti di stato al settore dei biocarburanti, sarà necessario progettare e sviluppare nuove politiche, questa volta a livello sovranazionale, cosa che implicherebbe un elevato livello di coordinazione e di flessibilità tra i vari paesi, oltre che difficile da raggiungere nel breve o medio termine. Un caso emblematico, in tal senso, è rappresentato dalle metodologie di conteggio delle emissioni di gas serra che sono attualmente basate sull’analisi del ciclo di vita e che sono molto spesso incomplete (limitate, ad esempio, a determinati paesi o regioni) o ancora non in grado di considerare il ruolo di tutti i fattori (es. cambiamenti indiretti d’uso del suolo). La ricerca, negli anni a venire, dovrà focalizzarsi su due argomenti principali. Da una parte, le tecniche di produzione dei biocarburanti di seconda e terza generazione dovranno essere raffinate, rese economicamente convenienti e sostenibili dal punto di vista sociale e ambientale. Possibilmente ciò dovrà avvenire di pari passo con la progressiva riduzione del livello di supporto ai biocarburanti di prima generazione. Dall’altra parte, sarà necessario definire meglio le metodologie di quantificazione dell’impatto dei biocarburanti in termini ambientali, economici e sociali, in modo da determinare con certezza la loro sostenibilità e da consentire lo sviluppo di politiche più appropriate. In particolare, la messa a punto di metodologie affidabili per la valutazione dell’impatto dei vari biocarburanti è molto importante poiché, in futuro, le sovvenzioni potrebbero essere calcolate in maniera tale da premiare la produzione di quei biocarburanti in grado di fornire esternalità positive per l’ambiente e il benessere sociale.

A b st r a c t This study deals with ideas and activities of the French politician Michel Debré in the area of the European integration. Analyzing the evolution of Debre's stance in a period of almost twenty years (1943-1962), the study aims to show that Debré was neither a pure "French nationalist" following obediently the wishes of General de Gaulle, neither a man who denied his own projects after a sudden U-turn in his opinion. We rather argue that Debré had remained true to three basic axes of his action since the Second World War: fidelity to General de Gaulle, readiness to reform French institutions together with a wish to assure to his country a privileged position in the system of international relations and, finally, vision of a huge community of countries bordering the Atlantic Ocean. In the late 1940's, Debré joined the European Movement and became one of the leading figures of its French branch. Promoting a union of European states, Debré was ready to accept a concession of some national prerogatives to "supra political" institutions but only if there had been a supreme European political authority composed of democratically elected representatives. On this basis he refused the Jean Monneťs sectoral method of integration and its accomplishments from the ECSC to the Treaties of Rome....