Zeitschriftenartikel zum Thema „1893-1947“

Протоиерей (впоследствии - протопресвитер) Николай Афанасьев (1893-1966) преподавал церковное право в Свято¬Сергиевском Православном Богословском Институте в Париже в 1932-1940 и в 1947-1966 гг. Впервые публикуемый в настоящем выпуске «Праксиса» его лекционный курс по брачному праву Церкви, вероятно, относится ко второму периоду его преподавательской деятельности в Париже. К преподаванию церковного права о. Николай возвращается после принятия священного сана в 1940 году, вынужденного пребывания в Тунисе в военное время и защиты докторской диссертации «Церковь Духа Святого» в 1950 году. Текст лекций публикуется по авторизованной машинописной копии, хранящейся в архиве о. Николая Афанасьева в Православном богословском институте в Париже. Archpriest Nikolai Afanasiev (1893-1966) taught church law at the St. Sergei Orthodox Theological Institute in Paris in 1932-1940 and 1947-1966. The text of the lectures is published on the basis of an authorized typewritten copy stored in the archive of Fr. Nicholas Athaniev at the St Sergius Orthodox Theological Institute in Paris.

Karl Mannheim (1893-1947), más conocido por su Sociología del Conocimiento, expulsado de Alemania en 1933 y refugiado en Inglaterra, centra su interés teórico en un análisis de los factores sociales que han conducido al fracaso de las democracias liberales, al auge de los fascismos y, finalmente, la Segunda Gran Guerra. De ahí inferirá la necesidad de una reorganización social que, con la ayuda de las ciencias y técnicas sociales, restablezca las condiciones para un consenso básico y un proyecto de convivencia en libertad. Tal es la meta de una planificación racional de los aspectos relevantes de la vida pública, planificación democrática o "planificación para la libertad". La última etapa de este pensador tendrá un interés práctico, en respuesta a los acontecimientos traumáticos que le toca vivir

ZusammenfassungDas Leben des Hans Fallada (1893–1947), mit bürgerlichem Namen Rudolf Ditzen, ist gekennzeichnet durch Aufenthalte in psychiatrischen Kliniken, Heilstätten für Nerven- und Gemütskranke sowie Gefängnissen. Seine schriftstellerische Kreativität – mehr als 30 Bücher schrieb er – war von Abhängigkeit zu Nikotin, Morphium, Alkohol und Medikamenten begleitet. Ärztliche Interventionen waren vielfach, aber ohne nachhaltigen therapeutischen Erfolg. Bislang unbekannt ist die Tatsache, dass sich 1946 auch der Neoanalytiker Harald Schultz-Hencke und Annemarie Dührssen um Falladas Gesundheitszustand bemühten.

Duas espécies de Eustala Simon, 1895 são descritas do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil: Eustala belissima sp. nov. e Eustala crista sp. nov., representadas por ambos os sexos. A fêmea de E. itapocuensis Strand, 1916 e os machos de E. nasuta Mello-Leitão, 1939, E. perfida Mello-Leitão, 1947 e E. secta Mello-Leitão, 1945, são descritos pela primeira vez. Novas ocorrências do Brasil são listadas para Eustala illicita (O. P.-Cambridge, 1889) e E. sagana (Keyserling, 1893).

This paper attempts to analyse the myths about the Durand Line Agreement between the British India and Afghanistan in 1893. Nineteenth century is considered as the century of imperialism. The two great powers i.e Great Britain and Russia were in competition to fulfill their imperialistic designs. Great Britain succeeded in taking full control of India and Russia annexed Khiva, Bokhara and Khokand currently Central Asian republics until 1870. Afghanistan was the only state left between the two giants. The British India tested its muscles in Afghanistan in 1839 and 1878 but failed to consolidate. The fear of Russian advancement during the Great Game compelled the British India to declare Afghanistan a buffer state and demarcate its boundaries. They started working on it immediately after the second Anglo-Afghan war in 1885. Resultantly the western boundaries of India were secured through the famous Durand Line Agreement in 1893 between Afghanistan and British India. After the independence of Pakistan in 1947 a lot of myths emerged related to this agreement. This paper focuses on those myths and its reality in order to clarify the misunderstanding related to this much debated agreement.

A taxonomic revision of exclusively African genera of Prodidominae (Gnaphosidae), with the exception of Theuma, is provided. Austrodomus Lawrence, 1947 is revised. The type species A. zuluensis Lawrence, 1947 is redescribed, the male of A. scaber (Purcell, 1904) is described for the first time, and one new species, A. gamsberg sp. nov. (♂), is described from Namibia. Katumbea Cooke, 1964 is considered a junior synonym of Austrodomus and A. oxoniensis (Cooke, 1964) comb. nov. from Tanzania is redescribed. Eleleis Simon, 1893 is revised. The type species, E. crinita Simon, 1893, is redescribed and eight new species are described: E. limpopo sp. nov. (♂♀) from South Africa and Zambia, E. okavango sp. nov. (♂♀) from Botswana and Namibia, E. etosha sp. nov. (♂♀), E. himba sp. nov. (♂) and E. luderitz sp. nov. (♀) from Namibia, E. leleupi sp. nov. (♂) and E. haddadi sp. nov. (♀) from South Africa, and E. solitaria sp. nov. (♀) from Cape Verde. Purcelliana Cooke, 1964 is revised. The type species, P. problematica Cooke, 1964, is redescribed and three new species are described: P. kamaseb sp. nov. (♂♀) and P. khabus sp. nov. (♂♀) from Namibia, and P. cederbergensis sp. nov. (♂) from South Africa. Plutonodomus Cooke, 1964 is redescribed based solely on the type species, P. kungwensis Cooke, 1964. In addition, three new genera are described: Kikongo gen. nov., to include K. ruwenzori sp. nov. (♂♀) and K. buta sp. nov. (♂♀) from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (D.R. Congo), and K. rutshuru sp. nov. (♂♀) from D.R. Congo and Kenya; Kituba gen. nov., to include K. mayombensis sp. nov. (♂♀) and K. langalanga sp. nov. (♀) from D.R. Congo; and Yoruba gen. nov., to include Y. ibadanus sp. nov. (♂♀) from Nigeria and Y. toubensis sp. nov. (♂♀) from Ivory Coast. Distribution maps are provided for the species discussed in this study and an identification key is provided for all twelve genera of Prodidominae recorded in Africa.

The article is devoted to the design activity of the famous Belgian architect Victor Horta (1861–1947), one of the founders of the European art Nouveau (Art Nuoveau). The interest in this unique architect is due to the fact that he lived a very long and creative life, and left a huge creative heritage. In 1967, his best Art Nouveau works received a well-deserved recognition and became the property of world culture. The paper presents the analysis of architectural, compositional and structural features of a number of buildings erected in Brussels. Four of them are included in the list of UNESCO world heritage sites in 2000. Including the Tassel House (1892–1893), The Hôtel Solvay (1894–1900), The Hôtel van Eetvelde (1895–1897) and The Horta Museum (1898–1900). Some aspects of his scientific, pedagogical and sociopolitical activities are also considered.

This paper addresses the problem of human labor, relevant topic in the broad fi eld of philosophical refl ection, particularly in the Philosophical Anthropology and Social Philosophy, besides its relevance in the fi eld of ethics. We will analyze the theme from the thought of Alceu Amoroso Lima (1893-1983), the Tristan de Athayde. Considering human labor, from a Brazilian thinker, look at this question that is universal, from a more individualized approach. In the vast work of Alceu Amoroso Lima found a book where this refl ection is especially presented in a clear and unique. This is “The Problem of Labor”, published in 1947. In this essay, besides defi ning the work, the author presents what it means to be a social ideal, integrating manual labor, intellectual and spiritual. Refl ect on the consequences of this concept in man and society.

http://dx.doi.org/10.5007/1984-9222.2016v8n15p87O artigo visa considerar a trajetória de Victor Gollancz (1893-1967), um dos mais importantes editores e ativistas humanitários britânicos do século XX. Como livreiro, Gollancz fundou sua própria editora em 1927, a Victor Gollancz Ltd., uma das mais bem sucedidas companhias britânicas do século XX. Em 1935, seria cofundador do Left Book Club em Londres, considerado o primeiro clube do livro da era moderna na Grã-Bretanha, cujos trabalhos duraram até 1947 e inspirou a criação de mais de 1500 seções locais por toda a Inglaterra e mais de 15 outras seções internacionais com filiais em todos os continentes. Como militante humanitário, Gollancz foi responsável por inúmeras campanhas de apoio aos refugiados da Guerra Civil espanhola na Inglaterra e, durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial, das vítimas civis na Alemanha, além de campanhas pela melhoria das condições das prisões na Grã-Bretanha.

Straipsnyje aptariami sociologo Karlo Mannheimo (1893–1947) gyvenimo ir kūrybos svarbiausi bruožai. Teigiama, kad svarbiausias jo įnašas į XX a. socialinę mintį yra žinojimo sociologija. Kaip istorizmo šalininkas, K. Mannheimas teigė, kad kiekviena visuomenė ir epocha turi savitą kultūrą, o kiekvienas žmogaus kūrinys yra tos kultūros dalis. Socialinių mokslų objektas negali būti izoliuotas nuo tam tikro apibrėžto konteksto, kuriame pripažintos įvairios vertybės, veikia kolektyviniai nesąmoningi valios impulsai ir pan. Žinojimas iš esmės visada yra kolektyvinis: jis atsiranda bendrame grupės gyvenimo procese, kuriame kiekvienas individas įgyja savo žinojimą per bendrą likimą, veiklą ir bendrą sunkumų įveikimą. Egzistuoja tokie mąstymo tipai, kurių negalima adekvačiai suprasti, neišsiaiškinus jų socialinių šaknų. Mąstymas yra egzistenciškai sąlygotas, ir tik empiriniai tyrimai gali atskleisti koreliaciją tarp gyvenimo situacijos ir mąstymo proceso. Žinojimo sociologija įteisino vadinamojo atsiribojimo metodologinę procedūrą įvairiems mąstymo stiliams nagrinėti. Šioje sociologijoje idėjų turinį siekiama susieti su jo atsiradimą sąlygojusia socialine struktūra.

Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893), thanks to his insight as a clinician can be said to be one of the precursors of scientific psychology. Charcot’s 30 years of activity at La Salpêtrière hospital display an intellectual trajectory that decisively changed the idea of human psychology by favouring the emergence of two concepts: the subconscious and the unconscious. It was his collaboration with Pierre Janet (1859–1947), a philosopher turned physician, that led to this evolution, relying on the search for hysteria’s aetiology, using hypnosis as a method of exploration. Focusing on clinical psychology that was experimental and observational, Janet built a theory of psychic automatism, “the involuntary exercise of memory and intelligence” leading to “independence of the faculties, freed from personal power.” From all that came the idea of the subconscious, a functioning as a passive mental mechanism, resulting from a more or less temporary dissociation of previously associated mental content.

In this paper we discuss the professional activity of Leopoldo Nachbin (1922-1993) in the period in which he worked at National Faculty of Philosophy of the University of Brazil (FNFi/UB, in Portuguese) until his retirement by Institute of Mathematics of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (IM/UFRJ, in Portuguese). We identify the influence played by some mathematicians such as G. Mammana (1893-1980), L. Schwartz (1915-2002), A. Monteiro (1907-1980), A. Weil (1906-1998), J. Dieudonné (1906-1992), M. Stone (1903-1989), and A. A. Albert (1905-1972) in the professional training of L. Nachbin. We also address the serious difficulties he encountered in the Mathematics Department of FNFi when he was entered in the competition, opened in 1950, for the post of full Professor (Professor Catedrático) of Mathematics and Superior Analysis of FNFi. We emphasize in the paper, that the period from 1947 to the 1960s marks the most creative and productive phase in terms of scientific research in the academic life of L. Nachbin.

The history of the Muslim world confirms the universality of the mutual interaction of existence and consciousness. Since the nineteenth century, the main challenges of the time have required from the umma mobilization and joint unification, initially in the name of liberation from colonialism and later — from the negative effects of globalization. Hence the natural and justifiable emergence of what can be called political Islam. The article is devoted to Muslim thinkers who had the greatest influence on public consciousness in India before and after its partition (1947) into India and Pakistan. The central figure in the Muslim enlightenment movement of India was Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817–1898). No one has fully presented the philosophical foundations of reformation than the eminent poet-philosopher Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938) in his “The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam”. Diametrically opposite to reformation stand was taken by Abul Ala Maududi (1903–1979), the founder and the leader of Jamaat-i-Islami, justified Muslim "fundamentalism". The intercultural philosophical position was implemented by Muhammad Sharif (1893–1965), a recognized authority among Muslim philosophers of India and Pakistan.

AbstractThroughout his career the geographer, and first reader in the ‘new’ geography at the University of Oxford, Halford Mackinder (1861–1947) described his discipline as a branch of physics. This essay explores this feature of Mackinder's thought and presents the connections between him and the Royal Institution professor of natural philosophy John Tyndall (1820–1893). My reframing of Mackinder's geography demonstrates that the academic professionalization of geography owed as much to the methods and instruments of popular natural philosophy and physics as it did to theories of Darwinian natural selection. In tracing the parallels between Tyndall and Mackinder, and their shared emphasis upon the technology of the magic lantern and the imagination as tools of scientific investigation and education, the article elucidates their common pedagogical practices. Mackinder's disciplinary vision was expressed in practices of visualization, and in metaphors inspired by physics, to audiences of geographers and geography teachers in the early twentieth century. Together, these features of Mackinder's geography demonstrate his role as a popularizer of science and extend the temporal and spatial resonance of Tyndall's natural philosophy.

Freshwater prawns do not only have economic importance in hydroponics and fisheries for food purposes, but also recently receive increasing attention in aquarium trade (Karge & Klotz 2007). An examination of some prawns imported as ‘ornamental shrimps’ from Cooch Behar, East Bengal, India to Europe revealed that they belong to a hitherto undescribed species of the genus Macrobrachium and are described here in detail. The new species belong to the group of specimen with large eggs, indicating abbreviated or direct larval development in freshwater, occurring in inland river systems (Tiwari 1955b). Morphological M. agwi nov.sp. is most similar to M. kempi (Tiwari, 1947) first described from Chittagong, Bangladesh, M. altifrons altifrons (Henderson, 1893) from Northern India and Nepal and M. hendersoni (De Man, 1906) known from hill streams in East India and Myanmar. Though the proposed new species can be distinguished from M. kempi by lacking a dense fur of setae on the lower margin of the propodus of male large cheliped, from M. altifrons by the shape and armature of second chelae and from M. hendersoni by lacking longitudinal groves covered with fine hairs on fingers of second chelipeds.

Changes in the Visual Form of Aaro Hellaakoski’s Poem ”Vieras” (”The Stranger”) The present article shows how genetic criticism (critique génétique) can enrich our understanding and interpretation of visual poetry by examining the manuscript, proofs and published versions of the poem ”Vieras” (” e Stranger”) from the typographically experimental collection Jää- peili (”Ice Mirror”, 1928) by the Finnish poet Aaro Hellaakoski (1893–1952). e collection is regarded as a forerunner of Finnish modernism, and particularly its experimental typography got successors only as late as in the 1960s. Besides omitting punctuation and upper case letters, Hellaakoski experiments with the auditory and visual dimensions of ”Vieras” by dividing metrical stanzas and line units into typographically separate groups. In his later selected poems Valitut runot (”Selected poems”, 1940) and Runot (” e Poems”, 1947), Hellaakoski stripped ”Vieras” from these experimental features. e examination of the manuscripts and proofs of ”Vieras” shows that Hellaakoski’s later revisions actually revert the poem to a form closer to its early, visually more traditional, manuscript versions. e article suggests, that it was probably the integrity of Jääpeili as a modernist collection that motivated Hellaakoski into the experimental typography and ortography of ”Vieras”. ese features became dispensable when the poem was released from the context of the collection.

The relationship between the generaCleopomiarusandMiarusof Mecinini (Curculionidae, Curculioninae) was tested on the basis of morphological characters from the immature stages. The mature larvae of fiveCleopomiarusspecies (C.distinctus(Boheman, 1845),C.graminis(Gyllenhal, 1813),C.longirostris(Gyllenhal, 1838),C.medius(Desbrochers des Loges, 1893), andC.meridionalis(H. Brisout de Barneville, 1863)), threeMiarusspecies (M.abnormisSolari, 1947,M.ajugae(Herbst, 1795), andM.campanulae(Linnaeus, 1767)), and the pupae of fourCleopomiarusspecies (C.distinctus,C.graminis,C.longirostris, andC.medius) and twoMiarusspecies (M.abnormisandM.ajugae) are described in detail for the first time. To confirm the taxonomic identification of some larvae, DNA COI barcode was obtained and compared with those of adults. The immature stages of the species herein studied were compared with those known from other genera in tribe Mecinini. It is suggested thatMiarusandCleopomiarusmay be monophyletic based on several shared distinctive characters. Larvae ofMiarushave a characteristic maxillary mala with six finger-likedmsof two sizes (one or twodmsvery long and the rest of medium length), this feature being apparently unique among weevils. Other genus-specific character states are observed in the pupae, such as the length of setae on the head, rostrum and pronotum, including the number ofrson the rostrum,dson pronotum, and finally the shape of the urogomphi. A key to the described larvae and pupae were respectively presented. New biological and distributional data on some species are reported.

The genus Epicadinus Simon, 1895 can easily be distinguished from the other Neotropical Stephanopines by their abundant and robust setiferous tubercles, topped by elongated macrosetae, which cover most of the tegument. Additionally, the genus can be recognized by a pair of conical ocular mounds above the ALE, the anterior eye row very recurved, posterior one slightly procurved; carapace flattened and without tubercles, and opisthosoma with three conical projections (“tubercles”) of variable size and shape. This work is a taxonomic review of the 12 valid species of Epicadinus as listed in version 19 of the World Spider Catalogue (2018), whose hitherto known distribution included few records from Brazil, French Guiana, Bolivia and Peru, and only one from Mexico. Four valid species are recognized: Epicadinus biocellatus Mello-Leitão, 1929; E. trispinosus (Taczanowski, 1872) [with two junior synonyms E. trifidus (Pickard-Cambridge, 1893) syn. nov. and E. cornutus (Taczanowski, 1872) syn. nov.]; E. spinipes (Blackwall, 1862) [with two junior synonyms E. albimaculatus Mello-Leitão, 1929 syn. nov. and E. gavensis Soares, 1946 syn. nov]; and E. villosus [with two junior synonyms E. helenae Piza, 1936 syn. nov. and E. marmoratus Mello-Leitão, 1947 syn. nov.]. Epicadinus polyophthalmus Mello-Leitão, 1929 and Epicadinus tuberculatus Petrunkevitch, 1910 are transferred to Epicadus. Epicadus polyophthalmus (Mello-Leitão, 1929) comb. nov. is considered a nomen dubium. Epicadus tuberculatus (Petrunkevitch, 1910) comb. nov. is a senior synonym of Epicadus pustulosus (Mello-Leitão, 1929) syn. nov.

The Holarctic species of Cleopomiarus Pierce, 1919 (Curculionidae, Curculioninae, Mecinini) are revised. Two North American and 19 Palaearctic species are recognized as valid. Three of the latter are new to science: C. afghanus sp. nov. (Afghanistan), C. caucasicus sp. nov. (Armenia), and C. reitteri sp. nov. (Algeria, Morocco). Cleopomiarus ruscinonensis (Roudier & Tempère, 1966), described as subspecies of C. longirostris Gyllenhal, 1838, is raised to species (stat. nov.). The following new synonymies are proposed: Cleopomiarus distinctus (Boheman, 1845) (= Miarus dictamnophilus Zherichin, 1996 syn. nov.); Cleopomiarus flavoscutellatus (Morimoto, 1959) (= Miarus tapirus Korotyaev, 1999 syn. nov.); Cleopomiarus graminis (Gyllenhal, 1813) (= Miarus dulcinasutus Kangas, 1976 syn. nov.; = Miarus jakowlewi Faust, 1895 syn. nov.; = Miarus scutellaris subsp. mequignoni Hoffmann, 1939 syn. nov.). Miarus hispidulus Reitter, 1907 and M. hispidus Bovie, 1909 are again placed in synonymy with Cleopomiarus hispidulus (LeConte, 1876). The lectotypes of the following taxa are designated: Cionus micros Germar, 1824, Cionus plantarum Germar, 1824, Gymnetron distinctus Boheman, 1845, Gymnetron longirostris Gyllenhal, 1838, Miaromimus schatzmayri Solari, 1947, Miarus degorsi Abeille de Perrin, 1906, Miarus fuscopubens Reitter, 1907, Miarus graminis var. subfulvus Reitter, 1907, Miarus graminis var. subuniseriatus Reitter, 1907, Miarus hispidulus Reitter, 1907, Miarus jakowlewi Faust, 1895, Miarus longirostris ssp. mandschuricus Voss, 1952, Miarus medius Desbrochers des Loges, 1893, Miarus vestitus Roelofs, 1875. A key to the species, diagnoses of species groups, descriptions or redescriptions, notes on type specimens, synonymies, comparative notes, distribution, bionomics when available, phylogenenetic observations, and drawings of body, rostra, terminalia and other useful characters for taxonomy are provided.

A checklist of the Papilionidae of Yunnan is presented, with nomenclatural and taxonomic changes made. In the nomenclatural section, the junior homonym Papilio bootes nigricans Rothschild, 1895 is replaced by Papilio bootes nigricauda Lamas & Cotton nom. nov., Chilasa (Cadugoides) epycides muhabbet Koçak, 2005 is synonymised with Papilio epycides camilla Rousseau-Decelle, 1947 syn. nov., Graphium cloanthus nyghmat Koçak & Kemal, 2000 is placed as a junior objective synonym syn. nov. of Graphium cloanthus clymenus (Leech, 1893), and Papilio astorion Westwood, 1842 is shown to have priority over Papilio varuna White, 1842, thus the valid species name is Atrophaneura astorion (Westwood, 1842) comb. nov. In the main checklist, five new subspecies are described: Parnassius cephalus haba Hu & Cotton ssp. nov., Lamproptera curius hsinningae Hu, Zhang & Cotton ssp. nov., Lamproptera curius yangtzeanus Hu & Cotton ssp. nov., Graphium macareus vadimi Cotton & Hu ssp. nov., and Papilio krishna benyongi Hu & Cotton ssp. nov. The First Reviser Principle under the ICZN Code is invoked to solve four taxonomic problems, and 18 names are synonymised with explanations, notably Papilio machaon venchuanus Moonen, 1984 syn. nov., which is synonymised with Papilio machaon schantungensis Eller, 1936. Byasa genestieri (Oberthür, 1918) stat. nov. is separated from Byasa latreillei (Donovan, 1826), and Papilio everesti Riley, 1927 stat. nov. and P. verityi Fruhstorfer, 1907 stat. nov. are separated from Papilio machaon Linnaeus, 1758 as species. Taxa that require further confirmation of their presence in Yunnan and those that do not occur in Yunnan are enumerated.

The spider genus Ariadna Audouin, 1826 currently comprises 102 of 127 described species of Segestriidae. Its distribution comprises all continents (except Antarctica), but it is mostly found on the tropical and subtropical regions. We present a comprehensive taxonomic revision of Ariadna in the American continent, including 2,519 specimens (i.e., type and non-type) from 30 arachnological collections. We present 31 nominal species, among which eight species are new to the science: Ariadna reginae n. sp. from Central America; Ariadna aurea n. sp., Ariadna caparao n. sp., Ariadna gaucha n. sp., Ariadna ipojuca n. sp., Ariadna lemosi n. sp. and Ariadna ubajara n. sp. from Brazil; and Ariadna lalen n. sp. from Chile. Nine species are proposed as junior synonyms: A. pragmatica Chamberlin, 1924 and A. scholastica Chamberlin, 1924 with A. bicolor (Hentz, 1842), A. gracilis Vellard, 1924 and A. conspersa Mello-Leitão, 1941 with A. obscura (Blackwall, 1858), A. murphyi (Chamberlin, 1920) with A. tarsalis Banks, 1902, A. pusilla (Nicolet, 1849) and A. ashantica Strand, 1916 with A. maxima (Nicolet, 1849), A. dubia Mello-Leitão, 1917 with A. boliviana Simon, 1907, and A. spinifera Mello-Leitão, 1947 with A. mollis (Holmberg, 1876). Ariadna comata O. P.-Cambridge, 1898 is revalidated. Two species became nomina dubia: Ariadna solitaria Simon, 1892 and A. tubicola Simon, 1893. The allotype of A. crassipalpa described by Camargo (1950) and the paratype of A. levii described by Grismado (2008), were identified as A. mollis and A. maxima, respectively and have been considered as misidentifications. The male of A. cephalotes and A. comata, and the female of A. calilegua are described for the first time.

An annotated check-list of the aquatic and semi-aquatic bugs of the infraorders Enicocephalomorpha, Dipsocoromorpha, Nepomorpha, Gerromorpha, and Leptopodomorpha of Turkey and its geographical parts (Turkish Thrace [i.e., European Turkey] and Anatolia [i.e., the Asian Turkey]) is presented. The nomenclatoric history of Alpagut Kıyak, 1995 (= Harpago Linnavuori, 1951, = Raunocoris Baena & Alonso-Zarazaga, 2009) is reviewed, its gender is fixed, and two new combinations are proposed: Alpagut maroccanus (Wagner, 1960) comb. nov., and Alpagut medius (Rey, 1888) comb. nov. The list is based on a survey of all published records as well as on examination of collection material, including recent material collected in the poorly explored Turkish Thrace. The following numbers of species are accepted as occurring in Turkey: Enicocephalomorpha—1 species (Asian Turkey only), Dipsocoromorpha—2 species (Asian Turkey only), Nepomorpha—49 species (29 in European and 47 in Asian Turkey), Gerromorpha—27 species (10 in European and 25 in Asian Turkey), and Leptopodomorpha—21 species (6 in European and 20 in Asian Turkey). Forty species are known from both European and Asian Turkey, whereas 5 are recorded only from European Turkey and 55 only from Asian Turkey. Eight species and subspecies, Micronecta scholtzi (Fieber, 1860), Hesperocorixa sahlbergi (Fieber, 1848), Sigara iranica Lindberg, 1964, Hebrus ruficeps Thomson, 1871, Velia affinis filippii Tamanini, 1947, Velia rhadamantha rhadamantha Hoberlandt, 1941, Gerris kabaishanus Linnavuori, 1998, and Saldula pilosella pilosella (Thomson, 1871), are reported from Turkey for the first time; and four species, Sigara scripta (Rambur, 1840), Corixa punctata (Illiger, 1807), C. panzeri (Fieber, 1848), and Gerris argentatus Schummel, 1832, are new records for Turkish Thrace. First exact localities of several other species are provided as well. Three species, Sigara kervillei (Poisson, 1927), Microvelia hozari Hoberlandt, 1952, and Velia mariae Tamanini, 1971, seem to be endemic to Anatolia; 22 species occur only in Turkey and the adjacent regions (Balkan Peninsula, Cyprus, Near East, Iran, and Transcaucasia). The 75 remaining species have a wider distribution. Occurrences of 10 species, previously recorded from Turkey, need further confirmation. Finally, 19 species-group taxa are excluded from Turkish fauna as they are based on proven or suspected misidentifications or taxonomic confusion: Micronecta minutissima (Linnaeus, 1758), Cymatia bonsdorffii (C. R. Sahlberg, 1819), Arctocorisa carinata carinata (C. R. Sahlberg, 1819), Callicorixa praeusta praeusta (Fieber, 1848), Hesperocorixa castanea (Thomson, 1869), Hesperocorixa occulta (Lundblad, 1929), Sigara hoggarica Poisson, 1929, Sigara scotti (Douglas & Scott, 1868), Heleocoris minusculus (Walker, 1870), Anisops debilis canariensis Noualhier, 1893, Velia caprai caprai Tamanini, 1947, Aquarius najas (De Geer, 1773), Gerris costae costae (Herrich-Schaeffer, 1850), G. gibbifer Schummel, 1832, G. lateralis Schummel, 1832, Saldula fucicola (Sahlberg, 1870), S. pilosella hirsuta (Reuter, 1888), Salda morio Zetterstedt, 1838, and S. muelleri (Gmelin, 1790). In addition, first records of Aquarius ventralis (Fieber, 1860) from Syria, and Saldula melanoscela (Fieber, 1859) and Leptopus marmoratus (Goeze, 1778) from Lebanon, are provided. The previously published records of Rhagovelia nigricans nigricans (Burmeister, 1835) from Cyprus and Israel (Hoberlandt 1952b) belong to R. infernalis africana Lundblad, 1936.

Nach Revision der Typen und weiteren Materials der Arten der Gattung Ilyobates Kraatz werden sechs valide Arten erkannt: I. nigricollis (Paykull), I. bennetti Donisthorpe, I. propinquus (Aubé), I. mech (Baudi), I. merkli Eppelsheim und I. mirabilis sp. n. Die folgenden Taxa werden neu synonymisiert bzw. als Synonyme bestätigt: I. nigricollis (Paykull) = I. haroldi Ihssen, = I. nigricollis deubeli Bernhauer, syn. n., = I. hoelzeli Scheerpeltz, syn. n.; I. bennetti Donisthorpe = I. subopacus Palm; I. propinquus (Aubé) = I. rufus Kraatz; I. mech (Baudi) = I. hustachei Méquignon, syn. n., = I. pseudomech Lohse, syn. n., = Calodera sulcicollis Aubé; Pyroglossa Bernhauer = Gennadota Casey, syn. n. Für I. haroldi Ihssen, I. nigricollis deubeli Bernhauer, I. subopacus Palm, Calodera sulcicollis Aubé und I. rufus Kraatz werden Lectotypen designiert. Callicerus puberulus Casey and Gennadota canadensis Casey, zwei bisher der Gattung Ilyobates zugeordnete Arten aus Nordamerika, werden in die Gattung Pyroglossa Bernhauer transferiert. Die Gattungs- und Artdiagnosen werden durch eine Bestimmungstabelle sowie durch Abbildungen der Mundteile, der primären und sekundären Geschlechtsmerkmale und weiterer Differentialmerkmale ergänzt. Nach den vorliegenden biogeographischen Daten sind alle Ilyobates-Arten pontomediterrane Faunenelemente. Die intraspezifische morphologische Variabilität der Arten ist, wie eine morphometrische Auswertung ergab, enorm. Freilanduntersuchungen sowie Sammlungsdaten zeigen, daß die Ilyobates-Arten monovoltin sind und sich im Frühjahr und Sommer fortpflanzen; die Imagines überwintern offenbar in einem unterirdischen, nicht näher bekannten Habitat. Die Bionomie sowie mögliche Erklärungen für die erhebliche intraspezifische Variabilität werden diskutiert.StichwörterColeoptera, Staphylinidae, Aleocharinae, Oxypodini, Ilyobates, Pyroglossa, Gennadota, Palaearctic region, Europe, taxonomy, biogeography, ecology, intraspecific variation, life history, new species, new synonymy, new combination, lectotype designation.Nomenklatorische Handlungenharoldi Ihssen, 1934 (Ilyobates), Lectotype now a synonym of Ilyobates nigricollis (Paykull, 1800)hölzeli Scheerpeltz, 1947 (Ilyobates), syn. n. of Ilyobates nigricollis (Paykull, 1800)hustachi Méquignon, 1933 (Ilyobates), syn. n. of Ilyobates mech (Baudi, 1848)mirabillis Assing, 1999 (Ilyobates), spec. n.pseudomech Lohse, 1994 (Ilyobates), syn. n. of Ilyobates mech (Baudi, 1848)rufus Kraatz, 1856 (Ilyobates), Lectotype now a synonym of Ilyobates propinquus (Aubé, 1850)subopacus Palm, 1935 (Ilyobates), Lectotype now a synonym of Ilyobates bennetti Donisthorpe, 1914deubeli Bernhauer, 1902 (Ilyobates nigricollis), syn. n. of Ilyobates nigricollis (Paykull, 1800)canadensis (Casey, 1906) (Pyroglossa), comb. n. hitherto Gennadota canadensispuberula (Casey, 1893) (Pyroglossa), comb. n. hitherto Callicerus puberulus

The small arboreal frog Guibemantis liber (Anura: Mantellidae) has served as an example for the existence of deep conspecific lineages that differ by a substantial amount in mitochondrial DNA but are similar in morphology and bioacoustics and thus are assigned to the same nominal species. During fieldwork in northern Madagascar, we identified additional such lineages and surprisingly, observed close syntopy of two of these at various sites. In-depth study based on DNA sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene from 338 specimens of G. liber sensu lato from across its range, sequences of four nuclear-encoded markers for 154‒257 of these specimens, a phylogenomic dataset obtained by the FrogCap target capture approach, and additional mitochondrial genes for representatives of most mitochondrial lineages, as well as bioacoustic and morphological comparisons, revealed concordant differentiation among several lineages of the G. liber complex. We identify nine lineages differing by 5.3‒15.5% in cytochrome b and 2.4‒10.1% in the 16S rRNA gene, and find that several of these lack or have only limited allele sharing in the nuclear-encoded genes. Based on sympatric or parapatric occurrence without genetic admixture, combined with differences in bioacoustic and morphological characters, we scientifically name three lineages from northern Madagascar as new species: G. razokysp. nov., G. razandrysp. nov., and G. fotsitendasp. nov. Of these new species, G. razokysp. nov. and G. razandrysp. nov. show widespread syntopy across northern Madagascar and differ in body size and advertisement calls. Guibemantis fotsitendasp. nov. is sister to G. razandrysp. nov., but appears to occur at lower elevations, including in close geographic proximity on the Marojejy Massif. We also detected subtle differences in advertisement calls among various other mitochondrial lineages distributed in the Northern Central East and Southern Central East of Madagascar, but the status and nomenclatural identity of these lineages require further morphological and bioacoustic study of reliably genotyped individuals, and assignment of the three available names in the complex: Rhacophorus liber Peracca, 1893, Gephyromantis albogularis Guibé, 1947, and Gephyromantis variabilis Millot and Guibé, 1951. We discuss the identity and type material of these three nomina, designate a lectotype for Gephyromantis variabilis from Itremo, and flag the collection of new material from their type localities, Andrangoloaka and Itremo, as paramount for a comprehensive revision of the G. liber complex.

In 1893, the Government of India revised the handbook for the officials who conducted its relations with the Indian States. The new edition included a chapter on titles and ceremonial because of “the great importance of these matters in Indian Political business”. Modern scholars agree that what we now call “honours” and “civic ritual” are worthy of study; and Stern's monograph on Jaipur State, and Dirks's on Pudukkottai, are only two of the many recent works that have noted the central role that titles and ceremonial played in the relationship between the British Paramount Power and the princes and chiefs of India.

By the late nineteenth century British control over Burma had been firmly established and by 1893 a comprehensive legal system for its population put in place. The guiding principle of the judicial and legislative system was that each racial or religious group had the right to its own law in matters of religion and custom. Thus, Burmese “Buddhist law” for the Burmese, “Mohammadan law” for Muslims and Hindu law for the Hindus. In addition, the customary laws of other ethnic groups were also recognized.

The parasitoidism of an adult female of Heniartes jaakkoi Wygodzinsky, 1947 (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Harpactorinae: Apiomerini) by a female of Xanthomelanodes cf. brasiliensis Townsend, 1929 (Diptera: Tachinidae: Phasiinae: Gymnosomatini), from Nova Friburgo, Brazil, is recorded. Previous observations of Phasiinae eggs on three species of Harpactorinae had been made, but without record of the parasitoid species. This is the first record of parasitoidism in Reduviidae, including both the host and the parasitoid in the Neotropical region.

Indian fighter, explorer, scout, soldier and hero: during Frederick Burnham's life he filled all of these roles. Consequently a myth grew up around him cultivated by various “real-life adventure story books” in which he featured, and his own autobiography in which he stressed the more adventurous aspects of his life. The adventurous aspects of his career are, indeed, not without significance. For example, it was Burnham who killed the Mlimo during the Ndebele War of 1897 and this action may well have had an important effect on the morale of Ndebele fighters. Nevertheless, Burnham's career as a mineral prospector, mining engineer, and business manager is as significant as his more publicized activities. In some instances the latter were, in fact, a consequence of his employment in the former.Born in the United States, Burnham was brought up in California. He received a limited formal education but in the course of his early working life in the western United States he acquired a knowledge of mining, particularly gold mining. From 1893 to 1897 he was in present-day Zimbabwe and Zambia. It was he who led the Northern Territories (BSA) Exploration Co. expedition which established for the outside world that major copper deposits existed in Central Africa.

Annexation of the Punjab by the British in 1849 brought about major modifications to the local visual culture. Expecting Indian crafts to remain frozen in time (for several reasons), the colonial administrators and art critics disapproved the changes employed by the craftsmen in their wares to cater to the new ruling class. Among the corrective measures adopted by the government to revive the ‘dying’ Indian art and craft, art schools were set up and surveys were conducted to publish illustrated monographs on individual crafts bringing once strictly guarded trade secrets out in the public. By the late nineteenth century, the ‘native craftsmen’ or mistrīs themselves emerged as authors of illustrated craft manuals carrying instructions in all three important vernaculars, Gurmukhi, Urdu and Sanskrit mixed with some English terms and designs. The most interesting among these publications are a few woodcarver’s manuals that laboriously enumerate a wide range of geometric designs for both architecture and furniture. Each shape, its construction methods and titles are given in an interesting mix of the three vernaculars. These terms were also mentioned by John Lockwood Kipling, the first Principal of the Mayo School of Industrial Art (1876-1893) in his essay on wood carving but abandoned by the time Percy Brown (1897-1909) took over. Except for some, today most of these terms and construction methods are unknown even to the traditional craftsmen of the Punjab. This paper aims to trace the history of traditional geometrical patterns going as far back as Mughal times (sixteenth to eighteenth centuries), their references in manuals published by local craftsmen during the colonial rule and the role of British art educators on social memory.

Нечаева Могила – единственный сохранившийся до наших дней скифский царский курган-гигант в Северном Причерноморье. С 1853 г. он известен российским археологам. Его высота на сегодняшний день составляет 14–15 м. За последние два века курган претерпел существенные изменения. В середине 19 ст. были отмечены просадки насыпи, затем на вершине был вырыт глубокий колодец, позднее засыпанный, и на его месте выстроена беседка. Особо трагическую роль курган сыграл в годы Великой Отечественной войны, когда он был одним из узловых опорных пунктов войск вермахта в Никопольско-Криворожской наступательной операции Красной армии в декабре 1943 г. – январе 1944 г., в ходе которой была разгромлена криворожско–никопольская группировка, пытавшаяся удержать любой ценой Никопольский марганцевый и Криворожский железорудный бассейны. В боях за Нечаеву Могилу полегло более полутора тысяч советских воинов. Сам курган, в особенности его вершина, был изрыт блиндажами и ходами сообщений, а также сотнями воронок от снарядов. После войны вершина кургана была полностью перепланирована и на ней был установлен триангуляционный пункт высшей категории. Все факты указывают на то, что ранее курган входил в число крупнейших скифских царских курганов Северного Причерноморья и имел высоту не менее 20 м. Библиографические ссылки Артамонов М.И. Из истории методики археологических раскопок // ПИДО. 1935. № 1–2. С. 142–164. Бидзиля В.И., Полин С.В. Скифский царский курган Гайманова Могила. Киев: Скиф, 2012. 814 с. Бобринский А.А. Вновь открытая могила скифского царя // ИТУАК. 1913. № 50. Браун Ф.А. Разыскания в области гото-славянских отношений. СПб.: Тип. Имп. Акад. наук, 1899. ХХ, 392 с. Брун Ф.И. Черноморье. Сборник исследований по исторической географии Южной России. Одесса: Тип. Г. Ульриха, 1880. Ч. 2. 422 с. Бурачков П. 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The identity of Striaria californica Cook, described in 1899 from a single female, is established on the basis of additional specimens collected by Cook in 1929 and determined to be that species by Loomis (1936) as well as specimens from the San Francisco Bay region, likely to be from near the original collection locality. We propose Amplaria californica (Cook, 1899) new combination. A new genus, Bayaria Shear & Marek n. gen., is established for Striaria nana Loomis, 1936 Bayaria nana (Loomis, 1936) new combination. Striaria carmela Chamberlin, 1947, is a junior synonym of Bayaria nana. A key to the 16 genera of Striariidae and an annotated checklist of the 52 species are provided.

Бронзовый кинжал и наконечник стрелы, найденные в окрестностях с. Большие Тарханы Республики Татарстан, представляют собой редкие типы вооружения на территории ананьинской культурно-исторической области. Прямых аналогий кинжалу не известно, однако, изделия с деталями или элементами орнамента в виде запятой имеются в коллекциях алды-бельской, раннесакской и тасмолинской культур. Наконечник стрелы с удлиненным ассиметрично-ромбовидным пером и слабо выступающей втулкой, сопровождавший кинжал, относится к так называемому типу Ендже, распространенному, в основном, в степной и лесостепной зонах Евразии. Наложение хроноинтервалов кинжала и наконечника стрелы позволяют датировать комплекс из с. Большие Тарханы в рамках этапа I-2 раннего периода АКИО (середина VIII – первая половина VII в. до н.э.). Судя по данным спектрального анализа, кинжал был изготовлен из металла редкой группы оловянно-мышьяковой бронзы с высоким содержанием серебра, висмута и никеля. 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Karl Mannheim (1893-1947) y Georg Simmel (1858-1918) son dos nombres clave en la historia de la Sociología. Sus enfoques han desafiado el paso del tiempo concediéndoles el estatus de clásicos. Las condiciones sociohistóricas que hacen posible tal fenómeno en una disciplina científica son, sin duda, tema de interés para la «sociología del conocimiento», a la que el primero de los autores dedicó ingentes esfuerzos. A diferencia de lo mucho que se ha escrito en torno a la relación entre Weber y Simmel, o entre este y Lukács, es relativamente poco lo que sabemos sobre el vínculo entre Simmel y Mannheim. ¿Qué influencia pudo haber tenido el berlinés en la sociología del húngaro? ¿Qué opinión le merecía a este el pensamiento de quien fuera su antiguo maestro?

Em sua obra Ideologia e Utopia (1929), Karl Mannheim (1893-1947) apresenta uma epistemologia para as ciências sociais que - se valendo de influências do romantismo alemão, do messianismo político e, fundamentalmente, do hegelianismo progressista - determina tanto o agir (práxis) quanto o pensar (poiesis). Sua teoria do conhecimento imiscui na experiência a própria reflexividade como atributo necessário da consciência, em sua leitura perspectivista todo ato de conhecer não operaciona apenas a teórica (lógica formal ou epistemologia positivista), mas igualmente interpretações ou perspectivas de natureza não teórica, desejos da vida social que caracterizam as vontades a que o indivíduo está sujeito e que se confundem com suas elucubrações abstratas. A educação, ipso facto, tem uma missão ética no desvelamento do caráter ideológico das instituições e, contrario sensu, enriquecimento da experiência sensível essencial aos intentos formacionais da pessoa humana.

This study is based on the material of darkling beetles (Tenebrionidae) collected from different localities of Turkey between 1966 and 2020 and deposited in Biodiversity Science Museum, Atatürk University (Erzurum, Turkey). In total, 80 species and subspecies of the family Tenebrionidae were listed. The following five species are recorded for Turkey for the first time: Cyphostethe (Cyphostethoides) semenovi Bogatchev, 1947, Zophosis (Septentriophosis) rugosa Faldermann, 1837, Penthicus (Discotus) dilectans (Faldermann, 1836), Penthicus (s. str.) rufescens rufescens (Mulsant et Rey, 1859) and Scleropatroides hirtulus (Baudi di Selve, 1876). In addition, new localities have been indicated for many species and subspecies, which have already been reported from Turkey. The new synonymy is proposed: Blaps tibialis Reiche & Saulcy, 1857 = Blaps ecaudata Seidlitz, 1893, syn. nov. The invasive population of the Mediterranean species Euboeus mimonti Boieldieu, 1865 was found in Erzurum but the species has not naturalised in Eastern Anatolia.

The American species of Cosmetidae, in spite of being clearly distinguished in the older literature, were mixed-up by Roewer. This, aggravated by groundless synonymies done by Goodnight & Goodnight, prevented all subsequent authors from properly recognizing and adequately naming those species. Herein, we define and characterize the three most widespread species of Cosmetidae in the USA, explaining the misleading synonymies and misidentifications in the taxonomic literature. A recent phylogenetic analysis revalidated Libitioides Roewer, 1912 from the synonymy of Vonones Simon, 1879 to include three American species: Gonyleptes ornatum Say, 1821 (from southeastern USA), Cynorta sayi Simon, 1879 (from central-southern USA) and Cosmetus albolineatus Sørensen, 1884 (from eastern USA). Expanding on that, we herein aggregate another two species to Libitioides: Vonones modestus Banks, 1909 (from Cuba, herein revalidated from the synonymy of Libitioides ornata Roewer, 1912) and Libitioides scabrissima Roewer, 1912 (from Mexico, restored from the current combination with Vonones). The following subjective synonymies are proposed: (1) Platycynorta Mello-Leitão, 1933 and Denticynorta Roewer, 1947 = Libitioides; (2) Metacynorta denticus Walker, 1928 = Cosmetus albolineatus; (3) Platycynorta secunda Roewer, 1947 = Vonones modestus; (4) Libitioides ornata Roewer, 1912 and Cynorta (Cynorta) depressa Sørensen, 1932 = Cynorta sayi. Outside Libitioides, Cynorta bimaculata Banks, 1893, currently combined under Calicynorta Goodnight & Goodnight, 1943, and originally reported from California (due to a misinterpretation of label) has its type locality corrected as to be in Costa Rica instead and is transferred to Holovonones Roewer, 1912. Accordingly, Calicynorta is herein considered a junior subjective synonym of Holovonones Roewer, 1912. Platycynorta clavifemur Roewer, 1957 from Peru is newly combined under the genus Ambatoiella Mello-Leitão, 1943, otherwise known from Ecuador. The present analysis of the distributional data suggests that the occurrence of Cosmetidae is determined not directly by temperature, but by the absence of a dry season and the presence of a hot summer.

The preliminary manuscripts for Isaac Newton's 1687 1684-1685. Facsimiles of the original autographs, now in Cambridge University , with an introduction by D.T. Whiteside. Cambridge University Press, 1989. Pp. xxi + 246. £60. ISBN 0-521-33499-3. How vastly Newtonian studies have changed in less than half a century! In 1947, a jejune research student, I made a first daring reconnaissance into those Newton manuscripts in the Cambridge University Library which, together with those dispersed in 1936 (and now largely in academic keeping), have since so vastly enriched our knowledge of the greatest of all scientific figures readily accessible to us, nay, the greatest of all. The most important of the manuscripts in this vast body of material are here reproduced in excellent photographic facsimile under the direction of Professor Whiteside. I do not know who before myself had troubled the peace of the Principia papers since they had been (sparingly) catalogued by a committee of distinguished Cambridge scientists in the 1880s. Certainly not Louis Trenchard More, whose biography of Newton appeared in 1934. Only W.W. Rouse Ball had long before looked into the Portsmouth Collection so that his Essay on Newton's Principia (1893) remained for many years the sole important addition to Principia manuscript studies since the publications of Rigaud, Edleston and Brewster.

The aim of the study is to present the development of hospital services and the teaching of medicine, and the development of urology in Danzig (Gdańsk). Well known Danzig surgeons who were interested in surgery of the genitourinary system are also presented. The beginning of urological surgery and its development within the framework of the department of surgery and as an independent facility at the Medical Academy of Gdańsk in the post‑war period is also described. Extensive research was undertaken for the collection of literature and documents in German and Polish archives and libraries in order to prepare this study. The history of hospitals in Danzig goes back to the arrival of the Teutonic Knights in 1308. The earliest institution, according to historical sources, was the Hospital of the Holy Spirit, built in the years 1310–1311. It was run by the Hospitalet Order until 1382, and was intended for the sick, elderly and disabled people, orphans and needy pilgrim, and the poor. Later centuries saw the further development of hospital services in Danzig. In the 19th century, the city’s increasing population, the development of the sciences, and rapid advances in medicine subsequently led to the establishment of three more hospitals in Gdańsk: The Hospital for Obstetrics and Gynaecological Disease (1819), the Holy Virgin Hospital (1852), and the Evangelical Hospital of Deaconess Sisters (1857), in addition to the old Municipal Hospital. In 1911, new modern buildings of Municipal Hospital in Danzig were finished. On the basis of the Municipal Hospital, the Academy of Practical Medicine was established in 1935. It was known under the name Staatliche Akademie für Praktische Medizin in the Free City of Danzig. Five years later (in 1940) the Academy was developed and changed to the Medical Academy of Danzig (Medizinische Akad‑ emie Danzig – MAD). The beginning of medical teaching at the middle level in Danzig (Gdańsk) dates back to the 16th century. It had its origins in the Chair of Anatomy and Medicine at Danzig Academic Gymnasium (GA; Sive Illustre), an establishment which lasted for 239 years, from 1584 to 1812. The history of surgery in Danzig has its roots in the centuries‑old tradition of the medical practice of surgeons who were associated in the Surgeons Guild, teaching, as well medical and scientific research. The Surgeons Guild existed in Danzig from 1454 to 1820. Over the centuries manual intervention was also in the hands of academically uneducated persons such as bath house attendants, barbers, and wandering surgeons. Until the end of 1946 there was no separate urology department in Danzig. Urological surgery was in the hands of surgeons. Interventions and operations on genitourinary organs were carried out, more or less, in all surgical depart‑ ments. The end of World War II created a new political situation in Europe. Danzig (now Gdańsk) and Pomerania became part of Poland. In 1945, on the basis of the former MAD, the Polish Government established the Polish Academy of Physicians, later renamed the Medical Academy in Gdańsk (Gdańska Akademia Medyczna – GAM). In 2009, GAM was again renamed, as the Medical University of Gdańsk (Gdański Uniwersytet Medyczny). The political changes after World War II accelerated the process of the separation of urology from surgery. In May 1947, a 30‑bed Urological Ward was opened in Gdańsk, in Dębinki Street, forming part of the First Surgical Clinic of the Academy of Physicians (headed by Prof. Kornel Michejda, 1887–1960, later by Prof. Stanisław Nowicki, 1893–1972, and lastly by Prof. Zdzisław Kieturakis, 1904–1971). The first head doctor of the new urological ward was Dr. Tadeusz Lörenz (1906–1986), a urologist from Lvov (Lemberg). After the departure of Professor Lorenz to Wrocław (Breslau) in 1958, Dr. Jan Renkielski was acting as Head of the Uro‑ logical Ward until 1971. In 1971 the ward was transformed to the separate Department of Urology. Docent (“lecturer”), and later Professor, Kazimierz Adamkiewicz from Zabrze (Hindenburg) became its Head. Professor Adamkiewicz organized and equipped the Department, leading it quickly to the level of modern departments in the areas of research, teaching, and therapy. During Professor Adamkiewicz’s illness, and after his retirement in 1988, Docent Kazimierz Krajka, Later Professor) headed the urological department until his retirement in 2012. Since 1 October 2012, Associate Professor (Docent) Marcin Matuszewski (*1965) has been the head of the Department of Urology in Gdańsk.

In the summer of 1999, four ships carrying 599 Fujianese people arrived on the west coast of Canada. They survived a desperate and dangerous journey only for the Canadian Government to put them in prison. After numerous deportations, there are still about 40 of these people in Canadian prisons as of January 2001. They have been in jail for over a year and a half under mere suspicion of flight risk. About 24 people have been granted refugee status. Most people deported to China have been placed in Chinese prisons and fined. It is worth remembering that these migrants may have been undocumented but they are not "illegal" in that they have mobility rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights recognizes everyone's right to leave any country and to seek asylum. It can be argued that it is not the migrants who are illegal, but the unjust laws that criminalize their freedom of movement. In considering people's rights, we need to keep in mind not only the civil and political rights that the West tends to privilege, but equally important social and economic rights as well. As a local response to a global phenomenon, Direct Action Against Refugee Exploitation (DAARE) formed in Vancouver to support the rights of the Fujianese women, eleven of whom at the time of writing are still being held in the Burnaby Correctional Centre for Women (BCCW). In DAARE’s view, Immigration Canada's decision to detain all these people is based on a racialized group-profiling policy which violates basic human rights and ignores Canadian responsibility in the creation of the global economic and societal conditions which give rise to widespread migration. In light of the Canadian government's plans to implement even more punitive immigration legislation, DAARE endorses the Coalition for a Just Immigration and Refugee Policy's "Position Paper on Bill C31." They call for humanitarian review and release for the remaining Fujianese people. This review would include a few released refugee claimants who are still in Canada, children, women who were past victims of family planning, people facing religious persecution and, of course, those who are still in prison after 18 months and who have never been charged with any crime. Suspicion of flight risk is not a valid reason to incarcerate people for such a long time. Who Is a Migrant? The lines between "voluntary" and "forced" migration are no longer adequate to explain the complexities of population movements today. Motives for forced displacement include political, economic, social and environmental factors. This spectrum runs from the immediate threats to life, safety and freedom due to war or persecution, to situations where economic conditions make the prospects of survival marginal and non-existent. (Moussa 2000). Terms like "economic migrant" and "bogus refugee" have been used in the media to discredit migrants such as the Fujianese and to foster hostility against them. This scapegoating process oversimplifies the situation, for all refugees and all migrants are entitled to the basic respect due all human beings as enshrined in the UN Declaration of Human Rights. There can be multiple reasons for an individual to migrate—ranging from family reunification to economic pressures to personal survival; to fear of government corruption and of political persecution, to name just a few. The reduction of everything to merely the economic does not allow one to understand why migration is occurring and likely to increase in the future. Most immigrants to Canada could also be described as economic migrants. Conrad Black is an economic migrant. The privileging of rich migrants over poor ones romanticizes globalization as corporate progress and ignores the immense human suffering it entails for the majority of the world's population as the gap between the wealthy and the poor rapidly increases. Hundreds of years ago, when migrants came to this aboriginal territory we now call Canada, they came in order to survive—in short, they too were "economic migrants." Many of those migrants who came from Europe would not qualify to enter Canada today under its current immigration admissions guidelines. Indeed, over 50% of Canadians would not be able to independently immigrate to Canada given its current elitist restrictions. One of the major reasons for an increase in migration is the destruction of rural economies in Asia and elsewhere in the world. Millions of people have been displaced by changes in agriculture that separate people from the land. These waves of internal migration also result in the movement of peoples across national borders in order to survive. Chinese provinces such as Fujian and Guangdong, whose people have a long history of overseas travel, are particularly common sources of out-migration. In discussing migration, we need to be wary of how we can inadvertently reinforce the colonization of First Nations people unless we consciously work against that by actively supporting aboriginal self-determination. For example, some First Nations people have been accused of "smuggling" people across borders—this subjects them to the same process of criminalization which the migrants have experienced, and ignores the sovereign rights of First Nations people. We need ways of relating to one another which do not reenact domination, but which work in solidarity with First Nations' struggles. This requires an understanding of the ways in which racism, colonialism, classism, and other tactics through which "dividing and conquering" take place. For those of us who are first, second, third, fourth, fifth generation migrants to this land, our survival and liberation are intimately connected to that of aboriginal people. History Repeating Itself? The arrival of the Fujianese people met with a racist media hysteria reminiscent of earlier episodes of Canadian history. Front page newspaper headlines such as "Go Home" increased hostility against these people. In Victoria, people were offering to adopt the dog on one of the ships at the same time that they were calling to deport the Chinese. From the corporate media accounts of the situation, one would think that most Canadians did not care about the dangerous voyage these people had endured, a voyage during which two people from the second ship died. Accusations that people were trying to enter the country "illegally" overlooked how historically, the Chinese, like other people of colour, have had to find ways to compensate for racist and classist biases in Canada's immigration system. For example, from 1960 to 1973, Canada granted amnesty to over 12,000 "paper sons," that is, people who had immigrated under names other than their own. The granting of "legal" status to the "paper sons" who arrived before 1960 finally recognized that Canada's legislation had unfairly excluded Chinese people for decades. From 1923 to 1947, Canada's Chinese Exclusion Act had basically prevented Chinese people from entering this country. The xenophobic attitudes that gave rise to the Chinese Exclusion Act and the head tax occurred within a colonial context that privileged British migrants. Today, colonialism may no longer be as rhetorically attached to the British empire, but its patterns—particularly the globally inequitable distribution of wealth and resources—continue to accelerate through the mechanism of transnational corporations, for example. As Helene Moussa has pointed out, "the interconnections of globalisation with racist and colonialist ideology are only too clear when all evidence shows that globalisation '¼ legitimise[s] and sustain[s] an international system that tolerates an unbelievable divide not only between the North and the South but also inside them'" (2000). Moreover, according to the United Nations Development Programme, the income gap between people in the world's wealthiest nations and the poorest nations has shifted from 30:1 in 1960 to 60:1 in 1990 and to 74:1 in 1997. (Moussa 2000) As capital or electronic money moves across borders faster than ever before in what some have called the casino economy (Mander and Goldsmith), change and instability are rapidly increasing for the majority of the world's population. People are justifiably anxious about their well-being in the face of growing transnational corporate power; however, "protecting" national borders through enforcement and detention of displaced people is a form of reactive, violent, and often racist, nationalism which scapegoats the vulnerable without truly addressing the root causes of instability and migration. In short, reactive nationalism is ineffective in safe-guarding people's survival. Asserting solidarity with those who are most immediately displaced and impoverished by globalization is strategically a better way to work towards our common survival. Substantive freedom requires equitable economic relations; that is, fairly shared wealth. Canadian Response Abilities The Canadian government should take responsibility for its role in creating the conditions that displace people and force them to migrate within their countries and across borders. As a major sponsor of efforts to privatize economies and undertake environmentally devastating projects such as hydro-electric dams, Canada has played a significant role in the creation of an unemployed "floating population" in China which is estimated to reach 200 million people this year. Punitive tactics will not stop the movement of people, who migrate to survive. According to Peter Kwong, "The well-publicized Chinese government's market reforms have practically eliminated all labor laws, labour benefits and protections. In the "free enterprise zones" workers live virtually on the factory floor, laboring fourteen hours a day for a mere two dollars—that is, about 20 cents an hour" (136). As Sunera Thobani has phrased it, "What makes it alright for us to buy a t-shirt on the streets of Vancouver for $3, which was made in China, then stand up all outraged as Canadian citizens when the woman who made that t-shirt tries to come here and live with us on a basis of equality?" Canada should respond to the urgent situations which cause people to move—not only on the grounds upon which Convention refugees were defined in 1949 (race, religion, nationality, social group, political opinion) which continue to be valid—but also to strengthen Canada's system to include a contemporary understanding that all people have basic economic and environmental survival rights. Some migrants have lives that fit into the narrow definition of a UN Convention refugee and some may not. Those who do not fit this definition have nonetheless urgent needs that deserve attention. The Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives has pointed out that there are at least 18 million people working in 124 export zones in China. A living wage in China is estimated to be 87 cents per hour. Canadians benefit from these conditions of cheap labour, yet when the producers of these goods come to our shores, we hypocritically disavow any relationship with them. Responsibility in this context need not refer so much to some stern sense of duty, obligation or altruism as to a full "response"—intellectual, emotional, physical, and spiritual—that such a situation provokes in relations between those who "benefit"—materially at least—from such a system and those who do not. References Anderson, Sarah, et al. Field Guide to the Global Economy. New York: New Press, 2000. Canadian Council of Refugees. "Migrant Smuggling and Trafficking in Persons." February 20, 2000. Canadian Woman Studies: Immigrant and Refugee Women. 19.3 (Fall 1999). Chin, Ko-lin. Smuggled Chinese. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999. Coalition for a Just Immigration and Refugee Policy. "Position Paper on Bill C31." 2000. Davis, Angela. The Angela Davis Reader. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1998. Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women, Foundation Against Trafficking in Women, and International Human Rights Law Group. "Human Rights Standards for the Treatment of Trafficked Persons." January 1999. Henry, Frances and Tator, Carol. Racist Discourses in Canada's English Print Media. Toronto: Canadian Foundation for Race Relations, 2000. Jameson, Fredric and Miyoshi, Masao, Eds. The Cultures of Globalization. Durham: Duke University Press, 1998. Kwong, Peter. Forbidden Workers. New York: New Press, 1997. Mander, Jerry and Goldsmith, Edward, Eds. The Case Against the Global Economy. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1996. Moussa, Helene. "The Interconnections of Globalisation and Migration with Racism and Colonialism: Tracing Complicity." 2000. ---. "Violence against Refugee Women: Gender Oppression, Canadian Policy, and the International Struggle for Human Rights." Resources for Feminist Research 26 (3-4). 1998 Migrant Forum statement (from Asia Pacific People's Assembly on APEC) 'Occasional Paper Migration: an economic and social analysis.' Pizarro, Gabriela Rodriguez. "Human Rights of Migrants." United Nations Report. Seabrook, Jeremy. "The Migrant in the Mirror." New Internationalist 327 (September 2000): 34-5. Sharma, Nandita. "The Real Snakeheads: Canadian government and corporations." Kinesis. October/November (1999): 11. Spivak, Gayatri. "Diasporas Old and New: Women in the Transnational World." Class Issues. Ed. Amitava Kumar. New York: New York University Press, 1997. States of Disarray: The Social Effects of Globalization. London: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UN RISD), 1995. Thobani, Sunera. "The Creation of a ‘Crisis’." Kinesis October/November (1999): 12-13. Whores, Maids and Wives: Making Links. Proceedings of the North American Regional Consultative Forum on Trafficking in Women, 1997.