Zeitschriftenartikel zum Thema „1700-1714“

The treatise “De morbis artificum diatriba” (Modena, 1700) is considered to be the first text to specifically deal with occupational illnesses. It was also the last for over 150 years. Written by Bernardino Ramazzini (Carpi, 1633-Padua, 1714), a professor at the University of Padua from 1700 to 1714, the book highlights the importance given at the time to headache as an occupational symptom. Among the 69 professions described, accounting for the majority of the occupations of the period, 12 were found to lead to headache as an important symptom caused by work. Ramazzini appears to have paid more attention to this than we do today. Ramazzini's work opens up a wide view on social conditions in the 18th century, as his sensitivity for occupational hazards was exceptional. His remarks on headache are typical of his way of collecting first-hand experience of working conditions, and they underline the importance of occupational hazards in the assessment of headache, today just as in 1710.

Resum: En aquest article realitzarem una anàlisi quantitativa, semàntica i comparativa dels conceptes ‘Espanya’ i ‘Catalunya’ en les seves formes terminològiques singulars i plurals pròpies dels idiomes català, castellà i llatí, contingudes en els dietaris institucionals del Consell de Cent de Barcelona i de la Diputació del General de Catalunya. La cronologia analitzada serà l’albada del segle XVIII, període convuls en què es produí la mort del monarca hispànic Carles II d’Àustria (1700), l’entronització dels Borbó (1701) i la consegüent guerra de successió per la Monarquia d’Espanya (1702-1715) que es batallà al Principat de Catalunya entre 1704 i 1714. Els resultats de l’estudi ofereixen noves perspectives sobre alguns aspectes del debat historiogràfic desfermat per la celebració del Tricentenari del 1714, i que gira al voltant de com era la identitat col·lectiva dels catalans a inicis del segle XVIII.Paraules clau: Història conceptual, Espanya, Catalunya, Barcelona, Guerra de Successió espanyola.Abstract: In this article we will carry out a quantitative, semantic and comparative analysis of the concepts ‘Spain’ and ‘Catalonia’ in its singular and plural forms of the Catalan, Spanish and Latin languages, contained in the institutional diaries of the Consell de Cent of Barcelona and the Deputation of the General of Catalonia. The chronology analysed will be the start of the 18th century, a period in which the death of the Spanish monarch Charles II of Austria (1700), the enthronement of the Bourbons (1701) and the consequent war of succession for the Monarchy of Spain (1702-1715) that was fought in the Principality of Catalonia between 1704 and 1714. The results of the study offer new perspectives on some aspects of the historiographical debate unleashed by the celebration of the Tricentenary of 1714, which revolves around the collective identity of Catalans at the beginning of the 18th century.Keywords: Conceptual history, Spain, Catalonia, Barcelona, War of Spanish Succession.

ABSTRACTThe occasional conformity controversy during the reign of Queen Anne has traditionally been understood as a straightforward symptom of the early eighteenth-century ‘rage of party’. For all the pious rhetoric concerning toleration and the church in danger, the controversy is considered a partisan squabble for short-term political gain. This traditional interpretation has, however, never been able to account for two features of the controversy: first, the focus on ‘moderation’ as a unique characteristic of post-Revolutionary English society; and second, the prominence of the Anglican nonjurors in the debate. This article revisits the occasional conformity controversy with an eye toward explaining these two related features. In doing so, it will argue that the occasional conformity controversy comprised a referendum on the Revolution settlement in church and state. Nonjurors lit upon the practice of occasional conformity as emblematic of the broader malady of moderation afflicting post-Revolutionary England. From their opposition to occasional conformity, the nonjurors, and soon the broader Anglican high-church movement, developed a comprehensive critique of religious modernity that would inform the entire framework of debate in the early English Enlightenment.

Dans cet article, la dynamique de la production précoce du café dans les Amériques est identifiée par le croisement de données historiques, généalogiques, agronomiques et climatologiques. Nous revisitons l’histoire de la diffusion du caféier, poussant dans les serres d’Amsterdam, vers les colonies hollandaises à travers, entre autres, des oeuvres à peine exploitées comme celle du botaniste anglais Richard Bradley. En 1714, ce dernier séjourna à l’Hortus medicus d’Amsterdam, ce qui nous a permis de proposer des corrections dans l’historiographie ancienne sur la diffusion des caféiers. Nous débutons par l’analyse des travaux de Bradley et poursuivons par une synthèse sur la diffusion des caféiers dans les serres européennes, puis de leur introduction dans les colonies hollandaises des Guyanes (Suriname, Essequibo, Berbice) et de Curaçao. La date de 1714 peut être retenue comme date d’introduction du caféier au Suriname à partir des serres d’Amsterdam, mais l’introduction du café montre en réalité deux séquences distinctes (1696-1700 et 1706-1723). Le hiatus (1701-1705) entre ces séquences peut être lié à des changements climatiques et éventuellement lié à un réchauffement climatique temporaire. Enfin, nous soulignons l’importance des échanges de caféiers entre colonies et le démarage des nouvelles plantations en comparant les liens familiaux, le rôle des impôts (capitation) et la législation locale révélant des éclairages nouveaux sur la situation au Suriname durant la première décennie du XVIIIe siècle, prélude à la réussite économique des investisseurs pour cette nouvelle culture de rente.

Gerard van Swieten (1700–1772), famous pupil of Professor Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738) of Leiden University and personal physician of Austrian Habsburg Empress Maria Theresa (1717–1780). Herman Boerhaave was a renowned Dutch physician inside and outside Europe in the 18th century. He was not only appointed professor in medicine, chemistry, and botany but also a chancellor of the Leiden University in 1714 and published his well-known <i>Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis morbis</i> in 1709. Gerard van Swieten commented upon Boerhaave’s aphorisms and demonstrated actual knowledge, less well-known among the medical community, about the pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury which half a century later (19th century) became known as the Monro-Kellie doctrine. Using the original commentaries upon Boerhaave’s aphorisms by van Swieten himself, we explored his way of formulating the pathophysiological concept of traumatic brain injury, which still is valid today.

Most theories of state formation emphasize the advantages of legal uniformity for the development of early modern states. The Bourbon monarchy in eighteenth-century Spain demonstrates alternative possibilities because Philip V created a more unified legal system in the kingdoms of Valencia and Aragon in 1707 only to reinstate the distinctive Aragonese civil law in 1711. Philip pursued this change in policy because the difficulties caused by changing Aragonese civil law undercut his support among the local elite, while reinstating these laws increased the dependence of these elite upon the success of the king in the War of Spanish Succession (1700–1714). Philip V’s policies following 1711 demonstrate a consistent interest in securing the support of the local elite over the desire to unify the divergent civil laws throughout his kingdoms. For these reasons, selective legal diversity proved a compelling approach to governing. The persistence of these regional variations in law contributes to broader theories of state formation by demonstrating the potential benefits of legal diversity.

Introduction. Anthroponyms contain valuable insights into the history of ethnic language and culture. The historical aspect of anthroponymy needs further research to reconstruct a wider panorama of the ethnos-specific anthroponymic system. Goals. The article seeks to consider the anthroponymic elements of Khan Ayuka’s letters in comparison with parallel Russian translated equivalents of theirs. Comparison of the Kalmyk and Russian texts makes it possible to trace traditions of naming people in different ethnocultural societies, thus revealing materials for a Kalmyk 18th-century name list. Methods and Materials. The paper analyzes 1714 letters of the Kalmyk Khan Ayuka and their Russian translations (referred to 1714 as well) housed by the National Archive of the Republic of Kalmykia. The personal names considered identified through the use of the continuous sampling method. The main research methods employed are the descriptive and comparative ones, and that of contextual analysis. The analyzed texts contain not only Kalmyk anthroponyms but also ones borrowed from other languages, which resulted from socio-political contacts with different peoples and states. Along with Russian, there are Kazakh, Tatar, Khiva, Turkmen, and other anthroponyms. Still, the article focuses on Kalmyk anthroponymic elements. Conclusions. Anthroponymy of each ethnos in each era has its own characteristics. In this regard, the material contained in the official correspondence of Khan Ayuka restores part of the Kalmyk anthroponymic register typical for the 1700–1720s. Restoration of the name list in diachrony requires both original texts and their Russian translations be used, since anthroponyms mentioned in the original documents and translated texts complement each other, which may indicate regularity, reproducibility of such personal names.

SummaryThis article aims to describe the reasons for the decline of customary law in the early modern era. Confining the discussion to a limited geographical setting – the Iberian Peninsula – the arguments I used might be easily applied to other European jurisdictions. Part I presents an explanation of the predominance of custom in the medieval Spanish legal traditions. Part II describes the general features of the law in the early modern era, since they contributed – to a greater or lesser degree – to the demise of custom. Part III focuses more specifically on the theoretical and practical reasons for the decline and displacement of custom in early modern Spain. Part IV describes the consequences of the Decrees of Nueva Planta (1707-1718), approved by Felipe V in the context of the War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1714), regarding the development of the notion and role of custom in the eighteenth century. The article concludes with some reflections, emphasising that although customs do not easily co-exist with the state or a strong political power, neither do they entirely perish.

Najopsežniji zbornik svetačkih legendi dopreporodne hrvatske književnosti – Cvet sveteh ali živlenje i čini svecev (u 4 knjige, tiskane 1752., 1756., 1760. i 1761. godine) – kajkavskoga hagiografskog pisca, pavlina Hilariona Gašparotija (1714.-1762.) sadrži i životopis svetoga Jeronima. Tekst Žitek svetog Hijeronima (Cvet sveteh, knj. III.) nalazi se na dan 30. rujna te sadrži opširno razvedenu hagiografiju u kojoj je detaljno opisan Jeronimov život, rad na prevođenju Svetoga pisma, brojna svečeva čudesa učinjena za života i poslije smrti. Premda se Gašparoti u sastavljaju zbornika Cvet sveteh služio brojnim i raznovrsnim izvorima i teško je pronaći moguće direktne predloške njegova hagiografskog djela, usporedna analiza pokazala je da postoje tekstualne podudarnosti Jeronimova Žiteka i Jeronimovih životopisa u Zlatnoj legendi (13. st.), kao i u Canisiusovu latinskom prijevodnom djelu Flos Sanctorum sive Vitae Sanctorum in modum concionum scriptae Petro Ribadineira, soc. Jesu (Colonia, 1700.). Od domaćih izvora, uočene su sličnosti Žiteka s Jeronimovom biografijom u Cvitu svetih Franje Glavinića. Gašparotijev Žitek svetog Hijeronima pokazuje se kao važna karika duge i bogate književne tradicije hrvatskih legendi o svetom Jeronimu.

The purpose of this article is to identify the peculiarities of Western European military affairs as illustrated by a particular campaign of the War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714). The article is of interest in light of comparing military affairs of Western Europe and Russia at the beginning of the 18th century, military art during the War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714) and the Great Northern War (1700-1721). Scientific novelty: the study presents an episode of Western European military history not yet reflected in domestic historiography, combat operations between Franco-Bavarian troops and the allied army under the command of John Marlborough on the Danube theater of war in the summer of 1704. The study is carried out with wide use of memoir, epistolary and documentary sources. During the 1704 campaign on the Danube and in Bavaria, such typical features of the military art of the 18th century were manifested as excessive dependence on supplies and logistics, positional expectant nature of hostilities, their indecision and false methodism. As a result of the study, the author came to the conclusion that the Franco-Bavarian coalition was more inclined towards the canons of the military strategy that had developed by the beginning of the 18th century. It operated within the framework of positional maneuver tactics, enthusiasm for fighting on communications, demonstrating wait-and-see and passivity. French marshals were distinguished by their adherence to the template and therefore were predictable and expected. Unlike the enemy, John Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy managed to break out of the generally accepted tactical canons. During the 1704 campaign, they showed swiftness and offensive character, imposed a decisive aggressive struggle on the enemy, the culmination of which was a resounding victory at Blenheim on August 13, 1704.

The international situation of Russia and its foreign policy were a subject of discussions within the framework of various currents of public thought in the 19th century. However, Russian conservatives, concerned about the future of the country in a changing world, paid special attention to these issues. The conservative concept emerged and evolved in the course of reflections and polemics on Russia's place in the world and the relationships between foreign policy and domestic development. The emphasis in such discussions was placed on the era of Peter the Great, when Russia had become part of the system of international relations, declared its geopolitical interests and begun to implement them consistently. In fact, in Peter's time, the Westphalian system, in which Russia was assigned a clearly peripheral role, was replaced by a new European order based on the Congresses in Utrecht, Rastatt and BadenЯ(1713-1714), on the results of the Great Northern War (1700-1721) and the Treaty of Nystad (1721). Under these new conditions, Peter the Great showed not only continuity with his predecessors' policies but also outlined the main foreign policy vectors, which Russia followed throughout the 18th century and, as conservative thinkers pointed out, the whole of the 19th century.

The work of M.B. Valentini “Museum museorum” and other museographical publications from the Gdańsk book collections and their significance in the formation of the natural history collections in the 17th and 18th centuries After 1700 we observe a clear increase in the number of conscious collectors gathering works of art, naturalia and various curiosities – mirabilia, typical of many Baroque “chambers” (Kammer) that were created by collectors during the previous, 17th century. Michael Bernhard Valentini (1657–1729), court physician at the court of the Landgrave of Hessen, published a compendium of encyclopaedic knowledge, a work for academic collectors of natural history specimens, entitled Museum museorum (Vol. I–II, Frankfurt am Main 1704–1714). Valentini provided information about various noteworthy things found in the Old and New World as well as in Asia (India), sometimes exceeding the limits of previous knowledge, both for researchers and collectors. Valentini’s work may be seen as evidence of a real collector’s fever, directed not only at all kinds of rare and curious things (curiosities) but also research objects collected for study purposes, especially in countries north of the Alps (e.g. natural amber and amber with insect inclusions). This German author recommended in his proposed programme for the creation of an ideal modern museum that objects should be arranged into groups, for example naturalia and artificialia and then divided into more detailed subgroups in order to make them more visible and their content more comprehensible, therefore enriching the knowledge of the surrounding world.

A kora újkori egyetemes történet egyik legismertebb eseménysorozata úgy a hazai, mint a nemzetközi historiográfiában a spanyol örökösödési háború (1701–1714) volt, amelynek eredményeként a világ akkori legnagyobb birodalmának – amelyben „soha nem nyugodott le a nap” – élére a korábbi uralkodóház (Habsburg) helyébe új dinasztia (Bourbon) lépett. „Mások csak háborúzzanak, te boldog Ausztria, házasodj!” – nincs is talán még egy mondás a világon, amely egy időben lenne ennyire mitikus és valóságos, semmitmondó és mindent magában foglaló. Egy családi jelmondat, amely a receptje lett volna a felemelkedésnek és ugyanakkor magában hordozta volna a bukást is. A Madrid és Bécs közötti 16–17. századi szoros összeköttetés feltárása az elmúlt években komoly lendületet vett, ma már elmondható, hogy virágkorát éli a kora újkori Habsburg-kutatás. Ugyan a (nemzetközi) (jog)történetírás a dinasztia spanyol és osztrák ágáról beszél, valójában a család (magán)jogi egysége végig megmaradt, pontosabb volna egy idősebb (senior) és egy fiatalabb (junior) ágról beszélni.A dinasztia 16–17. századi korszakával, a spanyol trónbetöltés rendjével, a spanyol királyok házasságpolitikájával foglalkozva könnyen arra a megállapításra lehet jutni, hogy amíg a fenti idézettel fémjelzett (házasság)politika a 16. században egyértelműen az országok megszerzését, a 17. század során már sokkal inkább a meglévő koronák dinasztián belül tartását szolgálta. A spanyol uralkodók – a sajátos spanyol (trón)öröklési rend következtében – kifejezetten is arra törekedtek e két évszázad során, hogy a leányági leszármazáson keresztül a dinasztia junior fiágának öröklését biztosítsák arra az esetre, ha a senior fiág kihalna. A politikai realitás és a fegyverek szava azonban a 18. század elejére elvitathatatlanul felülírta ezt a törekvést, és V. Fülöp király (1700–1746) személyében a Bourbonok szerezték meg a hatalmas spanyol örökséget. Milyen jogi okok és politikai folyamatok álltak a spanyol korona sorsa körül kialakult összecsapás hátterében? Mit mondott ki az utolsó spanyol Habsburg uralkodó, II. Károly 1700-ban kelt (utolsó) végrendelete? Mennyiben szakított az a dinasztia addigi törekvésével? Vajon mennyire kötötte II. Károly kezét őseinek végrendelete, vagy éppenséggel maga a törvény? E tanulmányban az örökösödési háború jogi hátteréről kívánok elemzést adni, az örökösödési háború alatt kelt szövetségek iratait és az azt lezáró békeszerződéseket pedig külön tanulmányban áttekinteni.

A lo largo de las siguientes líneas pretendemos ahondar en la comprensión de las relaciones internacionales, analizando la paulatina gestación de un cuerpo burocrático encargado de administrar las cuestiones diplomáticas y la progresiva profesionalización de los emisarios. Para tratar de comprender nuestro objeto de estudio, proponemos una revisión bibliográfica sobre los emisarios hispánicos destinados a la corte versallesca durante la contienda sucesoria, resaltando el profundo vacío historiográfico que pesa sus trayectorias y ponderando las limitaciones con las que pudieron contar a la hora de desempeñar sus legaciones. A pesar de los escasos estudios existentes, podemos constatar que la representación exterior de la monarquía hispánica no se mantuvo aparte de los procesos que se gestaban allende y concurrió de forma activa en Versalles. Una participación que fue vital en el sostén de las pretensiones dinásticas de Felipe V y la coordinación de los esfuerzos de una guerra internacional que dirimía la posesión de la corona hispánica.

Many historians believe that Russia became a great power either as a result of the Poltava victory in 1709, or after the Nystadt Peace of 1721. It is difficult to agree with this. Peter the Great’s rule indeed produced a combat-ready regular army, a guard, an officer corps, a navy with shipyards, military bases, and coastal artillery. There was an upsurge in the metallurgical industry and mining. Schools with high-quality military and secular education, the Academy of Sciences, the Senate, and the Synod were established. St. Petersburg was founded. Talented and enterprising individuals were promoted to military, diplomatic and administrative posts. The main factor in the rise of the state was military modernization. The main geopolitical achievement of Peter I was the conquest of full access to the Baltic Sea. However, a limited resource base, military and diplomatic defeats and setbacks did not allow Russia to rise to the rank of a great power. The disasters of Narva in 1700 and on the Prut River in 1711 were painful. Russia lost access to the Sea of Azov, the city of Azov, city of Taganrog, the Azov squadron, shipyards and shipbuilding in the Voronezh Territory were lost. The damage from three treatises with the Ottomans in 1711-1713 was great. Russia has lost all of Zaporozhye. The demarcation of the borders of 1714 threw Russia back several hundred kilometers from the Black Sea region. In 1719, the Russian military force was squeezed out of Central Europe – from Mecklenburg. The sphere of influence of Russia after the victorious Peace of Nystad in 1721 was established only in Northern and Eastern Europe – in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Swedish and Danish-Norwegian kingdom, partly in Prussia. The tsar had no claims to hegemony in Europe and no claims to join the circle of the then great powers. Russia was not a great power like the Habsburg monarchy, France, Great Britain, and the Eurasian-African Ottoman Empire. Russia could not compare with the great powers of that time neither in terms of economic (industrial, financial) power, nor in terms of the intensity of expansionism. The entry of the Russian Empire into the system of international relations as one of the five great powers – France, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia – occurred during the Seven Years War of 1756-1763. Another rise to great power took place during the reign of Catherine II. The apogee of greatness and the culmination of Russia's influence on European affairs was the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815.

Samuel Peploe was vicar of Preston from 1700 to 1726 and bishop of Chester from 1726 to 1752. Today he is best remembered for a story—perhaps apocryphal—concerning his behaviour during the Jacobite rising of 1715. It is said that, when he was conducting a service, a group of rebels entered the church at Preston and threatened to kill him unless he ceased to pray for the ‘Hanoverian usurper’. Peploe supposedly replied ‘Soldier, I am doing my duty; do you do yours’; and continued his prayers. When this was reported to George I, he apparently remarked: ‘Peep-low, Peep-low is he called? But he shall peep high; I will make him a bishop’.

The purpose of the article is to study the period of the regular army formation during the reign of the Russian sovereign Peter the Great. It is noted that the specific circumstances of general G.Р. Chernyshev’s participation in the wars of Peter the Great’s era are very imperfectly covered in sources and scientific works, the last of which belongs to the 19-th century. Due to the systematization and analytical processing of the available information, the author supplements the episodes of the combat biography of one of the most capable representatives of the command staff of the Russian armed forces, who won victory to the country in the Great Northern War of 1700–1721.

El organista y maestro de capilla aragonés Joaquín Martínez de la Roca ha sido tradicionalmente ignorado por la investigación musicológica. Su participación, encabezando el bando conservador, en la famosa «cuestión Valls» lo ha mantenido al margen de las discusiones musicales acerca de la modernización musical española en torno a 1700. En este artículo aporto nueva documentación sobre su etapa en el Pilar de Zaragoza, que contradice la imagen consenvadora que se tenía de este compositor y lo sitúa como uno de los protagonistas de la recepción del estilo italiano en el contexto musical aragonés.

The larger context of this conference was the annual festival of early music in Thuringia known as Güldener Herbst (Golden Autumn). The series of concerts, church services, guided tours and similar events in late September and early October took note of the three hundredth anniversaries of Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach's birth on 8 March 1714 and Philipp Heinrich Erlebach's death a few weeks later, on 17 April. Since Bach was born in Weimar (central Germany) but worked primarily in the northern cities of Berlin and Hamburg, and Erlebach, conversely, hailed from a small town in the far northwest but spent his career in Rudolstadt (about twenty miles south of Weimar), the 2014 festival focused on cultural interrelationships between the two regions, summed up in the subtitle ‘Norddeutsche Impulse’ (north German impulses).

The attempt to influence public opinion on the subject of taste constitutes a primary aim in Joseph Addison's (1672-1719) and Richard Steele's (1672-1729) essay-periodicals, The Tatler (1709-1711), The Spectator (1711-1712, 1714), and The Guardian (1713). Addison and Steele emphasize the need for a progressive culture of education, where human nature is continuously refined and improved, and where man is expected to cultivate his nature and his judgement of taste as part of a process of personal self-fulfilment. However, along with such beliefs, Addison and Steele explore a less recognized trait where nature (human nature as well as the chain of being) is much less dynamic and where education and the cultivation of taste are regarded as reprehensible unless they reproduce a predetermined order of nature. By occasionally calling attention to such a trait, Addison and Steele appear to wish to lend balance to the discourse on education and taste, and to reduce the risk implicit in a too radical cultivation of taste and nature, namely, the threat of a blurred concept of the chain of being and a certain indistinctness between diverse social groups.&nbsp;

El texto aborda la evolución del análisis historiográfico que se ha llevado a cabo sobre la Cataluña moderna entre finales del siglo XVI y principios del XVIII. Aunque la frontera moderna de Cataluña puede ser múltiple, nos centramos esencialmente en aquella que va desde el Valle de Arán hasta el Mediterráneo. El texto abre con una primera reflexión sobre el camino hacia el cambio de modelo, luego evoca los efectos de las guerras con Francia, con algunos ejemplos concretos, como el de Cerdaña, y, por último, expone la realidad percibida y llevada a cabo con la nueva “fortificación” de la frontera catalana a finales del siglo XVII, cuando el control de Francia se hace evidente. Palabras clave: Frontera, fronterización, fortificaciónTopónimos: Francia, España, Cataluña,Período: época moderna ABSTRACTThe text addresses the evolution of the historiographical analysis that of modern Catalonia between the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 18th century. Although the modern border of Catalonia may be multiple, the focus will essentially be upon the border that runs from the Arán Valley to the Mediterranean. The text opens with an initial reflection on the path towards a change of model, before evoking the effects of the wars with France, with some specific examples, such as that of Cerdanya, and finally presenting the reality perceived and manifested with the new “fortification” of the Catalan border at the end of the 17th century, when French control became evident. Keywords: Border, bordering, fortificationPlace names: France, Spain, CataloniaPeriod: modern era REFERENCIASAyats, A., Louis XIV et les Pyrénées catalanes de 1659 à 1681. Frontière politique et frontières militaires, Trabucaire, Canet, 2002.Bély, L., “La representación de la frontera en las diplomacias durante la Época Moderna”, Manuscrits, 26, (2008), pp. 35-51.— “Westphalie, Pyrénées, Utrecht: trois traités pour redessiner l'Europe”, en O. 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La llegada de los Berbenes a España se asocia inmediatamente con la Guerra de Sucesión, en su doble aspecto de contienda internacional y de guerra civil. Aunque el riesgo de guerra era grande desde noviembre de 1700, hasta abril de 1701 no hubo hostilidades de ninguna clase. Durante un año combatieron en Italia franceses y austríacos, pero sólo en el verano de 1702 se generalizó la guerra, ai desembarcar los ingleses en los Países Bajos. Y aún habrían de transcurrir otros tres años, hasta que se introdujese la contienda civil en España, con el levantamiento de valencianos y catalanes a favor del archiduque Carlos de Austria. Hasta entonces, es decir, hasta el verano de 1705, con el entusiasmo de unos y con la apatía o aversión secreta de otros, Felipe V había reinado sin oposición.

This article presents a hitherto unpublished account of a magical séance conducted by the virtuoso Thomas Henshaw (1618–1700), later Fellow of the Royal Society, while travelling in Venice ca 1648. The episode had previously been known through an account of it given by Robert Boyle, but in Boyle's version its protagonist was unclear. It is now for the first time revealed as Henshaw on the basis of a further record of it among the papers of John Sharp, Archbishop of York (1645?–1714). The discrepancies between the ‘new’ version of the story and that given by Boyle are here elucidated and the opportunity is taken to outline the background to the séance in terms of the history of magic in early modern Venice. In addition, broader comments are included on the implications of the episode for attitudes towards alchemy and magic in the period.

Denne artikkelen er et forsøk på å utforske mulighetene for å utvikle ny innsikt i hvordan det var for norske skrivere i dansketiden å tilegne seg skriftspråket. Metoden er å bruke tilnærminger til skriftspråklig variasjon brukt innenfor forskning på begynneropplæring på et historisk materiale. Tekstene som blir utsatt for analyse i denne artikkelen, er brev skrevet av en voksen dame på begynnelsen av 1700-tallet. Disse brevene har, selv hvis en sammenligner med brev skrevet av andre skrivere i samme tid, mye variasjon og mange ortografiske særegenheter. Slike uvanlige skrivemåter har i språkhistorisk forskning tradisjonelt blitt rubrisert som enten interessante norvagismer – altså norske dialekttrekk i tekster skrevet på det dansknorske fellesspråket – eller som uinteressant feilskriving uten språkhistorisk verdi. Det er min påstand at også andre trekk enn det som kan rubriseres som dialekttrekk, har en plass i norsk språkhistorie.

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(Anuschka Tischer) Haupt, Herbert, Ein Herr von Stand und Würde. Fürst Johann Adam Andreas von Liechtenstein (1657–1712). Mosaiksteine eines Lebens, Köln / Weimar / Wien 2016, Böhlau, 389 S. / Abb., € 47,00. (Thomas Winkelbauer) Homa, Bernhard, Die Tübinger Philosophische Fakultät 1652–1752. Institution – Disziplinen – Lehrkräfte (Contubernium, 85), Stuttgart 2016, Steiner, 428 S. / 1 CDROM, € 69,00. (Martin Gierl) Windler, Christian (Hrsg.), Kongressorte der Frühen Neuzeit im europäischen Vergleich. Der Friede von Baden (1714), Köln/Weimar/Wien 2016, Böhlau, 303 S. / Abb., € 19,90. (Regina Dauser) Pecar, Andreas / Holger Zaunstöck / Thomas Müller-Bahlke (Hrsg.), Wie pietistisch kann Adel sein? Hallescher Pietismus und Reichsadel im 18. Jahrhundert (Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte Sachsen-Anhalts, 10), Halle a. d. S. 2016, Mitteldeutscher Verlag, 176 S. / Abb., € 25,00. (Martin Gierl) Eißner, Daniel, Erweckte Handwerker im Umfeld des Pietismus. Zur religiösen Selbstermächtigung in der Frühen Neuzeit (Hallesche Forschungen, 43), Halle a. d. S. / Wiesbaden 2016, Verlag der Franckeschen Stiftungen / Harrassowitz in Kommission, IX u. 384 S., € 52,00. (Martin Gierl) Black, Jeremy, British Politics and Foreign Policy, 1744–57. Mid-Century Crisis, Farnham / Burlington 2015, Ashgate, XIV u. 267 S., £ 70,00. (Michael Schaich) Stobart, Jon / Mark Rothery (Hrsg.), Consumption and the Country House, Oxford / New York 2016, Oxford University Press, X u. 304 S. / Abb., £ 65,00. (Michael Maurer) Diest, Johann von, Wirtschaftspolitik und Lobbyismus im 18. Jahrhundert. Eine quellenbasierte Neubewertung der wechselseitigen Einflussnahme von Obrigkeit und Wirtschaft in Brandenburg-Preußen und Kurhannover (Herrschaft und soziale Systeme in der Frühen Neuzeit, 23), Göttingen 2016, V&amp;R unipress, 392 S., € 55,00. (Justus Nipperdey) Kech, Kerstin, Hofhaltung und Hofzeremoniell der Bamberger Fürstbischöfe in der Spätphase des Alten Reichs (Stadt und Region in der Vormoderne, 6; Veröffentlichungen des Stadtarchivs Bamberg, 28), Würzburg 2016, Ergon, 430 S. / Abb., € 58,00. (Bettina Braun) Fischer, Ole (Hrsg.), Aufgeklärte Lebenswelten (Studien zur Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte Schleswig-Holsteins, 54), Stuttgart 2016, Steiner, 242 S., € 29,00. (Dominik Hünniger) Rheinheimer, Martin, Ipke und Angens. Die Welt eines nordfriesischen Schiffers und seiner Frau (1787–1801) (Studien zur Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte Schleswig-Holsteins, 55), Stuttgart 2016, Steiner, 161 S. / Abb., € 29,90. (Jann M. Witt) Maurer, Michael, Wilhelm von Humboldt. Ein Leben als Werk, Köln/Weimar/Wien 2016, Böhlau, 310 S. / Abb., € 25,00. (Jann M. Witt)

IntroductionIn the year 2000, a group of likeminded individuals got together and convened the first annual World Barista Championship in Monte Carlo. With twelve competitors from around the globe, each competitor was judged by seven judges: one head judge who oversaw the process, two technical judges who assessed technical skills, and four sensory judges who evaluated the taste and appearance of the espresso drinks. Competitors had fifteen minutes to serve four espresso coffees, four cappuccino coffees, and four “signature” drinks that they had devised using one shot of espresso and other ingredients of their choice, but no alcohol. The competitors were also assessed on their overall barista skills, their creativity, and their ability to perform under pressure and impress the judges with their knowledge of coffee. This competition has grown to the extent that eleven years later, in 2011, 54 countries held national barista championships with the winner from each country competing for the highly coveted position of World Barista Champion. That year, Alejandro Mendez from El Salvador became the first world champion from a coffee producing nation. Champion baristas are more likely to come from coffee consuming countries than they are from coffee producing countries as countries that produce coffee seldom have a culture of espresso coffee consumption. While Ireland is not a coffee-producing nation, the Irish are the highest per capita consumers of tea in the world (Mac Con Iomaire, “Ireland”). Despite this, in 2008, Stephen Morrissey from Ireland overcame 50 other national champions to become the 2008 World Barista Champion (see, http://vimeo.com/2254130). Another Irish national champion, Colin Harmon, came fourth in this competition in both 2009 and 2010. This paper discusses the history and development of coffee and coffee houses in Dublin from the 17th century, charting how coffee culture in Dublin appeared, evolved, and stagnated before re-emerging at the beginning of the 21st century, with a remarkable win in the World Barista Championships. The historical links between coffeehouses and media—ranging from print media to electronic and social media—are discussed. In this, the coffee house acts as an informal public gathering space, what urban sociologist Ray Oldenburg calls a “third place,” neither work nor home. These “third places” provide anchors for community life and facilitate and foster broader, more creative interaction (Oldenburg). This paper will also show how competition from other “third places” such as clubs, hotels, restaurants, and bars have affected the vibrancy of coffee houses. Early Coffee Houses The first coffee house was established in Constantinople in 1554 (Tannahill 252; Huetz de Lemps 387). The first English coffee houses opened in Oxford in 1650 and in London in 1652. Coffee houses multiplied thereafter but, in 1676, when some London coffee houses became hotbeds for political protest, the city prosecutor decided to close them. The ban was soon lifted and between 1680 and 1730 Londoners discovered the pleasure of drinking coffee (Huetz de Lemps 388), although these coffee houses sold a number of hot drinks including tea and chocolate as well as coffee.The first French coffee houses opened in Marseille in 1671 and in Paris the following year. Coffee houses proliferated during the 18th century: by 1720 there were 380 public cafés in Paris and by the end of the century there were 600 (Huetz de Lemps 387). Café Procope opened in Paris in 1674 and, in the 18th century, became a literary salon with regular patrons: Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot and Condorcet (Huetz de Lemps 387; Pitte 472). In England, coffee houses developed into exclusive clubs such as Crockford’s and the Reform, whilst elsewhere in Europe they evolved into what we identify as cafés, similar to the tea shops that would open in England in the late 19th century (Tannahill 252-53). Tea quickly displaced coffee in popularity in British coffee houses (Taylor 142). Pettigrew suggests two reasons why Great Britain became a tea-drinking nation while most of the rest of Europe took to coffee (48). The first was the power of the East India Company, chartered by Elizabeth I in 1600, which controlled the world’s biggest tea monopoly and promoted the beverage enthusiastically. The second was the difficulty England had in securing coffee from the Levant while at war with France at the end of the seventeenth century and again during the War of the Spanish Succession (1702-13). Tea also became the dominant beverage in Ireland and over a period of time became the staple beverage of the whole country. In 1835, Samuel Bewley and his son Charles dared to break the monopoly of The East India Company by importing over 2,000 chests of tea directly from Canton, China, to Ireland. His family would later become synonymous with the importation of coffee and with opening cafés in Ireland (see, Farmar for full history of the Bewley's and their activities). Ireland remains the highest per-capita consumer of tea in the world. Coffee houses have long been linked with social and political change (Kennedy, Politicks; Pincus). The notion that these new non-alcoholic drinks were responsible for the Enlightenment because people could now gather socially without getting drunk is rejected by Wheaton as frivolous, since there had always been alternatives to strong drink, and European civilisation had achieved much in the previous centuries (91). She comments additionally that cafés, as gathering places for dissenters, took over the role that taverns had long played. Pennell and Vickery support this argument adding that by offering a choice of drinks, and often sweets, at a fixed price and in a more civilized setting than most taverns provided, coffee houses and cafés were part of the rise of the modern restaurant. It is believed that, by 1700, the commercial provision of food and drink constituted the second largest occupational sector in London. Travellers’ accounts are full of descriptions of London taverns, pie shops, coffee, bun and chop houses, breakfast huts, and food hawkers (Pennell; Vickery). Dublin Coffee Houses and Later incarnations The earliest reference to coffee houses in Dublin is to the Cock Coffee House in Cook Street during the reign of Charles II (1660-85). Public dining or drinking establishments listed in the 1738 Dublin Directory include taverns, eating houses, chop houses, coffee houses, and one chocolate house in Fownes Court run by Peter Bardin (Hardiman and Kennedy 157). During the second half of the 17th century, Dublin’s merchant classes transferred allegiance from taverns to the newly fashionable coffee houses as places to conduct business. By 1698, the fashion had spread to country towns with coffee houses found in Cork, Limerick, Kilkenny, Clonmel, Wexford, and Galway, and slightly later in Belfast and Waterford in the 18th century. Maxwell lists some of Dublin’s leading coffee houses and taverns, noting their clientele: There were Lucas’s Coffee House, on Cork Hill (the scene of many duels), frequented by fashionable young men; the Phoenix, in Werburgh Street, where political dinners were held; Dick’s Coffee House, in Skinner’s Row, much patronized by literary men, for it was over a bookseller’s; the Eagle, in Eustace Street, where meetings of the Volunteers were held; the Old Sot’s Hole, near Essex Bridge, famous for its beefsteaks and ale; the Eagle Tavern, on Cork Hill, which was demolished at the same time as Lucas’s to make room for the Royal Exchange; and many others. (76) Many of the early taverns were situated around the Winetavern Street, Cook Street, and Fishamble Street area. (see Fig. 1) Taverns, and later coffee houses, became meeting places for gentlemen and centres for debate and the exchange of ideas. In 1706, Francis Dickson published the Flying Post newspaper at the Four Courts coffee house in Winetavern Street. The Bear Tavern (1725) and the Black Lyon (1735), where a Masonic Lodge assembled every Wednesday, were also located on this street (Gilbert v.1 160). Dick’s Coffee house was established in the late 17th century by bookseller and newspaper proprietor Richard Pue, and remained open until 1780 when the building was demolished. In 1740, Dick’s customers were described thus: Ye citizens, gentlemen, lawyers and squires,who summer and winter surround our great fires,ye quidnuncs! who frequently come into Pue’s,To live upon politicks, coffee, and news. (Gilbert v.1 174) There has long been an association between coffeehouses and publishing books, pamphlets and particularly newspapers. Other Dublin publishers and newspapermen who owned coffee houses included Richard Norris and Thomas Bacon. Until the 1850s, newspapers were burdened with a number of taxes: on the newsprint, a stamp duty, and on each advertisement. By 1865, these taxes had virtually disappeared, resulting in the appearance of 30 new newspapers in Ireland, 24 of them in Dublin. Most people read from copies which were available free of charge in taverns, clubs, and coffee houses (MacGiolla Phadraig). Coffee houses also kept copies of international newspapers. On 4 May 1706, Francis Dickson notes in the Dublin Intelligence that he held the Paris and London Gazettes, Leyden Gazette and Slip, the Paris and Hague Lettres à la Main, Daily Courant, Post-man, Flying Post, Post-script and Manuscripts in his coffeehouse in Winetavern Street (Kennedy, “Dublin”). Henry Berry’s analysis of shop signs in Dublin identifies 24 different coffee houses in Dublin, with the main clusters in Essex Street near the Custom’s House (Cocoa Tree, Bacon’s, Dempster’s, Dublin, Merchant’s, Norris’s, and Walsh’s) Cork Hill (Lucas’s, St Lawrence’s, and Solyman’s) Skinners’ Row (Bow’s’, Darby’s, and Dick’s) Christ Church Yard (Four Courts, and London) College Green (Jack’s, and Parliament) and Crampton Court (Exchange, and Little Dublin). (see Figure 1, below, for these clusters and the locations of other Dublin coffee houses.) The earliest to be referenced is the Cock Coffee House in Cook Street during the reign of Charles II (1660-85), with Solyman’s (1691), Bow’s (1692), and Patt’s on High Street (1699), all mentioned in print before the 18th century. The name of one, the Cocoa Tree, suggests that chocolate was also served in this coffee house. More evidence of the variety of beverages sold in coffee houses comes from Gilbert who notes that in 1730, one Dublin poet wrote of George Carterwright’s wife at The Custom House Coffee House on Essex Street: Her coffee’s fresh and fresh her tea,Sweet her cream, ptizan, and whea,her drams, of ev’ry sort, we findboth good and pleasant, in their kind. (v. 2 161) Figure 1: Map of Dublin indicating Coffee House clusters 1 = Sackville St.; 2 = Winetavern St.; 3 = Essex St.; 4 = Cork Hill; 5 = Skinner's Row; 6 = College Green.; 7 = Christ Church Yard; 8 = Crampton Court.; 9 = Cook St.; 10 = High St.; 11 = Eustace St.; 12 = Werburgh St.; 13 = Fishamble St.; 14 = Westmorland St.; 15 = South Great George's St.; 16 = Grafton St.; 17 = Kildare St.; 18 = Dame St.; 19 = Anglesea Row; 20 = Foster Place; 21 = Poolbeg St.; 22 = Fleet St.; 23 = Burgh Quay.A = Cafe de Paris, Lincoln Place; B = Red Bank Restaurant, D'Olier St.; C = Morrison's Hotel, Nassau St.; D = Shelbourne Hotel, St. Stephen's Green; E = Jury's Hotel, Dame St. Some coffee houses transformed into the gentlemen’s clubs that appeared in London, Paris and Dublin in the 17th century. These clubs originally met in coffee houses, then taverns, until later proprietary clubs became fashionable. Dublin anticipated London in club fashions with members of the Kildare Street Club (1782) and the Sackville Street Club (1794) owning the premises of their clubhouse, thus dispensing with the proprietor. The first London club to be owned by the members seems to be Arthur’s, founded in 1811 (McDowell 4) and this practice became widespread throughout the 19th century in both London and Dublin. The origin of one of Dublin’s most famous clubs, Daly’s Club, was a chocolate house opened by Patrick Daly in c.1762–65 in premises at 2–3 Dame Street (Brooke). It prospered sufficiently to commission its own granite-faced building on College Green between Anglesea Street and Foster Place which opened in 1789 (Liddy 51). Daly’s Club, “where half the land of Ireland has changed hands”, was renowned for the gambling that took place there (Montgomery 39). Daly’s sumptuous palace catered very well (and discreetly) for honourable Members of Parliament and rich “bucks” alike (Craig 222). The changing political and social landscape following the Act of Union led to Daly’s slow demise and its eventual closure in 1823 (Liddy 51). Coincidentally, the first Starbucks in Ireland opened in 2005 in the same location. Once gentlemen’s clubs had designated buildings where members could eat, drink, socialise, and stay overnight, taverns and coffee houses faced competition from the best Dublin hotels which also had coffee rooms “in which gentlemen could read papers, write letters, take coffee and wine in the evening—an exiguous substitute for a club” (McDowell 17). There were at least 15 establishments in Dublin city claiming to be hotels by 1789 (Corr 1) and their numbers grew in the 19th century, an expansion which was particularly influenced by the growth of railways. By 1790, Dublin’s public houses (“pubs”) outnumbered its coffee houses with Dublin boasting 1,300 (Rooney 132). Names like the Goose and Gridiron, Harp and Crown, Horseshoe and Magpie, and Hen and Chickens—fashionable during the 17th and 18th centuries in Ireland—hung on decorative signs for those who could not read. Throughout the 20th century, the public house provided the dominant “third place” in Irish society, and the drink of choice for itd predominantly male customers was a frothy pint of Guinness. Newspapers were available in public houses and many newspapermen had their own favourite hostelries such as Mulligan’s of Poolbeg Street; The Pearl, and The Palace on Fleet Street; and The White Horse Inn on Burgh Quay. Any coffee served in these establishments prior to the arrival of the new coffee culture in the 21st century was, however, of the powdered instant variety. Hotels / Restaurants with Coffee Rooms From the mid-19th century, the public dining landscape of Dublin changed in line with London and other large cities in the United Kingdom. Restaurants did appear gradually in the United Kingdom and research suggests that one possible reason for this growth from the 1860s onwards was the Refreshment Houses and Wine Licences Act (1860). The object of this act was to “reunite the business of eating and drinking”, thereby encouraging public sobriety (Mac Con Iomaire, “Emergence” v.2 95). Advertisements for Dublin restaurants appeared in The Irish Times from the 1860s. Thom’s Directory includes listings for Dining Rooms from the 1870s and Refreshment Rooms are listed from the 1880s. This pattern continued until 1909, when Thom’s Directory first includes a listing for “Restaurants and Tea Rooms”. Some of the establishments that advertised separate coffee rooms include Dublin’s first French restaurant, the Café de Paris, The Red Bank Restaurant, Morrison’s Hotel, Shelbourne Hotel, and Jury’s Hotel (see Fig. 1). The pattern of separate ladies’ coffee rooms emerged in Dublin and London during the latter half of the 19th century and mixed sex dining only became popular around the last decade of the 19th century, partly infuenced by Cesar Ritz and Auguste Escoffier (Mac Con Iomaire, “Public Dining”). Irish Cafés: From Bewley’s to Starbucks A number of cafés appeared at the beginning of the 20th century, most notably Robert Roberts and Bewley’s, both of which were owned by Quaker families. Ernest Bewley took over the running of the Bewley’s importation business in the 1890s and opened a number of Oriental Cafés; South Great Georges Street (1894), Westmoreland Street (1896), and what became the landmark Bewley’s Oriental Café in Grafton Street (1927). Drawing influence from the grand cafés of Paris and Vienna, oriental tearooms, and Egyptian architecture (inspired by the discovery in 1922 of Tutankhamen’s Tomb), the Grafton Street business brought a touch of the exotic into the newly formed Irish Free State. Bewley’s cafés became the haunt of many of Ireland’s leading literary figures, including Samuel Becket, Sean O’Casey, and James Joyce who mentioned the café in his book, Dubliners. A full history of Bewley’s is available (Farmar). It is important to note, however, that pots of tea were sold in equal measure to mugs of coffee in Bewley’s. The cafés changed over time from waitress- to self-service and a failure to adapt to changing fashions led to the business being sold, with only the flagship café in Grafton Street remaining open in a revised capacity. It was not until the beginning of the 21st century that a new wave of coffee house culture swept Ireland. This was based around speciality coffee beverages such as espressos, cappuccinos, lattés, macchiatos, and frappuccinnos. This new phenomenon coincided with the unprecedented growth in the Irish economy, during which Ireland became known as the “Celtic Tiger” (Murphy 3). One aspect of this period was a building boom and a subsequent growth in apartment living in the Dublin city centre. The American sitcom Friends and its fictional coffee house, “Central Perk,” may also have helped popularise the use of coffee houses as “third spaces” (Oldenberg) among young apartment dwellers in Dublin. This was also the era of the “dotcom boom” when many young entrepreneurs, software designers, webmasters, and stock market investors were using coffee houses as meeting places for business and also as ad hoc office spaces. This trend is very similar to the situation in the 17th and early 18th centuries where coffeehouses became known as sites for business dealings. Various theories explaining the growth of the new café culture have circulated, with reasons ranging from a growth in Eastern European migrants, anti-smoking legislation, returning sophisticated Irish emigrants, and increased affluence (Fenton). Dublin pubs, facing competition from the new coffee culture, began installing espresso coffee machines made by companies such as Gaggia to attract customers more interested in a good latté than a lager and it is within this context that Irish baristas gained such success in the World Barista competition. In 2001 the Georges Street branch of Bewley’s was taken over by a chain called Café, Bar, Deli specialising in serving good food at reasonable prices. Many ex-Bewley’s staff members subsequently opened their own businesses, roasting coffee and running cafés. Irish-owned coffee chains such as Java Republic, Insomnia, and O’Brien’s Sandwich Bars continued to thrive despite the competition from coffee chains Starbucks and Costa Café. Indeed, so successful was the handmade Irish sandwich and coffee business that, before the economic downturn affected its business, Irish franchise O’Brien’s operated in over 18 countries. The Café, Bar, Deli group had also begun to franchise its operations in 2008 when it too became a victim of the global economic downturn. With the growth of the Internet, many newspapers have experienced falling sales of their printed format and rising uptake of their electronic versions. Most Dublin coffee houses today provide wireless Internet connections so their customers can read not only the local newspapers online, but also others from all over the globe, similar to Francis Dickenson’s coffee house in Winetavern Street in the early 18th century. Dublin has become Europe’s Silicon Valley, housing the European headquarters for companies such as Google, Yahoo, Ebay, Paypal, and Facebook. There are currently plans to provide free wireless connectivity throughout Dublin’s city centre in order to promote e-commerce, however, some coffee houses shut off the wireless Internet in their establishments at certain times of the week in order to promote more social interaction to ensure that these “third places” remain “great good places” at the heart of the community (Oldenburg). Conclusion Ireland is not a country that is normally associated with a coffee culture but coffee houses have been part of the fabric of that country since they emerged in Dublin in the 17th century. These Dublin coffee houses prospered in the 18th century, and survived strong competition from clubs and hotels in the 19th century, and from restaurant and public houses into the 20th century. In 2008, when Stephen Morrissey won the coveted title of World Barista Champion, Ireland’s place as a coffee consuming country was re-established. 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Totnes: Prospect Books, 1992. 311–14. World Barista, Championship. “History–World Barista Championship”. 2012. 02 Apr. 2012 ‹http://worldbaristachampionship.com2012›.AcknowledgementA warm thank you to Dr. Kevin Griffin for producing the map of Dublin for this article.

To achieve high therapeutic efficacy in the patient, information on pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacogenetics is required. With the development of science and technology, especially genetic sequencing technology, more and more research on pharmacogenomics has been conducted. The relationship between the genome and the response of a person to drugs is being explored to support personalized medicine, which shows efficacy in clinical treatment. In particular, the IL28B gene polymorphisms have been studied and shown to have impacts on drug responses in the treatment of many diseases, such as chronic hepatitis C, chronic hepatitis B, and myeloproliferative neoplasms. However, pharmacogenetic studies of the IL28B gene have not given exact recommendations for dose adjustment in treatment; they only show the impact tendency that individuals with an unfavorable genotype (usually the genotype of the mutant allele) show poor response to treatment compared to those with a favorable genotype. The frequency of mutant alleles varies among different ethnic groups and between different viral genotypes. Identifying and predicting the possibility of successful treatment helps both clinicians and patients make better choices of treatment decisions to optimize treatment possibilities, and reduce side effects and treatment costs. Keywords IL28B polymorphism, drug response, hepatitis C, hepatitis B, myeloproliferative disorders. References [1] V. M. Lauschke, M. I. 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